IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD

Subject: Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering (BME101)

B. Tech – First Year

Unit 5
Topic: Introduction to Measurement and Mechatronics
Lecture Notes

INDEX
S.NO Topic Page No
01 Introduction to Measurement: Concept of Measurement, Error 2-4
in measurements

02 Calibration, measurements of pressure(Bourdon Tube Pressure 5- 10

and U-Tube Manometer)

03 Temperature(Thermocouple and Optical Pyrometer), Mass 11-20

flow rate(Venturi Meter and Orifice Meter)

04 Strain(Bonded and Unbonded Strain Gauge), force (Proving 21-29

Ring) and torques(Prony Brake Dynamometer); Concepts of
accuracy, precision and resolution.

05 Introduction to Mechatronic Systems: Evolution, Scope, 30-33

Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics, Industrial
applications of Mechatronics

06 Introduction to autotronics, bionics, and avionics and their 34-35

applications.

07 Sensors and Transducers: Types of sensors, types of 36-40

transducers and their characteristics.

08 Overview of Mechanical Actuation System – Kinematic Chains, 41-46

Cam, Ratchet Mechanism, Gears and its type, Belt, Bearing.

09 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuation Systems: Overview: 47-54

Pressure Control Valves, Direction Control Valves

10 Rotary Actuators, Accumulators and Pneumatic Sequencing 55-57

Problems

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 1. Introduction to Measurement: Concept of Measurement, Error in measurements

Measurement: [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

Measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the color or a change in
one of these physical entities of a material. Measurement provides us with means for describing
the various physical and chemical parameters of materials in quantitative terms.
For example: 10 cm length of an object implies that the object is 10 times as large as 1 cm; the
unit employed in expressing length.
Those tools which are used for quantitative measurement are following
(1) Height stands having meter scale to measure the height of the students.
(2) Weight machine which is used to measure the weight of the students.
(3)Thermometer instrument is used to measure the temperature of the body.
.
Method of Measurement: [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]
There are following method of measurement;
1. Direct Method of Measurement
2. Indirect Method of Measurement
3. Deflection method
4. Method of null measurement
5. Contact type of measurement
6. Non-Contact type of measurement
[1]Direct Method of Measurement – In this method of measurement, the unknown quantity is
directly compared with the standard quantity. The result of the quantity is expressed in number. It
is the most common method of measuring the physical quantities like length, temperature,
pressure, etc.
Example: The physical balance directly measures the weight of the matter.
[2] Indirect Method of Measurement – In indirect method of measurement, the physical
parameters of the quantity are measured by the direct method, and then the numerical value of
the quantity is determined by the mathematical relationship.
Example: The length, breadth and height of the substance is measured by the direct method and
then by the help of the given relation the weight of the substance is known.
Weight = Length X Breadth X Height X Density
[3] Deflection method - In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is directly
indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
Example: Dial Indicator
[4] Method of null measurement - It is a method of differential measurement. In this method
the difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same
quantity with which it is compared is brought to zero.
Example: Measurement by potentiometer.
[5] Contact type of measurement – It is the method in which the sensing element of measuring
device is in contact with medium whose characteristics are being measured.
Example: Coordinate measuring machines (CMM), calipers, micrometers, depth micrometers,
gage pins, gage blocks, height gages, surface plates, etc.
[6] Non-Contact type of measurement - The sensor remains untouched with the object whose
characters need to be measured.

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Example: The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic measurement belong to
this category.
Error in measurement: [AKTU SEM II 2021-22]
An error may be defined as the difference between the measured and actual value (True values).
For example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for measurement. It is not
necessary that both operators get similar results. The difference between the measurements is
referred to as an Error.
To understand the concept of measurement errors, you should know the two terms that define the
error. They are true value and measured value. The true value is impossible to find by
experimental means. It may be defined as the average value of an infinite number of measured
values. The measured value is a single measure of the object to be as accurate as possible.
Error = True value – Measured value
There are following type of error; [AKTU SEM II 2021-22]
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
(a)Instrumental errors
(b)Environmental errors
(c)Observational errors
3. Random errors
1. Gross Errors:
This cause of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments
and recording and calculating measurement result.
Example: The temperature is 31.50 C, but it will write as 21.50 C.
Its an error however they can be avoided by adopting two means
a). Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
b). Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for quantity under measurement
2. Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of
the experiment.
These types of errors are divided into three categories:
(A) Instrumental errors (B) Environmental errors
(C) Observational errors
[A] Instrumentation errors: These errors occur due to two main reasons;
(a) Due to inherent short coming of the instrument
(b) Due to misuse of instrument
Example: (i) Improper selection and poor maintenance of the instrument
(ii) Unavoidable physical phenomenon due to mechanical friction and wear

[B]. Environmental errors:

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 These errors are caused due to changes in the environmental conditions
in the area surrounding the instrument, that may affect the instrument characteristics, such as the
affects of changes in temperature, humidity, vibrations, barometric pressure or if magnetic field
or electrostatic field.
These undesirable errors can be reduced by the following ways:
(i) Using the instrument in controlled conditions of pressure, temperature, humidity in which it
was originally assembled and calibrated.
(ii) Employing hermetically (airtight) sealing to certain components in the instrument, which
eliminate the effects of the humidity dust, etc.
(iii) Magnetic or electrostatic shields must be provided.

[C] Observational errors:

These errors due to carelessness of operators even when an instrument
has been properly selected carefully installed and faithfully calibrated.
These errors may be due to following reasons:
(i) Wrong scale reading and wrong recording data
(ii) Inaccurate estimates of average reading, lack of ability to interpolate properly
between graduations
(iii) Incorrect conversion of units in between consecutive units

3. Random Errors
These errors are accidental, small and independent. The magnitude &
direction of these errors cannot be predicted from a knowledge of measurement system. These
errors are assumed to follow the law of probabilities.
The most common causes of these errors are:
(i) Parallax errors between pointer and scale.
(ii) Hysteresis in elastic members.
(iii) Mechanical vibrations.
(iv) Backlash in the movement.

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2. Calibration, measurements of pressure (Bourdon Tube Pressure and U-Tube
Manometer),
Calibration: [AKTU SEM II 2021-22]
Calibration is the activity of checking, by comparison with a standard, the accuracy of a
measuring instrument of any type. It may also include adjustment of the instrument to bring it
into alignment with the standard.
Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to provide a result for a sample within an
acceptable range. Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain
instrument accuracy.
According to measurement technology, calibration is the comparison of measurement values
delivered by a device under test with those of a calibration standard of known accuracy.
An example of to calibrate is to set a scale at zero.
The need for calibration: [ AKTU SEM II 2021-22]
Measurement is vital in science, industry and commerce. Measurement is also performed
extensively in our daily life. The following are some examples:
 Measurements for health care, such as measuring body temperature with a clinical
thermometer, checking blood pressure and many other tests;
 Checking the time of day;
 Buying cloth for dresses;
 Purchase of vegetables and other groceries;
 Billing of power consumption through an energy meter.
Accuracy and reliability of all such measurements would be doubtful if the instruments used
were not calibrated. Calibration ensures that a measuring instrument displays an accurate and
reliable value of the quantity being measured. Thus, calibration is an essential activity in any
measurement process.
Types of Calibration
(a) Electro-Technical Calibration: It consist calibration of electronic devices like capacitor,
resistor etc.
(b) Non-Electrical Calibration: It consist calibration of mass, pressure etc.
(c) On Site Calibration: It consist calibration of any other type of quantity which contain
both quantities like cranes, refrigerators, big ovens etc.
Pressure Measurement: Mainly following method are used to measuring of pressure;
(1) Manometers
(2) Mechanical Gauges

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 (1) Manometer: Manometers are the devices in which pressure at a point can be measured
by balancing the column of liquid of liquid by same or different liquid. There are
following types of Manometer;
(a) Simple Manometer
(b) Differential Manometers
(a) Simple Manometer: A simple manometer consists of glass tube having one of its
ends connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end remains
open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers are
(i) Piezometer
(ii) U-tube Manometer
(iii) Single column Manometer
(i)Piezometer: It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressure. One end
of this manometer is connected to point where pressure is to be measured and other end is open
to the atmosphere.

Fig: Piezometer
(ii)U-Tube Manometer: It consists of glass tube in U-shape , one end of which is connected to a
point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as
shown in fig.

U-tube manometer is a simple manometric device used to measure pressure at a point in a fluid,
by balancing the fluid column by the same or another column of fluid. It has a glass tube bent in
“U” shape with some amount of same or other type of fluid, called manometric fluid like
mercury, oil, water.

It is the transparent glass tube bent in U shape initially both ends are open to the atmosphere after
that one end of the U-tube is connected to the point at which pressure of the liquid is to be
measured and another end is open to the atmosphere. The U-tube is filled with the manometric
fluid whose Specific gravity should be higher than the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
Initially the level of the manometric fluid will be same in the both of the limbs.
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Working of the U-tube Manometer

As we connect our U-tube manometer to the point at which pressure is to be measured (gauge
point), then due to the pressure the liquid from the object flows into the U-tube and pushes the
manometric fluid down which create the pressure head in the limb which we may find by the
how much our liquid raised in the limb and by using the hydrostatic law we may find the
pressure of that point. It may be used to calculate the measure value of the gauge pressure and
the vacuum pressure.

Fig. U Tube Manometer

(a)For Gauge Pressure: Let P is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is
P. The datum line is X-X

Pressure above X-X in the left column  P  1  g  h1

Pressure above X-X in the right column   2  g  h2 ,

Hence equating the two pressures

P  1  g  h1   2  g  h2

P   2  g  h2  1  g  h1 

(b)For Vacuum Pressure: For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the
manometer will be shown in fig. Then

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 Pressure above X-X in the left column  P   2  g  h2  1  g  h1

Pressure above X-X in the right column  0 ,

Hence equating the two pressures
P   2  g  h2  1  g  h1  0
P   2  g  h2  1  g  h1 

Application of the U-tube Manometer

 It is used to measure the large pressure

 It is used to measure the gauge pressure and vacuum or -ve pressure as well.
Disadvantage

 To get the exact pressure, pressure is determined more than one point.

(iii)Single column Manometer:

Single column manometer is the modified form of the U-tube manometer which overcomes the
problem of u-tube manometer. It consist of one limb which is too large as compared to another
limb (say 100 times the other limb) which is called the reservoir because any variation in the
pressure in the pressure there will be negligible change in the level of the liquid in this limb(large
one).

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 Fig. Vertical Single Column Manometer

Mechanical Gauges : Mechanical gauges are the devices that can measure pressure by
balancing the liquid column by spring or dead weight. There are following type of Mechanical
Gauge;
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(c) Dead weight pressure gauge
(d) Bellow pressure gauge

(b)Bourdon Tube pressure gauge : [AKTU SEM I 2022-23]

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are the most frequently used mechanical pressure measuring
instruments. Their pressure element is often referred to as a Bourdon tube. It is based on an
elastic spring, a c-shaped, bent tube with an oval cross-section.

When the internal space of the Bourdon tube is pressurised, the cross-section is thus altered
towards a circular shape. The hoop stresses that are created in this process increase the radius of
the c-shaped tube. As a result, the end of the tube moves by around two or three millimetres.
This deflection is a measure of the pressure. It is transferred to a movement, which turns the
linear deflection into a rotary movement and, via a pointer, makes this visible on a scale.

Bourdon tube variants

With the c-shaped bent Bourdon tubes, pressures up to 60 bar can be displayed. For higher
pressures, helical or spiral-type Bourdon tubes are used. Depending on the geometry, material
and material thickness, pressures up to 7,000 bar can be realised. Depending on the requirement,
the pressure elements are made of copper alloys, stainless steels or special materials such as
Monel.

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Fig. Bourdon Tube pressure gauge

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 3. Temperature (Thermocouple and Optical Pyrometer), Mass flow rate (Venturi
Meter and Orifice Meter)
Temperature: The temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness, or coldness, of that
substance. It is the measure of the mean K.E. of the molecules of a substance.
It is the thermal site of a body or a substance which determines whether it will give heat to, or
receive heat from, other bodies. If two bodies are placed in contact then heat tends to flow from a
body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature, just as water flows from higher
pressure level to lower pressure levels.
Temperature Scales: Temperature scales are based upon some recognized fixed points. At least
two fixed points are required which are constant in temperature.

Fig. Different Temperature scale

Absolute zero temperature: It is that temperature at which a gas does not occupy any volume.
The temperatures measured with absolute zero as basis are called Absolute temperatures.
Absolute temperatures = Thermometer reading in 0 C+ 273
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1.Thermocouple [AKTU SEM I 2022-23]
A thermocouple is a transducer that converts thermal energy into electrical energy and is
constructed by joining wires made from dissimilar metals to form a junction. Voltage is
produced when the temperature at the junction changes.

The concept of the thermocouple is based on

the Seebeck Effect, which states that “if dissimilar metals are joined at a point they will generate
a small measurable voltage when the temperature of the point of connection changes”. The
amount of voltage depends on the amount of temperature change and the characteristics of the
metals.

The structure of a thermocouple consists of two insulated wires connected to a measuring device.
Thermocouples serve as a safety and monitoring gauge for various processes and equipment.

The process of a thermocouple can be seen in the image below where the temperature is raised at
the junction of the wires on the left, and the change in temperature is displayed on the gauge at
the right.

Working of thermocouple
When the two wires of a thermocouple are joined to form a junction, one of them is connected to
the body of the thermocouple and measures temperature. It is referred to as the hot or measuring
junction. The second junction is attached to the body of a known temperature and is the reference
junction or cold junction. A thermocouple measures an unknown temperature and compares it to
a known temperature.

The idea of a thermocouple is based on three principles of effect discovered by Seebeck, Peltier,
and Thomson.

Fig. Thermocouple

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 Seebeck effect:
The Seebeck effect happens when two different or unlike metals are joined together at two
junctions and an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions, which is different
for different types of metals.

Peltier effect:
An emf is generated in a circuit when two dissimilar metals are joined to form two junctions due
to the different temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.

Thomson effect:
The Thomson effect is when heat is absorbed along the length of a rod whose ends are at
different temperatures. The temperature of the heat is associated with the flow of current to the
temperature along the rod.

Important fact about Thermocouple

 A thermocouple is a transducer that converts thermal energy into electrical energy and is made
by joining dissimilar metals or semiconductors to form a junction.
 The concept of the thermocouple is based on the Seebeck Effect, which states that if dissimilar
metals are joined at a point they will generate a small measurable voltage when the temperature
of the point of connection changes.
 A thermocouple measures an unknown temperature and compares it to a known temperature
called the reference.
 Thermocouples are widely used temperature sensors because of their wide temperature
capabilities, ruggedness, and low cost.
 The difference between thermocouples is determined by the types of alloys used to produce their
wires.
 A thermocouple is a temperature measuring sensor. Two different types of metal wires are
connected at a junction which is called the thermal junction.
 To measure temperature at any point, this thermal junction is subjected to that point which develops
a thermal gradient or change in temperature at this junction.
 The change in temperature at the junction creates a voltage used to calculate the temperature of the
reference point using the reference tables.
 Thermocouples are used widely across the different industrial and scientific applications.
Some of the most common application areas of thermocouples are;
(a) Industrial sector
(b) Power generation
(c) Steel mills
(d) Biotech
(e) Pharmaceutical
(f) Cement
(g) Oil & Gas Industry

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2.Bimetallic Thermometer

A bimetallic strip is made up of metal A and B, having different thermal expansion co-efficient.
It is bonded together.

These thermometers use the following two principles:

1. All metals change in dimension, that is expand or contract when there is a change in
temperature.

2. The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the temperature co-
efficient of expansion of the metal and this temperature coefficient of expansion is different for
different metals. Hence the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections
which is proportional to temperature changes.

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The bimetallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip. A bimetallic strip is made of two thin
strips of metals which have different coefficients of expansion. The two metal strips are joined
together by brazing, welding or reveting so that the relative motion between them is arrested.

The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam. An increase in temperature will result in
the deflection of the free end of the strip as shown in diagram. This deflection is linear and can
be related to temperature changes.

The following are the important properties a material should have to be selected for bimetallic
thermometers.

1. Coefficient of expansion.
2. Modulus of elasticity.
3. Elastic limit after cold rolling.
4. Electrical conductivity.
5. Ductility.
6. Metallurgical ability.

Different common forms of bimetallic sensors are listed.

1. Helix type.
2. Spiral type.
3. Cantilever type.
4. Flat type.

Metals used in bimetallic strips are:

1. High expansion

(a)Brass
(b) Nickel-iron alloy with chromium & manganese.

2. Low Expansion

(a) Invar (alloy of nickel & iron).

Application of bimetallic strips and thermometers

1. The bimetallic strip is used in control devices.

2. The spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats.
3. The helix strip is used for process application such as refineries, oil burners, tyre
vulcanisers etc.,

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Advantages of bimetallic thermometers

1. They are simple, robust and inexpensive.

2. Their accuracy is between +or- 2% to 5% of the scale.
3. They can with stand 50% over range in temperatures.
4. They can be used where ever a mercury–in-glass thermometer is used.
5.
Limitations of bimetallic thermometer

1. They are not recommended for temperature above 400‟C.

2. When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently deform, which in turn will
introduce errors.

Pyrometer:

A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an object. The device
actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object. The thermal heat
radiates from the object to the optical system present inside the pyrometer. The optical system
makes the thermal radiation into a better focus and passes it to the detector. The output of the
detector will be related to the input thermal radiation. The biggest advantage of this device is
that, unlike a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct
contact between the pyrometer and the object whose temperature is to be found out.

A pyrometer is a noncontact device and it is also known as a radiation thermometer. The main
function of this instrument is to detect the surface temperature of an object by measuring the
temperature of the electromagnetic radiation generated from the object. So, thermal radiation can
be measured by using this non-conductive device. By using this, we can determine the
temperature of the surface of the object.
There are following types of pyrometers;
(1) infrared Pyrometer
(2) optical pyrometers..
Optical Pyrometer [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

The technique which supports the measurement of temperature of the objects without touching
them is called as pyrometric measurement .This is a non contact type measurement which is
being used in various industrial application. A temperature measuring device that is used to
measure the temperature of molten metal‟s, overheated material, furnaces otherwise liquids. It is
one kind of measuring device of temperature with a non-contact. The working principle of this
optical pyrometer is to match the object‟s brightness of the filament within the device. By using
contact type instruments, measuring the temperature of the highly heated body is not possible. So

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this non-contact type device is used to measure the temperature. The optical pyrometer diagram
is shown below.

Optical Pyrometer Construction [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

The shape of the pyrometer is cylindrical and inside parts of the optical pyrometer mainly
include eyepiece, power source, absorption screen, and red filter.

Fig. Optical Pyrometer

Optical Pyrometer consist of following elements;

 An eyepiece and the lens of an object are arranged at both sides of the device.
 A battery, millivoltmeter & rheostat are connected to a temperature bulb.
 An absorption screen is arranged in the middle of the reference temperature lamp and the
objective lens to increase the temperature range and his range can be measured with the help
of the device.
 The red filter is placed in between the lamp and eyepiece so that the lamp allows simply a
narrow band with 0.65mui wavelength.
Operating Principle

In an optical pyrometer, the temperature measurement principle is used by comparing the

brightness. A color disparity with the increase in temperature can be taken as an index of the
temperature. This type of pyrometer contrasts the intensity of the generated image through a
source of the temperature of the lamp.

The current within the lamp is regulated until the lamp‟s brightness is equivalent to the image
brightness generated through the source of temperature. When the light intensity of

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any wavelength depends on the temperature of the radiating object, then the flow of current
through the lamp becomes a measure of the temperature source when adjusted.
Optical Pyrometer Advantages

The advantages of this pyrometer include the following.

 It is used for high temperatures.

 It is used to check the distant objects as well as moving the object‟s temperature.
 Accuracy
 It can be measured without connecting with the target.
 Less weight
 It is flexible and portable.

Optical Pyrometer Disadvantages

The disadvantages of this pyrometer include the following.

 Due to the radiation of thermal background, dust, and smoke, the accuracy of this device can
be affected.
 These do not apply to the temperature measuring of burning gases because they do not emit
visible energy.
 It is expensive.
 Manual type pyrometers are not suitable for evaluating the object‟s temperature under 8000C
because, at less temperature, the generated energy will be too low.
Applications

The applications of optical pyrometer include the following.

 It is used to measure the temperature of highly heated materials
 It is useful to measure furnace temperatures.
 It is used in critical process measurements of semiconductor, medical, induction heat treating,
crystal growth, furnace control, glass manufacture, medical, etc.

MASS FLOW RATE (VENTURI METER AND ORIFICE METER)

Bernoulli‟s equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy
considerations are involved. Mass flow rate is measured by following measuring instrument or
devices:
1. Venturimeter
2. Orifice meter
3. Pitot-tube
1. Venturimeter : A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts:

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 (i)A short converging part
(ii)Throat
(iii)Diverging part

Fig. Venturimeter
It is based on the principle of Bernoulli‟s equation. Expression for rate of flow through
Venturimeter is

a1a 2
Qact  C d   2 gh
a1  a 2
2 2

Where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for Venturimeter, a1 is the area of divergence part and a2 is
the area of convergence part.
2.Orifice meter or Orifice plate : It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid
through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same
principle as that of venturimeter.

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 Fig. Orifice meter
It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is
concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the
pipe, through it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipes diameter. The Expression for rate of
flow through Orifice meter is

C d a0 a1 2 gh
Q
a1  a 2
2 2

Where a0 and a1 is the area of orifice and convergent section of pipe respectively. And Cd is the
Co-efficient of discharge.
Here the orifice plate is used for the restriction in the direction of the fluid flow. Therefore the
restriction process we also called Orifice Plate. The restriction effect results in pressure drops of
the flowing fluid. The drop in pressure is associated with the rate of flowing fluid or the average
velocity of the fluid

There is a pipe in which fluid is passing from one side to another side that is an inlet to outlet.
The manometer is attached hereto measure the pressure differences between two-point. Now we
place an orifice plate which is thin in size and having a small hole in between through which the
fluid will pass. Now when the increases in the velocity, the decrease in the pressure and it is vice
versa. The place of the orifice plate in the pipe only determines the flow rate or discharge at that
point only.

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4.Strain(Bonded and Unbonded Strain Gauge), force (Proving Ring) and torques(Prony
Brake Dynamometer); Concepts of accuracy, precision and resolution.
(a)Bonded and Unbonded Strain Gauges[AKTU SEM I 2022-23]

Electrical strain gauges:

A strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with an applied force. The strain gauge
converts the force, pressure, tension, and weight into electrical quantity which can be measured.
The electrical strain gauges measure the changes that occur in resistance, capacitance, or
inductance due to the strain transferred from the workpiece to the basic gauge element.

Based on mounting, strain gauges are classified as

1. Bonded strain gauges.

2. Unbonded strain gauges.

1.Bonded strain gauge :

Bonded strain gauges are so-called because they are attached to the elastic element surface. The
most commonly used are bonded resistance type strain gauges. They are primarily used for strain
analysis.

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In bonded resistance wire strain gauges resistance element is cemented to the base which may be
a thin sheet of paper or a thin sheet of bakelite or Teflon. The bonded strain gauge is connected
to the Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Wire strain gauge:

The resistance element is in the form of wire foil or film of the material. In a metal bonded strain
gauge a fine wire element, about 0.025 mm or less in diameter is looped back and forth on the
base carrier or mounting plate. The base is cemented to the member subjected to the stress. The
grid fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or Teflon.

2.Unbonded strain gauge:

It is exclusively used in transducer applications. The unbonded resistance strain gauge uses
strain-sensitive wire with one end fixed or the other end attached to a movable element as shown
in figure 2. When the strain gauge is connected to the Wheatstone bridge circuit, at initial
preload, the strain and resistance of the four arms are approximately equal. The resultant output
voltage of the bridge is equal to zero. Application of pressure causes a small displacement causes
a decrease in resistance of the strain gauge. This results in an unbalance in the output voltage of
the Wheatstone bridge which is proportional to the small displacement hence the pressure. Un
bonded strain gauges measure the very small motion of the order of 50 micrometers and very
small forces.

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The device is less robust than the bonded gauges. Unbonded wire strain gauges become less
common with the advancement of the improved bonding cement.

Desirable characteristics of strain gauges:

 Strain gages should have a high value of gauge factor.

 Strain gauges should have high resistance.
 Strain gauges high resistance temperature coefficient.
 Should have linear characteristics (resistance versus strain).
 Strain gauge lead wires should have low and stable resistivity also a low-temperature
coefficient.
 If strain gauges are used frequently for dynamic measurements, the frequency response
over the entire range should be linear.

Uses:

 Strain gauges are used in weight measurement.

 Strain measurement in concrete and metal structures.

(b)Force measurement (Proving Ring ):

The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring of known
diameter with a measuring device located in the center of the ring. Proving rings come in a
variety of sizes. They are made of a steel alloy.

Proving rings can be designed to measure either compression or tension forces. Some are
designed to measure both. The basic operation of the proving ring in tension is the same as in
compression. However, tension rings are provided with threaded bosses and supplied with
pulling rods which are screwed onto the bosses.

23
 Fig. Proving rings

The proving ring consists of two main elements, the ring itself and the diameter-measuring
system, shown on the right in the exploded view of a proving ring. Forces are applied to the ring
through the external bosses. The resulting change in diameter, referred to as the deflection of the
ring, is measured with a micrometer screw and the vibrating reed mounted diametrically within
the ring.
24
The micrometer screw and the vibrating reed are attached to the internal bosses of the ring. In
modern rings, the upper and lower internal and external bosses are machined as an integral part
of the ring to avoid mechanical interferences during the application of the force.

To read the diameter of the ring, the vibrating reed is set in motion by gently tapping it with a
pencil. As the reed is vibrating, the micrometer screw on the spindle is adjusted until the usa-
button on the spindle just contacts the vibrating reed, dampening out its vibrations. When this
occurs a characteristic buzzing sound is produced. At this point a reading of the micrometer dial
indicates the diameter of the ring.

The number of divisions on the micrometer dial and the graduation of the vernier index vary by
type of proving ring. Typically, proving rings are designed to have a deflection of about 0.84 mm
(0.033 in) to 4.24 mm (0.167 in). The relative measurement uncertainty can vary from 0.075
% to about 0.0125 %.
Application of force

In the aircraft industry, force measurements are required to test the structural integrity of aircraft
components and structures. In the picture on the left, force sensors are used to test the structural
integrity of the wings, fuselage, and fasteners used in aircraft production.

Similarly, accurate force measurements are required to determine the weight of vehicles, tanks,
bins, ladles and hoppers. Automated industrial processes such as rolling mills require accurate
force measurement to control roll pressure on bar steel, sheet metal, paper, etc. Other
applications include measurement of engine thrust, torque on dynamometer stands, cable tension
on winches and elevators, and checking structures for weight, lift, drag and balance. Force
sensors are used in electronic balances to measure weight. Such balances include those used to
weigh trucks on highways, freight cars on railroads, babies in the doctor's office, puppies at the
vet, and the flow of materials in a production process.

(c)Torques (Prony Brake Dynamometer)

The brake power measurement involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of
the engine output shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer. The main purpose
of torque measurement is to determine the mechanical power required or developed by a
machine. Power is defind as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and
linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity. The measurement of power
involves the measurement of forque (or torque) as well as speed. The force or torque is measured
with the help of a dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer.

Prony brake dynamometer

One of the simplest methods of measuring brake power (output) is to attempt to stop the engine
by means of a brake on the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake
will support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel.
It consists of wooden block mounted on a flexible rope or band the wooden block when pressed
into contact with the rotating drum takes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in

25
frictional resistance. Spring-loaded bolts are provided to tighten the wooden block and hence
increase the friction.

Fig. prony brake dynamometer

The whole of the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer
must the cooled. The brake horsepower is given by

BHP  2    N  T
where, T = W × l
W being the weight applied at a radius r.

(d)Concept of accuracy, precision and resolution:

The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some uncertainty. This
uncertainty is referred to as an error. Accuracy and precision are two important factors to
consider while taking measurements. Both these terms reflect how close a measurement is to a
known or accepted value. The ability of an instrument to measure the accurate value is known as
accuracy. In other words, it is the the closeness of the measured value to a standard or true value.
Accuracy is obtained by taking small readings. The small reading reduces the error of the
calculation.

(i)Accuracy:
Accuracy refers to the closeness or conformity to the true value of the quantity under
measurement, No instrument gives an exact value of what is being measured. There is always
some uncertainty in the measured value. This uncertainty is expressed in term of accuracy and
error. Accuracy of an indicated (measured) value may be defined as conformity with or closeness
to an accepted standard value (true value).
For Ex: The accuracy of a micrometer depends upon factors like error in screw, anvil shape,
temperature difference, and the applied torque variations etc.

26
Some more information about Accuracy:
 Accuracy is the nearness to the true value
 Accuracy of an indicated value (measured) may be defined as closeness to the accepted
standard (True ) value.
 The difference between the measured value and true value of the quantity is expressed as
instrumental error.

The accuracy of the system is classified into three types as follows:

(1)Point Accuracy
(2) Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range
(3) Accuracy as Percentage of True Value

(1)Point accuracy: The accuracy of the instrument only at a particular point on its scale is
known as point accuracy.
(2)Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range:
The uniform scale range determines the accuracy of a measurement. This can be better
understood with the help of the following example:
ºC
Consider a thermometer having the scale range up to 500 . The thermometer has an accuracy of
±0.5 percent of scale range i.e. 0.005 x 500 = ± 2.5 ºC. Therefore, the reading will have a
maximum error of ± 2.5 ºC.
(3)Accuracy as Percentage of True Value:
Such type of accuracy of the instruments is determined by identifying the measured value
regarding their true value. The accuracy of the instruments is neglected up to ±0.5 percent from
the true value.

(ii)Precision
Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurement. Precision is the
degree to which repeated measurements under the same conditions show the same results.
The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is known as the precision of a
substance. If you weigh a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time, then your
measurement is very precise but not necessarily accurate. Precision is independent of accuracy.
Some more information about Precision:
 The instrument ability to reproduce a certain group of reading with a given accuracy is
known as precision.
 It refers to the ability of an instrument to give its readings again and again in the same
manner for the constant input signal.
 Precision is the degree to which measurements is constant
 Measurements with a smaller variation are more precise.

27
Target Example

(a) High Accuracy and high precision

(b) Low Accuracy and low precision
(c) Low Accuracy and High Precision
(d) Neither accurate nor precise

Difference between Accuracy and Precision [AKTU SEM I 2021-22, AKTU SEM I
2022-23,AKTU SEM I 2020-21 & AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

S. No Accuracy Precision

01 Accuracy refers to the closeness Precision refers to the degree

to the true value of the quantity of agreement within a group
under measurement. of measurement.

02 Accuracy represents how Precision represents how

closely the results agree with closely results agree with
True value (standard value). one another.

03 During Measurement, single During Measurement,

factor is needed. multiple factors are needed
to comment about precision.

04 It is possible for a measurement Results can be precise

to be accurate. For a without being accurate.
measurement to be consistently Alternatively, the results can
accurate, it should also be be precise and accurate.
precise.

28
Resolution: It is defined as the increment in the input of the instrument for which output remain
constant i.e. when the input given to instrument is slowly increased for which output remain
same until the increment exceed the different value.

29
 5. Introduction to Mechatronic Systems: Evolution, Scope, Advantages and
disadvantages of Mechatronics, Industrial applications of Mechatronics,[AKTU
SEM I 2022-23, AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

Definition of Mechatronics: Mechatronics basically refers to mechanical electronic

systems and normally described as a combination of mechanics, electrical, electronics,
computer and control. When mechatronics combined with different stream, then it makes
possible the generation of simple, more economic and reliable systems. The word,
mechatronics, is composed of „mecha‟ from mechanism and the „tronics‟ from
electronics.

Mechatronics is a branch of science which has been initially combination of mechanics

and electronics. With the advancement of technology, Mechatronics become covering the
mechanical, electrical, electronics, software engineering, communication and artificial
intelligence.
Physically, a mechatronic system is composed of four prime components. They are
sensors, actuators, controllers and mechanical components.

Fig: Mechatronics System

Figure shows a schematic diagram of a mechatronic system integrated with all the above
System.
key elements of a mechatronic system: [AKTU SEM I 2021-22]
Key element of a mechatronic system are following;
1. Actuators and sensors

2. Signals and conditioning

3. Digital logic Systems

4. Software and data acquisition systems

5. Computers and display devices.

30
1. Actuators and sensors:
Sensors: A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other
environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is converted to a human-readable
display at the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further
processing.
Actuators: An actuator is an energy conversion device that makes something move or operate.
Essentially it uses a form of power/energy to convert a control signal into mechanical motion.
Actuators are classified by the type of motion and the power source. An actuator is a component
of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system.
For example: opening a valve

Sensors and actuators mostly come under mechanical systems. The various actuators used in the
mechatronic system are pneumatic and hydraulic actuators, electro-mechanical actuators,
electrical motors such as DC motors, AC motors, stepper motors, servomotors, and piezoelectric
actuators. The various types of sensors used in the mechatronic system are linear arid rotational
sensors, acceleration sensors, force, torque and pressure sensors, flow sensors, temperature
sensors, proximity sensors, light sensors.
2. Signals and conditioning:
The mechatronic systems deal with two types of signals and conditioning such as input and
output. The input devices receive input signals from the mechatronic systems via interfacing
devices and sensors. Then it is sent to the control circuits for conditioning or processing. The
various input signal conditioning devices used in the mechatronic system are discrete circuits,
amplifiers, Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converters, Digital-to-Digital (DZD) convertors. The output
signals from the system are sent to output/display devices through interfacing devices. The
various output signal conditioning devices used in the mechatronic system are Digital-to-Analog
(D/A) converters, Display Decoders (DD) converters, amplifiers, power transistors, and power
op-amps.

3. Digital logic systems

Digital logic devices control overall system operation. The various digital logic systems used in
the mechatronic system are logic circuits, microcontrollers, programmable logic controllers,
sequencing and timing controls, and control algorithms.

4. Software and data acquisition systems

The data acquisition system acquires the output signals from sensors in the form of voltage,
frequency, resistance etc. and it is inputted into the microprocessor or computer. Software is used
to control the acquisition of data through DAC board. The data acquisition system consists of a
multiplexer, amplifier, register, and control circuitry., and DAC board. The various data
acquisition systems used in the mechatronic system is data loggers, computer with plug-in
boards, etc.

31
5. Computers and display devices
Computers are used to store a large number of data and process further through software. Display
devices are used to give visual feedback to the user. The various display devices used in the
mechatronic system are LEDs, CRT, LCD, digital displays, etc.

Evolution of Mechatronics:

The different stages in the evolution of mechatronics are following;

1) Primary level
2) Secondary level
3) Tertiary level
4) Quaternary level
1) Primary level: The primary stage is the basic control level that covers input/output devices.
There is integration of electrical signalling with mechanical action using senor and actuators e.g
relay switches and electrically controlled valves
2) Secondary level: At this stage of development, there has been integration of micro-electronics
into electrically controlled devices such as in a cassette tape player
3)Tertiary Level: At this stage of development, there is incorporation of advanced feedback
functions into the control strategy that uses micro-electronics, micro-processors and other
application specific integrated circuits.
4)Quaternary level : There is an attempt in the quaternary level mechatronics systems to
incorporate intelligent and fault detection isolation with the objective of enhancing smartness
Intellectual capabilities of the human operator are captured through the concepts of artificial
neural network and fuzzy logic.

Advantages and Disadvantages:[AKTU SEM I 2022-23, AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

Advantages of mechatronics are following
1. Cost effective operation of manufacturing facilities
2. High degree and good quality products
3. High level of integration
4. Very good performance characteristics
5. Wide area of application
6. Greater productivity in case of manufacturing organization
7. Increased effectiveness and productivity
8. Easy design of processes and products
9. Little interference from operator
10. More user-friendly and more safe to use
Disadvantages of mechatronics are following
1. High initial cost

32
 2. Complicated design
3. System complex and so difficult to repair and maintenance
Industrial applications of Mechatronics: [AKTU SEM I 2022-23, AKTU SEM II 2022-23]
Mechatronics is one of the fastest developing fields with wide area of application in marketing,
design and manufacturing. Marketing refers to information analysis related to identification of
uses needs and formulation of product specification The manufacturing domain looks into
process development, production planning, material handling, inspection and quality control.
Application of Mechatronics is following
1) Large manufacturing units involved in high volume production. For Ex.
Automation and industrial robots
2) Computer machine tools like CNC milling machines and CNC plasma cutter
3) Computer aided and integrated manufacturing systems
4) Intelligent measuring devices likes calibration, measuring and testing of sensors
5) Industries where it is necessary to design and maintain automatic equipment
6) Automotive engineering, in the sub-systems such as anti-lock braking systems
design
7) Automation, part of robotics
8) Remote control system

33
6. Introduction to autotronics, bionics, and avionics and their applications.[AKTU SEM I
2022-23]

Autotronics: [AKTUquantityument err[[or.

The Autotronics is referred as the modern automotive technology. Autotronics is the
combination of automobile and electronics. Also, the use of electronics science in automobile
vehicles is called autotronics. The use of electronics in the automobile field makes the system
safe, improved and efficient. Since 1970, there have progressive changes in motor vehicles
technology with many of the functions evolved from mechanical to becoming electronics and
controlled by computer
Today‟s vehicles contain many electronically controlled and operated systems.
Application of Autotronics: Due to embedding of electronics in automobile operation, there has
been improvement in following field
1) Antilock braking system
2) General positioning system(GPS)
3) Engine controlling unit
4) Improved steering, Transmission and Suspension in the vehicles
5) Auto-locking system
6) Improved fuel economy
7) Safety control
8) Audio and video entertainment system
At present, in the new generation automobiles almost 75%-85% of automobile parts are
embedded with electronics system.
Bionics: [AKTU SEM I 2022-23]
Bionics is the combination of biology and Electronics. Bionics is science of constructing
artificial systems that have some of the characteristics of living systems. Bionics studies the
mechanical and electronics systems that function like living organism or parts of a living
organism both internal and external.
Application of bionics: [AKTU SEM I 2022-23]
In engineering, the applications of bionics are following
1) Sonar, radar and medical ultrasound imaging using sound waves and echoes to determine
where the objects are in space.
2) Producing artificial neurons, artificial neural networks in the field of computer science
3) Making of artificial hands with sensors in the finger tips that monitor and adjust the
strength of the hands grip.
4) Creation of new Nano sensors to detect explosives inspired by wing structure of
butterflies.

34
Bionics explores new ideas for building mechanical and electronics systems.

Avionics: [AKTU SEM I 2022-23]

Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft. Avionic systems include
communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the
hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. It is
a blend of aviation and electronics.
Application of Avionics: [AKTU SEM I 2022-23]
Application of Avionics in the field of engineering (Aircraft system) are following
1) Aircraft flight-control system : To reduce pilot error and workload at landing or take off
2) Fuel Control and Monitoring System (FCMS) reports fuel remaining on board
3) Collision-avoidance systems: Aircraft uses a traffic alert and collision avoidance system
which can detect the location of nearby aircraft and provide instructions for avoiding
mid-air collision.
4) Weather detectors
5) Display and management of system fitted to the aircraft to perform individual tasks.

35
 7. Sensors and Transducers: Types of sensors, types of transducers and their
characteristics. [ AKTU SEM I 2020-21]
Sensor: A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other
environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is converted to a human-readable
display at the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further
processing.
Types of sensor: There are following types of sensor;
Classification of Sensors
1. Active and Passive Sensors
2. Temperature sensors
3. Light sensors
4. Magnetic sensors
5. Ultra sonic sensors
6. Pressure sensors
7. Proximity sensors
8. Biosensors

1. Active Sensors and passive sensor:

Active Sensors:
Active sensors are the type of sensors that produces output signal with help of external supply.
The own physical properties of the sensor varies with respect to the applied external effect.
Therefore, it is also called as Self Generating Sensors.
Examples: LVDT and strain gauge.
Passive Sensors:
Passive sensors are the type of sensors that produces output signal without the help of external
supply. They do not need any external power supply or voltage.
Example: Thermocouple, which generates a voltage value corresponding to the heat, applied. It
does not require any external power supply.
2. Temperature sensors: Temperature sensor senses the temperature and measures the changes
in the temperature. Other types of temperature sensors
are Thermocouples, Thermistors, Resistive Temperature Devices (RTD)

36
3. Light sensors: Digital LED or Optical-detector used to produce a Digital Signal to measure
the speed of rotating shaft. Light sensors are used in cameras, infrared detectors, and ambient
lighting applications. Sensor is composed of photoconductor such as a photo resistor, photodiode,
or phototransistor.

4. Magnetic sensors: Magnetic Field sensors are used for power steering, security, and current
measurements on transmission lines
5. Ultra sonic sensors: Ultrasonic sensors are used to measure distance or travel time using
ultrasonic waves. A source will be used to emit ultrasonic wave. After wave hits the target, the
waves are reflected and the detector collects the signal. The travel time between the transmitted
wave and reflected wave is measured using Ultrasonic sensor. Ultrasonic sensor uses single
element for transmission and reception. Ultrasonic sensors are used for position measurements.
Ex : Sound Navigation And Ranging (SONAR), Radio Detection And Ranging (RADAR).
6. Pressure sensors: Pressure sensor works on the application of input voltage and pressure
value. It produces an analog output voltage.
7. Proximity sensor: Proximity sensor is a type of non-contact sensor used for object detection.
It does not have any physical contact with the object. The object whose distance is to be
measured is known as target. An IR light or electromagnetic radiation is used in a proximity
sensor. There are different types of proximity sensors like Inductive, capacitive, Ultrasonic, etc.
applications: Object detection, to measure velocity, rotation identification, material detection,
Reverse parking sensor and object counting.
A proximity sensor detects the presence of objects that are nearly placed without any point of
contact. Since there is no contact between the sensors and sensed object and lack of mechanical
parts, these sensors have long functional life and high reliability.
8.Biosensors: These are based on the electrochemical technology. They are used for food
testing, medical care device, and water testing and biological warfare agent detection.
Characteristics of Sensor:
Static characteristics of Sensor:

37
1. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of the sensor relative to a unit
change in the input (the measured quantity.)
2. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest amount of change in the input that can be detected and
accurately indicated by the sensor.
3. Linearity: Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots
the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
4. Drift: Drift is the deviation from a specific reading of the sensor when the sensor is kept at
that value for a prolonged period of time.
5. Range: The range of a sensor is determined by the allowed lower and upper limits of its input
or output.
6. Repeatability: Repeatability is defined as the deviation between measurements in a sequence
when the object under test is the same and approaches its value from the same direction each
time.
Dynamic characteristics of Sensor:
1. Rise Time: Rise time is the time it takes a sensor to pass between 10% to 90% of the steady
state response.
2. Delay Time: Delay time is the time it takes to reach 50% of the steady state value for the first
time.
3. Peak Time: Peak time is the time it takes to reach the maximum reading for the first time for
a given excitement.
4. Settling Time: Settling time is the time it takes the sensor to settle down to within a certain
percentage of the steady state value
Transducers: [ AKTU SEM I 2020-21]
A transducer is a device that transforms a signal from one energy form to another energy form.
One example is a speaker, which converts an amplifier's electrical energy into sound waves or
mechanical energy. Energy forms consist of (but are not confined to) mechanical, electrical,
chemical, electromagnetic, thermal and acoustic energy.
Even though the term transducer normally indicates the use of a sensor/detector, any device that
transforms energy can be considered a transducer. A transducer is commonly used in measuring
devices.
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another. Transducers are often employed at
the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are
converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position,
etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
Types of Transducers: [AKTU SEM I 2020-21]
Transducers can be classified on five basis:-
1. Type of transduction used
2. Primary & Secondary Transducers
3. Passive & Active Transducers
4. Analog & Digital Transducers

38
 5. Transducers & Inverse Transducers

1. On the Basis of transduction used:-Transducer can be classified into resistive, inductive,

capacitive etc., depending upon how they converts the input quantity into resistance, inductance,
capacitance etc.

2.Primary & Secondary Transducers:-

There are two stages of transduction. Firstly the pressure is converted into a diaplacement by
bourdon tube then the displacement is converted into analogous voltage by Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (L.V.D.T). The Bourdon tube is primary transducer and L.V.D.T called
secondary transducer.
3. Passive and Active Transducers:-
Passive transducers uses the power from an external source & a part of it from the measurand
quantity for the process of transduction.

Ex: resistive, inductive, capacitive etc.

Active transducers self-generate their own voltage or current output. They do not require the
external power source.

Ex- photovoltaic cells, thermocouple etc.

4. Analog and Digital Transducers:-
Analog transducers converts the input quantity into an analog output which is continuous
function of time.

Ex- thermocouple, L.V.D.T

Digital transducers convert the input quantity in to an electrical output which is in the form of
pulses.
5. Transducers and Inverse Transducers:-
Transducer is the device which converts non electrical quantity in to electrical quantity.
Inverse transducers are the device which converts electrical quantity in to non-electrical quantity.
Characteristics of Sensor:

1. Dynamic Range
It is defined as the ratio between the largest and smallest amplitude signals that can be translated
by a transducer. Larger the Dynamic Range implies more sensitive and precise transducers will
be.

39
2. Repeatability
A transducer‟s ability to produce identical output upon stimulation by the same input is termed as
repeatability.
3. Noise
All transducers have some random noise in their output. Small signals are largely affected by
noise in comparison to larger signals.
4. Hysteresis
This is property wherein a transducer‟s output is dependent not only on the present input, but,
also on the previous inputs.

40
8. Overview of Mechanical Actuation System – Kinematic Chains, Cam, Ratchet
Mechanism, Gears and its type, Belt, and Bearing. [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]
Mechanical Actuator System: [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]
Mechanical actuation systems are essentially the mechanism formed by assembling a number of
rigid bodies in such a way that the motion of one member causes the constrained and predictable
motion of the other member.
Mechanical actuator components are two types
1. Passive components
2. Active components
1. Passive components: Passive components do not transfer the mechanical power and include
nut-bolt, screws, springs and washers.
2. Active components: Active components serve to transmit power in terms of force and torque
and motion regarding its speed and direction.
Example of active components is following
(i)Kinematic chain
(ii)Cam
(iii)Gear and its types
(iv)Cam-Follower and its types
(v)Belt
(vi)Bearing
(i) Kinematic chain: When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that last link is
joined to the first link to transmit definite motion (i.e completely constrained motion or
successfully constrained motion), it is called a kinematic chain.
In other word, kinematic chain may be defined as a combination of kinematic pairs, joined in
such a way that each link forms a part of two pairs and the relative motion between the link or
elements is completely or successfully constrained.
Most important kinematic chains are those which consist of four lower pairs, each pair a sliding
pair, a turning pair.
Type of Kinematic chain:
1. Four bar chain
2. Single slider crank chain
3. Double slider crank chain
1. Four bar chain: A kinematic chain, which is combination of four kinematic pair in such a way
that the relative motion between the links is completely constrained. Ex: Coupling rod of a
locomotive
2. Single slider crank chain: A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar
chain, It consists of one sliding pair and three turning pairs. This type of mechanism converts
rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice versa. Ex: Whitworth quick return motion
mechanism

41
 Fig. Single slider crank chain

3.Double slider crank chain: A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two
sliding pair is known as double slider crank chain. Ex: Elliptical trammels
Kinematic pair: The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other are
said to form a pair .If the relative motion between them is completely or successfully constrained
(i.e in a definite direction), the pair is known as kinematic pair.
Kinematic link: Each part of a machine, which moves to some other part, is known as a
kinematic link. A link needs not to be a rigid body, but it must be a resistant body. A body is said
to be a resistant body if it is capable of transmitting the required forces with negligible
deformation Thus a link should have the following two characteristic
1. It should have resistant body
2. It should have relative motion
Type of link:
1. Rigid link
2. Flexible link
3. Fluid link
1. Rigid link: A rigid link is one which does not undergoes any deformation while transmitting
motion. Ex: Deformation of connecting rod, crank
2. Flexible link: A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the
transmission of motion. Ex: belts, ropes, chain
3. Fluid link: A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid and the motion is transmitted
through the fluid by pressure or compression only. Ex: hydraulic lift
(ii)Cam: A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or oscillating motion to
another element (Known as follower). The cam and the follower have a line contact and
constitute a higher pair. Higher pair means two element of a pair have a line or point contact ,
when relative motion takes place. The cams are usually rotated at uniform speed by a shaft, but
the follower motion is pre-determined and will be according to shape of the cam.
The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of internal combustion
engines, feed mechanism of automatic lathes etc.

42
 Fig. Cam and Flat face follower

Ratchet Mechanism: The ratchet and pawl mechanism is a mechanical gearing system used to
transmit intermittent linear or rotary motion in one particular direction, and prevents motion in
the opposite direction. The unit essentially comprises two components namely a ratchet and a
pawl mounted on the base as shown in fig.

Fig. Ratchet Pawl Mechanism

Ratchet is a gearing component having star-shaped angled around its outer periphery. The pawl
is a type of latch in the form of a teeth shaped solid part that is pivoted at one end rests against
the ratchest at the other end. The pawl is usually spring loaded and that ensures its automatic
engagement with the ratchest

43
A ratchet is a mechanical device that allows continuous linear or rotary motion in only one
direction while preventing motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets are widely used in
machinery and tools.
Application of ratchet and pawl assembly
(i)Clocks and typewriters
(ii)Weight lifting machines
(iii)Gears and its type: [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]
A gear is a kind of machine element in which teeth are cut around cylindrical or cone shaped
surfaces with equal spacing. By meshing a pair of these elements, they are used to transmit
rotations and forces from the driving shaft to the driven shaft

Types of Gear: Types of gear are following

1. Spur Gear
2. Helical Gear
3. Rack and pinion
4. Bevel Gear
5. Worm Gear

1. Spur Gear: It is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are straight lines parallel to the gear
axis. Spur gears are used for transmitting motion two shafts whose axes are parallel and coplanar.
These gears have a high (96 – 98 % ) efficiency of power transmission. Spur gears are widely
used in gear boxes of lathe.

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2. Helical Gear: It is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are straight helices, tooth are inclined
at an angle to the gear axis. In this gear, teeth are inclined to the axis of gear. They have better
teeth meshing than spur gears and have superior quietness and can transmit higher loads, making
them suitable for high speed applications. The helical gears are used in automobile gear boxes.
3. Rack and Pinion: The gear of a shaft meshes externally with the gear in a straight line. Such
type of gear is called rack and pinion gear. The straight line gear is called rack and the circular
wheel is called pinion. With the help of rack and pinion, we can converts linear motion into
rotary motion and vice versa.
4. Bevel Gear: Bevel gears have a cone shaped appearance and are used to transmit force
between two shafts which intersect at one point (intersecting shafts). The bevel gears are used to
connect two shafts whose axes are coplanar but intersecting.
5. Worm Gear: The system consists of a worm which is basically part of a screw. The worm
meshes with the teeth on a gear wheel called worm wheel. The worm gear is used for connecting
two non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts which are usually at right angles. Their gear is
recommended when high speed reduction (more than 10: 1) is required.
(iv)Belt: The belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power transmitted depends
upon the following factors:

1.The velocity of the belt

2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys

3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley

4. The conditions under which the belt is used

The flat belts are used when the maximum distance between the shafts not exceed 10 meters and
minimum should not be less than 3.5 times the diameter of the larger pulley.

Fig: belt pulley arrangement

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(v)Bearing: A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired
motion, and reduces friction between moving parts.

Fig : Ball bearing

A Bearing is a machine element which supports another moving machine element(e.g a rotating
shaft) called journal. While carrying the load, bearing allows relative motion between the contact
surfaces of machine.
Classification of bearing: Bearing may be classified in the following parameters
1. On the basis of direction of loads to be supported
2. On the basis of nature of contact between the working surface
1. On the basis of direction of loads to be supported: Bearings are classified as
(a)Radial Bearing
(b)Thrust bearing
(a)Radial Bearing: These are also known as journal bearings. In this bearing the main load is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the moving element.
(b)Thrust Bearing: In this bearing, the load acts along the axis of rotation.
2. On the basis of nature of contact between the working surface: Based on this criteria, the
bearing are classified as:
(a) Sliding contact bearing
(b)Rolling contact bearing
(a)Sliding contact bearing: In sliding bearing, the primary motion between the bearing and the
moving elements is sliding one.
(b)Rolling contact bearing: In this type of bearing, steel balls or steel rollers are interposed
between the working surfaces.

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9. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuation Systems: Overview: Pressure Control Valves,
Direction Control Valves

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuation Systems:

The energy source that operates an actuator can be hydraulic (fluid-based), pneumatic (air
pressure-based).

Hydraulic actuators system: Hydraulic actuator system use hydraulic fluid, meaning they can
hold torque and force without continuous application of fluid pressure. However, they can leak
and the leaked fluid invites contamination.

Pascal law states that “the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in
all directions.” This characteristic property of the fluid forms the working principle of fluid
power system.

With reference to fig. two cylinders of different cross-sectional are interconnected at the bottom
through a pipeline and are fitted with some liquid (oil or water). The larger cylinder contains a
ram of area „AR‟ and a plunger of area „AP‟ reciprocates inside the smaller cylinder. A force FP
applied to plunger produces an intensity of Pressure PP which is transmitted in all directions
through the liquid. If the plunger and ram are at the same level and their weights are neglected
F
then pressure intensity at plunger end PP  P ,
AP
F
Pressure intensity at ram end PR  R ,
AR
According to Pascal‟s law
PP  PR ,
FP FR
 ,
AP AR

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 AR
FR  FP  ,
AP
The above expression indicates that by applying a small downward force FP on the plunger, a
large upward force FR acts on the ram by suitably selecting ratio of the diameters of the two
cylinders.
The fluid systems find application in following
(i)Hydraulic press, hydraulic lift and hydraulic crane
(ii)Measurement of process parameter

Advantage of Hydraulic system: Advantages of hydraulic systems are following

(i)Simplicity of the actuator system

(ii)High response due to effectively incompressible nature of the liquid control medium

(iii)High power gain due to conversion of liquid to high pressure

(iv)Long life due to self-lubricating properties of the hydraulic liquids

Disadvantage of hydraulic system: Disadvantages of hydraulic systems are following

(i)Requirements of proper seals and connection so as to prevent the leakage of the hydraulic
liquids

(ii) Careful maintenance of the system to keep the fluid clean and pure.

Application:

High power to weight ratio results in theirs finding a wide range of use in machine tools, speed
governing systems and position control systems.

Pneumatic actuators system: Pneumatic actuators system is ideal for applications that require
less power and more consistent, reliable, linear motion. They use compressed air, so they don‟t
require a motor, which means they have no hazardous materials.

Hydraulic Actuators system

Hydraulic cylinders can produce tremendous force because they can handle higher pressures.
This is essential for operating heavy construction equipment, for example. They can produce as
much as 25x the force that a pneumatic cylinder can generate, as well as higher horsepower per
weight. One of their main advantages is their ability to hold torque and force without continuous
application of fluid pressure from the power source. This is because fluids are not compressible.

On the downside, hydraulic actuators can leak, and the leaked fluid invites contamination that
can cause damage to internal or external working parts. It also takes an assortment of other
equipment to operate hydraulics – motors, pumps, fluid reservoirs, etc. Hydraulics are also very

48
noisy, even when outfitted with noise-reduction equipment. These factors can make pneumatic
actuators too unwieldy for many environments.

Pneumatic Actuators system:

Pneumatic cylinders are driven by air pressure rather than a fluid. Air can sometimes be less
efficient as a power source because it can be compressed, causing the actuator to lose pressure.
The air compressor that powers a pneumatic actuator must be located relatively close by, and it
has to run continuously. It is also possible for the air to become contaminated by equipment
lubricants, which increases the risk of damage.

The bottom line is that pneumatic actuators operate at lower pressures and speeds than hydraulic
cylinders. For many applications, though, this is an advantage: Pneumatic cylinders provide
highly reliable, consistent linear motion, with accuracy tolerances within 0.1 inches and
repeatability tolerances within .001 inches. They can also perform reliably in extremely high or
low temperatures, which would cripple fluid-based hydraulic actuators. In addition, because
pneumatic actuators have no motor and use no hazardous materials, they can easily meet
mechanical safety requirements.

In many industrial applications, moving machinery – and controlling that movement consistently
– is what matters most. Pneumatic actuators, or cylinders, are often ideal for these applications.
To achieve maximum efficiency, it is important to size pneumatic actuators accurately for the job
at hand. W.C. Branham manufactures five different types of pneumatic actuators, each available
in a variety of bore sizes.

Pneumatic actuating system: Pneumatic controllers use air control medium to provide an
output signal which is a function of an input error signal. The major components of pneumatic
actuating system are error detector, flapper-nozzle (controller mechanism), an amplifier feedback
elements.

The pneumatic actuating mechanisms are of two types

(i)Force balance control

(ii) Motion balance control

(i)Force balance control: In a force balance control, the deviation of a diaphragm is

proportional to the pressure difference

(ii) Motion balance control: In a motion balance controller, the deviation signal is taken from a
point on mechanical linkage.

Advantage of pneumatic system: Advantages of pneumatic systems are following

(i)Simplicity of components and ease of maintenance

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(ii)Explosion proof characteristics: Free from the hazards pneumatic actuators have no motor and
use no hazardous materials, they can easily meet mechanical safety requirements.

(iii)Relatively high power amplification for operating the final control elements

Disadvantage of pneumatic system: Disadvantages of pneumatic systems are following

(i)Pneumatic cylinders are driven by air pressure rather than a fluid. Air can sometimes be less
efficient as a power source because it can be compressed, causing the actuator to lose pressure.

(ii) Pneumatic actuators operate at lower pressures and speeds than hydraulic cylinders.

(iii)Slow response of final control elements

(iv)Operation difficult under freezing conditions

Application:

Pneumatic actuators system is ideal for applications that require less power and more consistent,
reliable, linear motion. They use compressed air, so they don‟t require a motor, which means
they have no hazardous materials.

Difference between Hydraulic system and Pneumatic system [AKTU SEM II 2021-22]
S. No Hydraulic system Pneumatic system
01 Hydraulic actuator system use hydraulic Pneumatic system use air pressure rather
fluid, meaning they can hold torque and than a fluid.
force without continuous application of
fluid pressure.
02 Fast response of final control elements Slow response of final control elements
03 Hydraulic system operate at higher Pneumatic system operate at lower
pressures and speeds than pneumatic pressures and speeds than hydraulic
system system
04 Relatively low power amplification for Relatively high power amplification for
operating the final control elements operating the final control elements
05 Chances of hazards due to motor and Free from the hazards pneumatic actuators
other mechanical elements have no motor and use no hazardous
materials, they can easily meet mechanical
safety requirements.
06 Long life due to self-lubricating Less life as compared to hydraulic system
properties of the hydraulic liquids
07 High response due to effectively Low response due to effectively
incompressible nature of the liquid compressible nature of the air control
control medium medium

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Control valve: [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of fluid (liquids or gases) by
opening, closing or partially obstructing the passage ways. The valves way be operated manually
either by handle, lever, pedal or wheel.

Valves are found in virtually every industrial process and are used for:

(i)Starting or stopping flow

(ii) Preventing back flow

(iii)Relieving and regulating pressure in a fluid

Pressure Control Valves: [AKTU SEM II 2022-23]

Pressure control valves are used virtually in every hydraulic system and they function to keep
system pressure safely below a desired upper limit to maintain a set pressure in any part of the
circuit. These valves are normally closed and have a restriction to produce the desired pressure.
The different types of pressure control valves are following:
(i)Pressure Relief valve
(ii)Sequence valve
(iii)Direction control valve
(i)Pressure Relief valve:

Relief valve consists of a ball or poppet exposed to the system pressure on one side and opposed
by a spring of pre-set force on the other side. The spring holds the ball tightly seated and that
blocks the flow through the valve. When the force of system pressure rises and exceeds the
spring force, the valve gets lifted from its seat and that lets the fluid out through the vent. The
most widely used type of pressure control valve is the pressure-relief valve because it is found in
practically every hydraulic system. Schematic diagram of simple relief valve is shown in Fig. 1.1
and three-dimensional view is shown in Fig. 1.2. It is normally a closed valve whose function is
to limit the pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to the tank. A
poppet is held seated inside the valve by a heavy spring. When the system pressure reaches a
high enough value, the poppet is forced off its seat. This permits flow through the outlet to the
tank as long as this high pressure level is maintained. Note the external adjusting screw, which
varies spring force and, thus, the pressure at which the valve begins to open (cracking
pressure)(Fig. 1.3).
It should be noted that the poppet must open sufficiently to allow full pump flow. The pressure
that exists at full pump flow can be substantially greater than cracking pressure. The pressure at

51
full pump flow is the pressure level that is specified when referring to the pressure setting of the
valve. It is the maximum pressure level permitted by the relief valve.

If the hydraulic system does not accept any flow, then all the pump flow must return to the tank
via the relief valve. The pressure-relief valve provides protection against any overloads
experienced by the actuators in the hydraulic system. Of course, a relief valve is not needed if a
pressure-compensated vane pump is used. Obviously one important function of a pressure-relief
valve is to limit the force or torque produced by hydraulic cylinders or motors.

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 The main advantage of direct-acting relief valves over pilot-operated relief valves is that they
respond very rapidly to pressure buildup. Because there is only one moving part in a direct-
acting relief valve, it can open rapidly, thus minimizing pressure spikes.

(ii) Sequence valve: A sequence valve functions to provide a path of flow alternate and
sequential to the primary circuit. The operation of these valves is controlled mechanically or by
pressure. The pressure operated sequence valve is normally closed poppet or spool valve that
opens at an adjustable set pressure.
Fluid at inlet port of the valve will not pass to the secondary circuit or outlet port until the fluid
pressure reaches the set pressure. When the set pressure is reached, the sequence valve directs
the fluid to a second actuator or motor to do work in another part of the circuit.
(iii)Directional Control Valves:
The directional control valves(DCV) are one of the most fundamental parts that are employed to
start, stop and change the direction of fluid flow in a fluid control system. They allow the flow of
working fluid (oil, gas) into different paths from one or more source.
The direction control valves are classified according to certain factors such as
(i)Number of ports or ways
(ii)Method of actuation: manual, mechanical, solenoid operated and pilot operated.
(iii)Shape of valving element which is mostly a ball, a sliding spool or a rotary spool.
The controlling of the passage of a fluid signal is done by generating, cancelling or redirecting
signals and categorization of direction control valves is then done is signaling elements(input),
processing elements and power elements or final control elements.
The simplest direction control valve is a 2-way valve which either stops flow or allows flow. The
3-way valve allows fluid flow to an actuator in one position and exhaust the fluid flow from it in
other position.

Directional control valves perform only three functions:

 stop fluid flow

 allow fluid flow, and
 change direction of fluid flow.

These three functions usually operate in combination.

The simplest directional control valve is the 2-way valve. A 2-way valve stops flow or allows
flow. A water vessel is a good example of a 2-way valve. A water vassel allows flow or stops
flow by manual control.

A single-acting cylinder needs supply to and exhaust from its port to operate. This requires a 3-
way valve. A 3-way valve allows fluid flow to an actuator in one position and exhausts the fluid
from it in the other position. Some 3-way valves have a third position that blocks flow at all
ports.

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A double-acting actuator requires a 4-way valve. A 4-way valve pressurizes and exhausts two
ports interdependently. A 3-position, 4-way valve stops an actuator or allows it to float. The 4-
way function is a common type of directional control valve for both air and hydraulic circuits. A
3-position, 4-way valve is more common in hydraulic circuits.

Following are schematic symbols for commonly used directional control valves.

2-way directional control valves

A 2-way directional valve has two ports normally called inlet and outlet. When the inlet is
blocked in the at-rest condition, as shown in Figure 8-1, it is referred to as "normally closed"
(NC). The at-rest box or the normal condition is the one with the flow lines going to and from it.

The boxes or enclosures represent the valve‟s positions. In Figure 8-1, the active box shows
blocked ports, or a closed condition, while the upper box shows a flow path. When an operator
shifts the valve, it is the same as sliding the upper box down to take the place of the lower box.
In the shifted condition there is flow from inlet to outlet. Releasing the palm button in Figure 8-1
allows the valve spring to return to the normal stop flow condition. A 2-way valve makes a blow-
off device or runs a fluid motor in one direction. By itself, a 2-way valve cannot cycle even a
single acting cylinder.

Figure 8-1 shows a "normally open" (NO) 2-way directional valve.

Energizing the solenoid on this valve stops fluid flow.

3-way directional control valves

A 3-way valve has three working ports. These ports are: inlet, outlet, and exhaust (or tank). A 3-
way valve not only supplies fluid to an actuator, but allows fluid to return from it as well.

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10. Rotary Actuators, Accumulators and Pneumatic Sequencing Problems

Rotary Actuators:
The rotary actuators have been designed and developed for the applications requiring a rotary
motion or torque to control the speed and rotation of the attached equipment.
In these actuators following functions are performed
(i)There is transformation of pneumatic, hydraulic or electric energy into mechanical rotation
(ii)The linear motion in one direction gives rise to a turning or angular movement through a pre-
set(defined) angle.
The pneumatic rotary actuators utilize the pressure of compressed air to generate the oscillatory
rotary motion. For operation, the force is applied at a distance away from the axis of rotation and
that causes a turning moment. The two most common configurations of Pneumatic actuators are
(i)Rotary vane actuator
(ii)Rack and pinion actuator
(i)Rotary vane actuator: The vane actuator consists of a vane mounted on a central
shaft/spindle enclosed in a cylindrical chamber. A stream of pressurised air is made to impinge
upon the vane and that push makes the spindle to turn. There is a port through which the air
behind the vane is released to the atmosphere. When the vane has turned through a specified
angle, the air flow is reversed and the spindle rotates back to its original position. The stroke
completed and subsequently the process is repeated.
(ii)Rack and pinion actuator: The rack and pinion actuator consists of a piston and rack that
moves linearly and causes a pinion gear and output shaft to rotate. The rack is machined as a part
of the piston rod of a double acting linear cylinder. The pinion gear meshes with the rack and
turns the spindle as the piston moves when air pressure is applied to it. The spindle is at right
angles to the piston and rotates clockwise , then anticlockwise as the linear cylinder completes its
double action.
The rack and pinion actuators are used when more speed is required.
Accumulators: An accumulator is an energy storage device that enables the hydraulic system to
cope with extremes of demand and maintain specified pressure in the system.

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An accumulator is a unit installed in a hydraulic system to store high pressure fluid during idle
periods and later make it available to supplements pump flow and backup during power failure.
A hydraulic accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which an incompressible hydraulic
fluid is held under pressure that is applied by an external source of mechanical energy. The
external source can be an engine, a spring, a raised weight, or a compressed gas. An accumulator
enables a hydraulic system to cope with extremes of demand using a less powerful pump, to
respond more quickly to a temporary demand, and to smooth out pulsations. It is a type of energy
storage device.
There are three types of accumulators used in a hydraulic system
(i)Bladder accumulator
(ii)Piston accumulator
(iii)Diaphragm type accumulator
(i)Bladder accumulator:
A bladder accumulator is the most commonly used hydro-pneumatic accumulator. The bladder is
filled with nitrogen and fitted in a welded or forged steel pressure vessel. The bladder is made of
an elastic material (elastomer), e.g. rubber. The gas pre-charge pressure can be adapted via the
gas inlet/outlet valve on top of the bladder accumulator.

If the bladder accumulator is mounted vertically or at an angle, the gas side must always be on
top. When the pressure drops, the compressed gas in the bladder expands and pushes the stored
fluid into the hydraulic circuit. At zero pressure, the bladder may be pushed out of the pressure
vessel. To prevent this, a spring-loaded valve is provided on the fluid side.

The bladder accumulator is used when a high power output is required. Our specially designed
bladder accumulators are capable of operating at maximum pressures of up to 5,000 psi for
carbon steel material and up to 2,000 psi for stainless steel material.

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 Fig. Bladder accumulator
Function of Accumulator: There are following function of accumulator;
(i)To storage the energy
(ii)To maintain the specific pressure in the system
(iii)It enables a hydraulic system to cope with extremes of demand using a less powerful pump,
to respond more quickly to a temporary demand, and to smooth out pulsations.
(iv) Provide quick response to sudden enhanced demand
(v)Compensate for any oil leakage, thermal expansion/contraction and hold the required pressure
in the circuit.

Advantage of accumulator: There are following advantage of accumulator;

(i)Smooth out pulsations and provide shock cushioning
(ii)Supplement pump flow and allow the use of less powerful pump
(iii)Provide quick response to sudden enhanced demand
(iv)Compensate for any oil leakage, thermal expension/contraction and hold the required
pressure in the circuit.

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