MODULE 3: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The rippling muscles of professional boxers or weightlifters are often the first thing that
comes to mind when one hears the word “muscle”. But the muscle is also the dominant
tissue in the heart and in the walls of other hollow organs of the body. In all its forms, it
makes up nearly half of the body’s mass.
In this module, you will be able to understand deeply how the muscular system works
and how important it is to the whole human body.
Objectives:

After exploring the module, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the functions of the muscular system

2. Describe the events that occur in muscle contraction and relaxation
3. Distinguish between isometric and isotonic contraction by giving examples
4. Define muscle tone by relating its importance in human beings’ overall function
5. Distinguish between fast-twitch muscles and slow-twitch muscles
6. Make a reflection journal of the musculoskeletal problems reiterating the importance
of thorough understanding of anatomy & physiology of the muscular system.

MODULE 3 - LESSON 1: FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR

SYSTEM
Movement within the body is accomplished by cilia or flagella on the surface of
certain cells, by the force of gravity or by the contraction of muscles. Most of the
body’s movement results from muscle contraction. We have about 650 Muscles in out
body.
There are seven (7) major functions of the muscular system: (1) body movement,
(2) maintenance of posture, (3) respiration, (4), production of body heat, (5)
communication, (6) constriction of organs and vessels, and (7) heartbeat.

Functions of the Muscular System

1. Body movement
Contraction of skeletal muscles is responsible for the overall movements of the
body, such as walking, running, or manipulating objects with the hands
2. Maintenance of posture
Skeletal muscles constantly maintain tone, which keeps us sitting or standing erect.
3. Respiration
Muscles of the thorax are responsible for the movements necessary for respiration
4. Production of body heat
When skeletal muscles contract, heat is given off as a by-product. This released heat
is critical to the maintenance of body temperature.
5. Communication
Skeletal muscles are involved in all aspects of communication, such as speaking,
writing, typing, gesturing, and facial expression.
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
The contraction of smooth muscle within the walls of internal organs and vessels
causes constriction of those structures. This constriction can help propel and mix
food and water in the digestive tract, propel secretions from organs, and regulate
blood flow through vessels.
7. Heart beat
The contraction of cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat, propelling blood to all
parts of the body.
TYPES OF MUSCLES
Feature Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle

Location Attached to Heart Wall of hollow

bone organs, blood
vessels, and
glands
Cell Shape Long, cylindrical Branched Spindle-shaped
Nucleus Multiple, Usually single, Single, central
peripheral central
Striations Yes Yes No
Control Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Function Move the whole Heart Compression of
body contraction to organs, ducts,
propel blood tubes, etc.
through the
body

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES
Contractibility: ability of the muscle to shorten reducing distance between parts of its
contents
Excitability: ability to respond to a stimulus (similar to nerve tissue)
Extensibility: ability of the muscles to be stretched
Elasticity: ability of a muscle to return to its original length after stretching
Muscles according to their:
 Location Size Function
-pectoralis (chest) - Maximus (large) -Abductor (away from midline)
-Gluteus (buttock) - Minimus (small) -Adductor (towards midline)
-Brachial (arm) - Major (larger of two muscles) -Masseter (a chewer)
- Minor (smaller of two muscles)
Origin and insertion -Longus (long)
-Brevis (short) Orientation of fasciculi
Shape - Rectus (straight)
- Deltoid (triangular) Number of heads - Oblique (at an angle)
- Quadratus (quadrate-rectangular) - Biceps (two)
- Teres (round) - Triceps (three)

MODULE 3 - LESSON 2: MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY 1

The muscular system is the biological system of humans that produces
movement. The muscular system, in vertebrates, is controlled through the nervous
system, although some muscles, like cardiac muscle, can be completely autonomous.
Muscle is contractile tissue and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic
germ cells. Its function is to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or
movement within internal organs. Much of muscle contraction occurs without conscious
thought and is necessary for survival, like the contraction of the heart or peristalsis,
which pushes food through the digestive system.

2.1. Muscle contraction & relaxation

Contraction of skeletal muscle tissue occurs as actin and myosin myofilaments
slide past one another, causing the sarcomeres to shorten. Many sarcomeres join end
to end to form myofibrils. Shortening of the sarcomeres causes myofibrils to shorten.
Shortening of the myofibrils causes the entire muscle to shorten.
Sliding filament model: The sliding of actin myofilaments past myosin myofilaments
during contraction.

How do the bones of the human skeleton move?

Skeletal muscles contract and relax to mechanically move the body. Messages from the
nervous system cause these muscle contractions. This contraction can be summarized
in three steps:
1) A message travels from the nervous system to the muscular system, triggering
chemical reactions.
2) The chemical reactions lead to the muscle fibers reorganizing themselves in a way
that shortens the muscle--that’s the contraction.
3) When the nervous system signal is no longer present, the chemical process
reverses, and the muscle fibers rearrange again and the muscle relaxes.

Steps in the mechanism of muscle contraction.

1. A Muscle Contraction Is Triggered When an Action Potential Travels Along
the Nerves to the Muscles.
Muscle contraction begins when the nervous system generates a signal. The
signal, an impulse called an action potential, travels through a type of nerve cell
 called a motor neuron. The neuromuscular junction is the name of the place
where the motor neuron reaches a muscle cell. Skeletal muscle tissue is
composed of cells called muscle fibers.
When the nervous system signal reaches the neuromuscular junction, a
chemical message is released by the motor neuron. The chemical message, a
neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, binds to receptors on the outside of the
muscle fiber. That starts a chemical reaction within the muscle.
2. Acetylcholine Is Released and Binds to Receptors on the Muscle Membrane
A multistep molecular process within the muscle fiber begins when
acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane. The proteins
inside muscle fibers are organized into long chains that can interact with each
other, reorganizing to shorten and relax.
When acetylcholine reaches receptors on the membranes of muscle fibers,
membrane channels open and the process that contracts a relaxed muscle fiber
begins:
3. Muscle Fibers Relax When the Nervous System Signal Is No Longer Present
When the stimulation of the motor neuron providing the impulse to the
muscle fibers stops, the chemical reaction that causes the rearrangement of the
muscle fibers' proteins is stopped. This reverses the chemical processes in the
muscle fibers and the muscle relaxes.

MODULE 3 - LESSON 2: MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY 2

2.2. Isometric & isotonic muscle contraction
Muscle contractions are classified as either isometric or isotonic.
Isotonic contraction
Isometric contraction
Concentric Eccentric
- Concentric contraction in the - Eccentric contraction in the biceps - Isometric contraction occurs in
biceps brachii during the upward during the downward phase of the biceps brachii when the
phase of exercise exercise muscle is holding the weight still
-Biceps brachii produces tension - Biceps brachii produces tension and - Biceps brachii develops tension
and shortens lengthens and stays the same length
-It pulls the forearm upwards to - It slows the lowering of the - It stops flexion and extension of
cause flexion to the elbow forearm and controls extension of the elbow
the elbow

Isometric (equal distance) contractions: the amount of tension increases during the
contraction process, but the length of the muscle does not change; responsible for the
constant length of the postural muscles of the body, such as the muscles of the back.
Isotonic (equal tension) contractions: the amount of tension produced by the muscle is
constant during contraction, but the length of the muscle decreases. The two types are:
o Concentric contractions: muscle tension increases as the muscle shortens
o Eccentric contractions: tension is maintained as the muscle lengthens
As muscles contract, they pull on tendons which in turn pull on bones. This creates force and
movement. There are three types of contractions: isotonic, isometric and isokinetic. ISO means
equal, so when we categorize our muscle contractions, we name them according to what stays
the same throughout the contraction. We measure three things as we categorize contractions.
Tension, across the muscle. The length of the muscle. The amount of energy required by the
muscle. In isotonic contractions the muscle tension stays the same. The length of the muscle
changes as the muscle contracts and pulls on the bone. The amount of energy required by the
muscle may change, but the tension across the muscle stays the same. If the force the muscle
is producing is greater than the opposing force the muscle shortens this is called a concentric
contraction. If the force the muscle is producing is less than the opposing force the muscle
lengthens this is called an eccentric contraction. If this biceps muscle is being used to do
curls energy goes into the muscle to cause it to contract and pull on the tendon which pulls on
the bone .On the way up, the muscle force overcomes the weight of the dumbbell this is a
concentric contraction, on the way down the muscle is still contracting and creating force to
oppose the dumbbell if it didn't the arm would just fall with the weight of the dumbbell but the
weight of the dumbbell is overcoming the force created by the muscle and the muscle
lengthens this is an eccentric contraction. Isotonic contractions are the regular weight
lifting contractions that we normally think of. Concentric isotonic contractions occur as the
muscle overcomes the opposing force and shortens eccentric isotonic contractions occur
when the force created by the muscle is less than the opposing force and the muscle
lengthens. In isometric contractions the muscle length stays the same, the tension across
the muscle may change, and the energy required by the muscle may change in order to
maintain the length, but the length stays the same. think of the metric system being used to
measure length isometric maintains an equal length. If this biceps muscle wants to maintain a
constant length it may require more tension and more energy depending on how much weight
is added but the length stays the same and the bones the muscle is playing on don't move.
Doing pull-ups requires isotonic contractions. The invisible chair requires isometric
contractions. The pull-ups are a dynamic exercise, where there is movement. The invisible
chair is a static exercise, where there is no movement. In isokinetic contractions the energy
required by the muscle stays the same throughout the contraction the tension across the
muscle may change and the length of the muscle changes but a constant amount of energy is
required. Isokinetic contractions are the most effective at building strength but special
machines are required to allow for isokinetic exercises when a simple dumbbell is lifted the
energy may change throughout the contraction to maintain the same muscle tension
isokinetic contractions can also be either concentric or eccentric.

MODULE 3 - LESSON 2: MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY 3

Muscle tone: the constant tension produced by muscles of the body over long periods
of time. the resistance of a muscle to active or passive stretch, or the overall stiffness
of the muscle.
 responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, the head held in an
upright position, and the abdomen from bulging
 depends on a small percentage of all the motor units in a muscle being
stimulated at any point in time, causing their muscle fibers to contract
titanically and out of phase with one another.

Muscle tone has three important functions:

 It assists in maintaining good posture
 It can store energy and release it at a later time (stamina)
 Allows for more "fluidlike" movements of most muscles.

Muscle Tone Abnormalities

1. Low muscle tone (Hypotonia)
Hypotonia, also known as a floppy baby syndrome, is a condition that involves
low muscle tone with reduced muscle strength. Hypotonia is not a specific health
 sickness, but a possible sign of various disorders that affect muscle strength or
motor nerve control by the brain.
 can be genetic meaning that a child is born with Low Muscle Tone or
Hypotonia
 central nervous system disorders and progressive neuromuscular disorders
are the main cause of Low Muscle Tone or Hypotonia
 Some of the medical conditions that may cause Low Muscle Tone or
Hypotonia are:

 Down syndrome  Prader-Willi syndrome

 Muscular Dystrophy  Myotonic dystrophy
 Cerebral palsy 2  Tay-Sachs disease

Symptoms:
 Muscle feeling extremely soft is a symptom of low muscle tone or
hypotonia.
 Difficulty extending the limb beyond what is normal.
 In cases of children with low muscle tone or hypotonia, there will be
symptoms of delay in achieving gross motor skills and problems with
feeding.
 Shallow breathing is yet another symptom seen in children with Low Muscle
Tone or Hypotonia.
 Children with Low Muscle Tone or Hypotonia also have symptoms of an
underactive gag reflex.

2. Excessive muscle tone (Hypertonia)

Muscle hypertonia is an increase in the rigidity of muscle tone and reduced
capacity of the muscle to stretch brought by injury to the CNS (central nervous
system) or spinal cord causing disruptions in the nerve pathways in charge of
muscle tone. This takes two forms: spasticity, which is a type of stiffness related to
uncontrolled reflexes, and rigidity, a stiffness not associated with reflexes.
Hypertonia- Stiff limbs, High Muscle Tone, Difficulty Moving, Muscle Spasms
Hypotonia- “Floppy” Limbs, Low Muscle Tone, Difficulty Standing, Instability

MODULE 3 - LESSON 2: MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY 4

2.4. Fast twitch & slow twitch muscle
Muscle fibers are sometimes classified as either fast-twitch or slow-twitch
muscle fibers. This classification is based on differences in rod portion of the myosin
myofilament. In order to better understand these muscle fibers, watch the video clip
below:
Muscle Fiber Types
Within skeletal muscles, there are three types of fiber. Type one (I), type two A (IIa) and
type two B (IIb). Each fiber type has different qualities in the way they perform and how
quickly they fatigue.
1. Type I muscle fibers
Type I fiber are also known as slow-twitch fiber. They are red in colour due to the
presence of large volumes of myoglobin and so oxygen and high numbers of
Mitochondria. Due to this fact they are very resistant to fatigue and are capable of
producing repeated low-level contractions by producing large amounts of ATP
through an aerobic metabolic cycle.
For this reason, the muscles containing mainly type I fibers are often postural
muscles such as those in the neck and spine due to their endurance capabilities
Also, athletes such as marathon runners have a high number of this type of fiber,
partly through genetics, partly through training.
2. Type IIa muscle fibers
Type IIa fibers are also sometimes known as fast oxidative fibers and are a hybrid
of type I and II fibers. These fibers contain a large number of mitochondria and
Myoglobin, hence their red colour. They manufacture and split ATP at a fast rate by
utilizing both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and so produce fast, strong muscle
contractions, although they are more prone to fatigue than type I fiber. Resistance
training can turn type IIb fibers into type IIa due to an increase in the ability to
utilize the oxidative cycle.
3. Type IIb muscle fibers
Often known as fast glycolytic fibers they are white in colour due to a low level of
myoglobin and also contain few mitochondria. They produce ATP at a slow rate by
anaerobic metabolism and break it down very quickly. This results in short, fast
bursts of power and rapid fatigue. As mentioned above, this type of fiber can be
turned into type IIa fibers by resistance training. This is a positive change due to
the increased fatigue resistance of type IIa fibers. These fibers are found in large
quantities in the muscles of the arms.

MODULE 4: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Think about the last time you touched an object that was too hot. How did your body
react? You may have immediately moved your hand away. What may have happened if
you had left your hand on the hot object?
Your skin is lined with millions of special cells called neurons. These cells are able to
detect changes in the environment outside your body. The neurons then send signals
to the brain, so that your brain can appropriately respond to the change. Think of the
neurons as students in a classroom. When the temperature inside the class becomes
too hot, the change is detected by the students who begin to sweat. The students tell
their teacher and the teacher responds by turning up the air conditioning. In this
example the teacher is the brain which responded to the change detected by the
neurons, the students.
In our body the nervous system detects and responds to changes from normal
functions both inside and outside the body. It is a complex system made up of the
brain, spinal cord and the billions of neurons.
Objectives:
After exploring the module, you should be able to:
1. Relate the basic functions of the nervous system to its structure
2. Construct a concept map to show the division of the nervous system and describe
each
3. Describe a resting membrane potential
4. Explain how an action potential is generated and propagated;
5. Discuss how an impulse is sent from one neuron to the next at synapse, including
the role of the neurotransmitters
6. Differentiate between conscious and automatic responses to stimuli
7. Explain the formation of the CSF, blood supply and blood brain-barrier
8. Determine how the enteric nervous system can act independently of the CNS
9. Discuss how the nervous system works and appreciate how different system of the
body integrate with each other

MODULE 4 - LESSON 1: FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
The Nervous System is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages
to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. It is involved in
some way in nearly every body function.
Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory Input
Sensory receptors monitor numerous external and internal stimuli that may be
interpreted as touch, temperature, taste, smell, sound, blood pressure, and body
position.
2. Integration
The brain and spinal cord are the major organs for processing sensory input and
initiating responses.
3. Homeostasis
This function depends on the ability of the nervous system to detect, interpret, and
respond to changes in internal and external conditions. In response, the nervous
system can stimulate or inhibit the activities of other systems to help maintain a
constant internal environment.
4. Mental Activity
The brain is the center of mental activity, including consciousness, memory, and
thinking
5. Control of muscles and glands
Skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated by the nervous system.
The nervous system also participates in controlling cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
and many glands.
Cells of the Nervous System (The nervous system is composed of two basic cell
types: Glial & Neuron)
1. Glial Cells
Astrocytes. These are abundant, star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of
the neural tissue; astrocytes form a living barrier between the capillaries and
neurons and play a role in making exchanges between the two so they could help
protect neurons from harmful substances that might be in the blood.
Microglia. These are spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris, including dead
brain cells and bacteria.
Ependymal cells. Ependymal cells are glial cells that line the central cavities of the
brain and the spinal cord; the beating of their cilia helps to circulate the
cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and forms a protective cushion around the
CNS.
Oligodendrocytes. These are glia that wrap their flat extensions tightly around the
nerve fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.
Schwann cells. Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that
are found in the PNS
2. Neuron
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulses) from one part of the body to another.

Division of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System: The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which
occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and command centers of
the nervous system
a) Brain b) Spinal Cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System: The PNS, the part of the nervous system outside the
CNS, consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
a) Somatic b) Autonomic c) Sympathetic d) Parasympathetic

Central Nervous System

A. BRAIN: source of impulse
a. Cerebrum: largest part of the brain
i. Hemispheres
1. Right Hemisphere: creativity, artistic, and musical skills
2. Left Hemisphere: speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing
ii. Lobes
1. Frontal Lobe: control of voluntary motor functions, motivation,
aggression, mood, olfactory (smell) reception
2. Temporal Lobe: involved in olfactory (smell) and auditory (hearing)
sensations; plays an important role in memory
3. Occipital Lobe: functions on the reception and perception of visual input
4. Parietal Lobe: principal center for the reception and conscious
perception of most sensory information, such as touch, pain,
temperature, balance, and taste
 b. Cerebellum: “little brain”
Functions:
1. Learning motor skills such as playing the piano or riding a bicycle
2. Maintain balance, posture, and coordination

c. Brain Stem: responsible for the control of heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing
1. Medulla Oblangata: functions in the regulation of heart rate and blood
vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
balance, and coordination
2. Pons: responsible for rhythmic quality of breathing
3. Midbrain: involved in visual reflexes, coordination of eye movements
and in the control of pupil diameter and lens shape

d. Diencephalon:
1. Thalamus: influences mood and registers an unlocalized, uncomfortable
perception of pain
2. Epithalamus: involved in the emotional and visceral response to odors,
and the pineal body
3. Hypothalamus: control of body temperature, hunger, and thirst;
sensations such as sexual pleasure, feeling relaxed and “good” after a
meal, rage, and fear

B. SPINAL CORD
It extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the second lumbar
vertebra

Peripheral Nervous System

A. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Responsible for carrying motor and sensory information both to and from the
CNS
 Also known as the voluntary nervous system
 Made up of two types of neurons:
1. Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons): transmit messages to the CNS.
Neurons that carry sensory impulse from sensory organs to the central
nervous system.
2. Motor Neurons (efferent neurons): relay information from the CNS to other
areas of the body. A neuron that carries motor impulses from the central
nervous system to specific effectors.
Cranial Nerves: nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
They include information related to smell, vision, eyes, eye muscles, the mouth,
taste, ears, the neck, shoulders, and the tongue.
Spinal Nerves: There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, those that emerge from the
spinal cord. The nerves are named according to their respective vertebrae: 8
cervical pairs (head & neck; diaphragm, Deltoids, Biceps, Wrist Extenders, Triceps
and Hand), 12 thoracic pairs (chest muscles and abdominal muscles), 5 lumber
 pairs (leg muscles), 5 sacral pairs (bowel, bladder, and sexual function), and 1
very small coccygeal pair.
B. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 comprises motor neurons that carry action potentials from the CNS to the
periphery.
 innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
 Make adjustment to ensure optimal support for body activities
 Also called involuntary nervous system
1. Sympathetic Nervous System (“Fight-or-flight system”): takes place in case
of an imminent harmful event or intense mental distress; effects are:
increases heart rate and the force of heart contractions and widens the
airways to make breathing easier, causes palm to sweat, pupils to dilate,
and hair to stand on end
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System (“Rest-and-digest”): controls body process
during ordinary situations; effects are: slows heart rate and decreases blood
pressure

MODULE 4 - LESSON 2: ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND NEURAL

PATHWAYS
2.1. Action potential and synapses
Reading article (BOOK ): Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Nervous System Introduction
Neurons send ALL the impulses responsible for every one of your actions, thoughts, and
emotions. When a neuron is stimulated enough, it fires an electrical impulse that zips
down its axon to its neighboring neurons. But they’ve only got one signal that they can
send, and it only transmits at one uniform strength and speed.
What they can vary is the frequency or number of pulses - like this [buzz buzz buzz] is
distinct from this [buzz buzz buzz buzz buzz buzz buzz]. And your brain can translate
these signals, reading them like binary code, organizing them by location, sensation,
magnitude, and importance, so that you know the difference between “turn up the
thermostat” and “Oh my gosh I’m on fire.”
That buzz, that nerve impulse, is called the action potential. It’s one of the most
fundamental aspects of anatomy and physiology, and really life in general. It’s
happening inside of you right now.
The Body as a Battery
Electricity. Basically, think of your body as a sack of batteries. Body as a whole is
electrically neutral, with equal amounts of positive and negative charges floating
around.
But certain areas are more positively or negatively charged than others. And because
opposite charges attract, we need barriers, or membranes, to keep positive and
negative charges separate until we’re ready to use the energy that their attraction
creates. In other words, we keep ‘em separated to build potential.
A battery just sitting on its own has both a positive and negative end, and the
potential to release energy. But it doesn’t do anything until it’s hooked up to a
flashlight or a phone. In much the same way, each neuron in your body is like its own
little battery with its own separated charges. It just needs an event to trigger the action
that brings those charges together.
Voltage is the measure of potential energy generated by separated charges. It’s
measured in volts, but in the case of your body, we use millivolts because it’s a pretty
small amount. In a cell, we refer to this difference in charge as the membrane
potential. The bigger the difference between the positive and negative areas, the
higher the voltage, and the larger the potential.
And just like there’s voltage in your body, there’s also Current, the flow of electricity
from one point to another. The amount of charge in a current is related both to its
voltage and its resistance. Resistance is just whatever’s getting in the way of the
current. Something with a high resistance is an insulator, like plastic, and something
with a low resistance is a conductor, like metal.
Currents indicate the flow of positively or negatively charged ions across the
resistance of your cells’ membranes. And again, these membranes separate the
charges, so they’re what provide the potential to convert the electricity into something
useful.
How Charges Move in Your Cells
A resting neuron is like a battery just sitting in that sack that is you. When it’s just
sitting there, it’s more negative on the inside of the cell, relative to the extracellular
space around it. This difference is known as the neuron’s resting membrane
potential, and it sits at around -70 millivolts. Where do those charges come from?
Outside of a resting neuron, there’s a bunch of positive sodium ions floating around,
just lingering outside the membrane. Inside, the neuron holds potassium ions that are
positive as well, but they’re mingled with bigger, negatively-charged proteins. And
since there are more sodium ions outside than there are potassium ions inside, the
cell’s interior has an overall negative charge. When a neuron has a negative membrane
potential like this, it is said to be polarized.
Now, these ions didn’t just show up in this arrangement on their own. This is all
orchestrated by one of the most important bits of machinery in your nervous system,
the sodium-potassium pump. This little protein straddles the membrane of the
neuron, and there are tons of them all along the axon.
For every two potassium ions it pumps into the cell, it pumps out three sodium ions.
This creates a difference in the concentration of sodium and potassium, and a
difference in charges - making it more positive outside the neuron. This difference is an
electrochemical gradient, and you probably know enough about biology by now to
know that NATURE HATES GRADIENTS!
It wants to even out all of those inequalities, in concentration and in charge, to restore
balance. But the only way to even out that gradient, is for the ions to pass across the
membrane. Thankfully, the sodium-potassium pump isn’t the only way in or out of
the cell - the membrane is also riddled with ion channels, large proteins that can
provide safe passage across the membrane, when their respective gates are open. And
these gates open and close for different reasons, depending on their structure and
purpose.
Most are Voltage-gated channels, open and close in response to changes in
membrane potentials. For example, sodium channels in your neurons like to open
around -55 mV. But some others are ligand gated channels - they only open up
when a specific neurotransmitter, like serotonin, or a hormone latches on to it.
Mechanically gated channels, open in response to physically stretching the
membrane. In any case, when the gates do open, ions quickly diffuse across that
membrane down their electrochemical gradient, evening out the concentrations, and
running away from other positively charged ions. This movement of ions is the key to
all electrical events in neurons, and thus is the force behind Every Single Thing we
think, do, and feel.
Action Potential
Of course, not all of your body’s electrical responses are the same. And neither are the
flows of ions going in and out of your neurons. If only a few channels open, and only a
bit of sodium enters the cell, that causes just a little change in the membrane potential
in a localized part of the cell. This is called a graded potential.
But in order to send long-distance signals all the way along an axon, you need a bigger
change - one big enough to trigger those voltage-gated channels. That is an action
potential!
And your best bet for making that happen is to depolarize that resting neuron. Cause a
big enough change in its membrane potential that it’ll trigger the voltage-gated
channels to open. It all starts with your neuron sitting there at resting state. All of the
ion channels are closed, and the inner voltage is resting at -70 mV.
Some environmental stimulus occurs -- say like a spider brushes up against a tiny hair
on your knee - triggering those sodium channels to open, increasing the charge inside
the membrane. Now, the stimulus - and the resulting change - have to be strong
enough to cross a threshold for the true action potential to kick in and that threshold is
about -55 mV. If the stimulus is too weak, and the change doesn’t hit that level, it’s like
a false alarm - the neuron just returns to its resting state.
At that threshold, the voltage-gated sodium channels open, and there are tons of
these, so all of the positive sodium ions rush in, making the cell massively depolarized -
so much so that it actually goes positive, up to about positive 40 mV.
This is action potential in action. It’s really just a temporary reversal of a membrane
potential - a brief depolarization caused by changes in currents. And unlike graded
potentials, which are small and localized, an action potential kicks off a biological chain
reaction, which sends that electrical signal down the axon.
Because each of your neurons has lots of voltage-gated sodium channels. So, when
a few in one area open, that local current is strong enough to change the voltage
around them. And that triggers their neighbors, which triggers the voltage around
them, and so on down the line.
As soon as all that’s underway, the process of repolarization kicks in. This time the
voltage-gated potassium ion channels open up, letting those potassium ions flow
out, in an attempt to rebalance the charges.
If anything, it goes too far at first, and the membrane briefly goes through
hyperpolarization: Its voltage drops to -75 or so mV, before all of the gates close and
the sodium-potassium pumps take over and bring things back to their resting level.
Now when part of an axon is in the middle of all this, and its ion channels are open, it
can’t respond to any other stimulus, no matter how strong. This is called the
Refractory period, and it’s there to help prevent signals from traveling in both
directions down the axon at once.
Transmission Speed
It doesn’t matter if it’s a spider on your knee or an elephant, a paper cut or stab
wound, the strength of that action potential is always the same. What does change is
the frequency of the buzz. A weak stimulus tends to trigger less frequent action
potentials. And that includes if the stimulus is coming from you, like your brain telling
your muscles to perform some task.
If I need to do something delicate, like pick up an egg, the signal is low-frequency:
[buzz...2x But a more intense signal - like trying to crush a can - increases the
frequency of those action potentials to tell your muscles to contract harder, and the
message turns into something that you can’t ignore - [buzz…3x].
Action potentials also vary by speed, or conduction velocity. They’re fastest in
pathways that govern things like reflexes, for example, but they’re slower in places like
your glands, guts, and blood vessels. And the factor that affects a neuron’s
transmission speed the most, is whether there’s a myelin sheath on its axon.
Axons coated in insulating myelin conduct impulses faster than non-myelinated ones,
partly because, instead of just triggering one channel at a time in a chain reaction, a
current can effectively leap from one gap in the myelin to the next. These little gaps
are the delightfully named Nodes of Ranvier, and this kind of propagation is known as
saltatory conduction, from the Latin word for “leaping.”

2.2 Ascending and descending tracts

The spinal cord has numerous groups of nerve fibers going towards and coming
from the brain. These have been collectively called the ascending and descending
tracts of the spinal cord, respectively. The tracts are responsible for carrying sensory
and motor stimuli to and from the periphery (respectively).
Ascending tracts carry sensory information from the periphery to the brain.
Descending tracts carry information from the brain to the periphery.
Ascending pathways, dorsal columns, which convey fine touch, proprioception, and
vibration sense, from the periphery up to the brain. Fasciculus means small bundle, so
the fasciculus gracilis carries information from the lower limb, so it has axon fibres
from the lower limb, whereas the fasciculus cuneatus has fibres from the upper limb.
"C" is before the letter "G" in the alphabet, so "C" is higher, so your upper limbs are
higher than your lower limbs. How do you remember which one is medial, and which
one is lateral? Arms are lateral to your legs, and you know from the previous mnemonic
that the fasciculus cuneatus carries from the upper limb. So because your arms are
lateral to your legs, the fasciculus cuneatus is lateral to the fasciculus gracilis in the
spinal cord. Spinothalamic tracts.are also known as the anterolateral tracts, as they
sit anteriorly and laterally in the spinal cord, and some texts will refer to distinct
anterior and distinct lateral tracts, but almost invariably there is some intermingling of
fibres between the anterior and lateral tracts. Anterolaterally tract relays information to
the somatosensory cortex regarding pain and temperature information, and also crude
touch. So the lateral aspect of the spinothalamic tract carries pain and temperature,
whereas the anterior spinothalamic tract fibres carry crude touch information. So the
next ascending pathway, spinocerebellar pathways, dorsal and ventral
spinocerebellar tracts, these tracts relay information from muscle and joint receptors to
the cerebellum, and these tracts are examples of the pathways which carry
subconsciously processed information. Whereas the dorsal columns, the fasciculus
gracilis and the fasciculus cuneatus and the spinothalamic tracts, carry consciously
processed information, which is processed in the somatosensory cortex.
Spinocerebellar tracts don't carry information that is consciously processed, so they
don't have the three-neuron sequence. So basically, you've got information coming via
these tracts from muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs, and this information is
relayed to the cerebellum and allows for the control of posture, and to coordinate
muscular movements.
Descending tracts start in the cerebral cortex and brainstem and descend down the
spinal cord to innervate muscles. It is also involved in controlling movement, muscle
tone, spinal reflexes, and also have an ability to modulate some of the sensory
information which is brought up by the ascending tracts. Ascending tracts bring in
information from the environment relating to sensory information, and the
Descending tracts carry information from the center – the brain, to act in response to
this sensory information. Think of these descending tracts as pyramidal, or extra-
pyramidal, and pyramidal just refers to tracts that pass through the medullary
pyramids.
> Pyramidal tracts are the corticospinal tracts and the anterior corticospinal tracts.
Corticospinal tracts, convey voluntary skilled movements, originating from the motor
cortices of the brain. Lateral corticospinal tracts carry motor information destined for
the limbs, and it's important in skilled voluntary movement. The ventral corticospinal
tracts carry axial motor information - the axial muscles are those central muscles
which aren't limb muscles.
Remember the descending tracts we talked about, the spinothalamic tracts and the
spinocerebellar tracts, you'll notice that the first part of the name of the tract relates to
where the tract begins, and the second part of the name of the tract relates to where
that tract ends. So spinocerebellar - it starts in the spinal cord and it projects to the
cerebellum. And then spinothalamic - starts in the spinal cord, projects to the thalamus.
So you know that they are ascending tracts. And now we've just talked about the
corticospinal tract, so starts in the motor cortex, and projects down into the spinal cord,
so it's a descending tract.
> Extra-pyramidal tracts, rubrospinal tract, originates in the red nucleus of the
midbrain tegmentum, and is responsible for limb flexors. tectospinal tract, originates
from the superior colliculus of the midbrain, - so the "tecto" part of this word refers to
the tectum, which consists of the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus. So fibres
from the tectospinal tract mainly terminate in the cervical segment of the spinal cord,
and carry information responsible for movements in response to visual sensory
information. And then we've got the vestibulospinal tract, originates in the vestibular
nuclei in the pons and medulla. So you've got a lateral vestibulospinal tract, and a
medial vestibulospinal tract. Vestibulospinal tract receives information from the bony
labyrinths and the cerebellum, relating to balance and posture, and this pathway allows
for the control of extensor motor neurons in order to maintain posture.
> Reticulospinal tract, which arises as the name suggests, from the reticular
formation of both the pons and the medulla. So you've got a medial, or Ponto
reticulospinal tract, which is the one highlighted here in green. And then you also have
the medullary reticulospinal tracts, which aren't shown here, but I'll just draw them on
the rough location of these fibres so you'd have the medullary reticulospinal tract fibres
in this region here. So that's the lateral reticulospinal tract. And this tract, the
reticulospinal tract, is responsible for reflexes, muscle tone, and is also involved with
the respiratory and circulatory system.
MODULE 4 - LESSON 3: NEUROTRANSMITTER
Neurotransmitters communicate messages from one neuron to another or from a
neuron to a specific target tissue. Neurotransmitters are manufactured and stored in
synaptic vesicles. They enable conduction of impulses across the synaptic cleft. The
neurotransmitter has an affinity for specific receptors in the post-synaptic bulb. When
released, the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in the
postsynaptic cell membrane. The action of a neurotransmitter is to potentiate,
terminate, or modulate a specific action and can either excite or inhibit the target cell’s
activity. There are usually multiple neurotransmitters at work in the neural synapse.
Neurons do not exist in isolation, they are interconnected they connect to other
neurons as you can see right here, & basically when there's a signal in one neuron that
can send a signal to other neurons, many other neurons or plans or organs this is the
way the nervous system communicates and there needs to be these connections and
signals need to go from one neuron to the next. The synapse is a connection between
one neuron and another neuron or between one neuron and another cell, organ, gland.
The synaptic cleft is basically this space between the neurons most neurons don't
connect physically they a small space between those neurons where they connect and
there are some important things that are happening there and we're going to look at
those things today. The synaptic vesicles, unique about these vesicles is that inside
of those vesicles we have neurotransmitters. The receptor is a protein or the part on
the receiving cell that binds to the neurotransmitter. The membrane that comes right
before the space we call the presynaptic membrane and the membrane that comes
after the space and that will be the post synaptic membrane. There are number of
things that happen when the action potential reaches the axon terminals. One of
the most important things that's happening is we have voltage-gated calcium channels
that open which the calcium ions that are concentrated outside-, CA 2 plus are going
to rush into the cell. This is a very important event because it causes these synaptic
vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. When the synaptic vesicle fuses with
the presynaptic membrane, it causes the neurotransmitter to be released into the
synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter binds to the receptor and when the
neurotransmitter binds to the receptor that can cause a signal in the receiving cell so
we can have a signal in this cell because neurotransmitters are being released and that
binds to the receptors and that causes a signal in the receiving cell. this is how we can
go from one neuron to the next neuron signals are traveling rapidly and they need to
be routed to the right place the way the neurons are going to communicate with each
other is by this process of releasing neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are substances which neurons use to communicate with one
another and with their target tissues in the process of synaptic transmission
(neurotransmission).
Neurotransmitters are synthetized in and released from nerve endings into the synaptic
cleft. From there, neurotransmitters bind to receptor proteins in the cellular membrane
of the target tissue. The target tissue gets excited, inhibited, or functionally modified in
some other way.
There are more than 40 neurotransmitters in the human nervous system; some of the
most important are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA), glutamate, serotonin, and histamine.
Key facts about neurotransmitters
Excitatory neurotransmitters Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Glutamate (Glu) gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Acetylcholine (ACh) Serotonin (5-HT)
Histamine Dopamine (DA)
Dopamine (DA)
Norepinephrine (NE); also known as noradrenaline (NAd)
Epinephrine (Epi); also known as adrenaline (Ad)

Neurohormones Neuromodulators
Releasing hormones from hypothalamus Dopamine (DA)
Oxytocin (Oxt) Serotonin (5-HT)
Vasopressin; also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Acetylcholine (ACh)
Histamine
Norepinephrine (NE)
Mechanism of neurotransmission
Neurons communicate with their target tissues at synapses into which they release
chemical substances called neurotransmitters (ligands). As this communication is
mediated with chemical substances, the process is called chemical neurotransmission
and happens within chemical synapses.
Each synapse consists of the:
 Presynaptic membrane – membrane of the terminal bouton (axon ending) of the
presynaptic nerve fiber
 Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the target cell
 Synaptic cleft – a gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes

Inside the terminal bouton of the presynaptic nerve fiber, numerous vesicles that
contain neurotransmitters are produced and stored. When the presynaptic membrane
is depolarized by an action potential, calcium voltage-gated channels open (found in
the membranes of the terminal buttons). This leads to an influx of calcium ions into the
terminal bouton, which changes the state of certain membrane proteins in the
presynaptic membrane, and results in exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the
terminal bouton into the synaptic cleft.
After crossing the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters bind to their receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane. Once the neurotransmitter binds to its receptor, the ligand-
gated channels of the postsynaptic membrane either open or close. These ligand-gated
channels are ion channels, and their opening or closing alters the permeability of the
postsynaptic membrane to calcium, sodium, potassium, and chloride ions. This leads to
a stimulatory or inhibitory response.
If a neurotransmitter stimulates the target cell to an action, then it is an excitatory
neurotransmitter acting in an excitatory synapse. On the other hand, if it inhibits the
target cell, it is an inhibitory neurotransmitter acting in an inhibitory synapse. So, the
type of the synapse and the response of the target tissue depends on the type of
neurotransmitter. Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization of the
postsynaptic cells and generate an action potential; for example, acetylcholine
stimulates muscle contraction. Inhibitory synapses cause hyperpolarization of the
target cells, leading them farther from the action potential threshold, thus inhibiting
their action; for example, GABA inhibits involuntary movements.
The neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft acts for a very short duration,
only minutes or even seconds. It is either destroyed by enzymes, such as acetylcholine
esterase, or is reabsorbed into the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron by
reuptake mechanisms and then recycled. The best-known neurotransmitters
responsible for such fast, but short-lived excitatory action are acetylcholine,
norepinephrine, and epinephrine while GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system.
Repeated synaptic activities can have long-lasting effects on the receptor neuron,
including structural changes such as the formation of new synapses, alterations in the
dendritic tree, or growth of axons. An example of this is the learning process – the
more you study and repeat, the more synapses are created in your brain and enable
you to retrieve that information when needed.

Besides neurotransmitters, there are other synapse-associated chemical substances

called the neuromediators (neuromodulators). Neuromodulation differs to
neurotransmission by how long the substance acts on the synapse. Neuromodulators
aren’t reabsorbed as quickly by presynaptic neurons or broken down by enzymes.
Instead, they spend a significant amount of time in cerebrospinal fluid, influencing
(modulating) the activity of several other neurons in the brain. The best-known
neuromodulators are also neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin,
acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine.
Other associated chemical substances include neurohormones. They are synthesized
in neurons and secreted into the bloodstream which carries them to distant tissues.
The best examples are the hypothalamic releasing hormones oxytocin and vasopressin.
Classification
Neurotransmitters can be classified as either excitatory or inhibitory.

Excitatory neurotransmitters function to activate receptors on the postsynaptic

membrane and enhance the effects of the action potential, while inhibitory
neurotransmitters function to prevent an action potential. In addition to the above
classification, neurotransmitters can also be classified based on their chemical
structure:
 Amino acids – GABA, glutamate
 Monoamines – serotonin, histamine
 Catecholamines (subcategory of monoamines) – dopamine,
norepinephrine, epinephrine

The following are the most clearly understood and most common types of
neurotransmitters.
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine (ACh) is an excitatory neurotransmitter secreted by motor neurons
that innervate muscle cells, basal ganglia, preganglionic neurons of the autonomic
nervous system, and postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic and sympathetic
nervous systems.
Key facts about the acetylcholine (ACh)
Type Functions
Excitatory in all cases except in the heart (inhibitory) Regulates the sleep cycle, essential for
muscle functioning
Released from
Motor neurons, basal ganglia, preganglionic neurons of the autonomic
nervous system, postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic
nervous system, and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic
nervous system that innervate the sweat glands

Its main function is to stimulate muscle contraction. However, the only exception to
this, where acetylcholine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, is at the parasympathetic
endings of the vagus nerve. These inhibit the heart muscle through the cardiac plexus.
It is also found in sensory neurons and in the autonomic nervous system, and has a
part in scheduling the “dream state” while an individual is fast asleep. Acetylcholine
plays a vital role in the normal functioning of muscles. For example, poisonous plants
like curare and hemlock cause paralysis of muscles by blocking the acetylcholine
receptor sites of myocytes (muscle cells). The well-known poison botulin works by
preventing vesicles in the terminal bouton from releasing acetylcholine, thus leading to
paralysis of the effector muscle.
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine (NE), also known as noradrenaline (NAd), is an excitatory
neurotransmitter produced by the brainstem, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands and
released into the bloodstream. In the brain it increases the level of alertness and
wakefulness.
Key facts about the norepinephrine (NE)
Type Excitatory
Released from Brainstem, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands
Functions Increases the level of alertness and wakefulness, stimulates various processes of the body

In the body, it is secreted by most postganglionic sympathetic nerves. It acts to

stimulate the processes in the body. For example, it is very important in the
endogenous production of epinephrine. Norepinephrine has been implicated in mood
disorders such as depression and anxiety, in which case its concentration in the body is
abnormally low. Alternatively, an abnormally high concentration of it may lead to an
impaired sleep cycle.
Epinephrine
Also known as adrenaline (Ad), epinephrine (Epi) is an excitatory
neurotransmitter produced by the chromaffin cells of the adrenal gland. It prepares
the body for the fight-or-flight response. That means that when a person is highly
stimulated (fear, anger etc.), extra amounts of epinephrine are released into the
bloodstream.
Key facts about the epinephrine (Epi)
Type Excitatory
Released from Chromaffin cells of the medulla of adrenal gland
Functions The fight-or-flight response (increased heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose production)

This release of epinephrine increases heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose
production from the liver (glycogenolysis). In this way, the nervous and endocrine
systems prepare the body for dangerous and extreme situations by increasing nutrient
supply to key tissues.
Dopamine
Dopamine (DA) is a neurotransmitter secreted by the neurons of the substantia nigra.
It is considered a special type of neurotransmitter because its effects are both
excitatory and inhibitory. Which effect depends on the type of receptor that
dopamine binds to.
Key facts about dopamine
Functions Type Both excitatory and inhibitory
Inhibits unnecessary movements, inhibits the release of Released from Substantia nigra
prolactin, and stimulates the secretion of growth hormone

As a part of the extrapyramidal motor system which involves the basal ganglia,
dopamine is important for movement coordination by inhibiting unnecessary
movements. In the pituitary gland, it inhibits the release of prolactin, and stimulates
the secretion of growth hormone.
Dopamine deficiency related to the destruction of the substantia nigra leads to
Parkinson’s disease. Increased activity of dopaminergic neurons contributes to the
pathophysiology of psychotic disorders and schizophrenia. Drug and alcohol abuse can
temporarily increase dopamine levels in the blood, leading to confusion and the
inability to focus. However, an appropriate secretion of dopamine in the bloodstream
plays a role in the motivation or desire to complete a task.
GABA
gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the most powerful inhibitory
neurotransmitter produced by the neurons of the spinal cord, cerebellum, basal
ganglia, and many areas of the cerebral cortex. It is derived from glutamate.
Key facts about the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Type Inhibitory
Released from Neurons of the spinal cord, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and many areas of the cerebral cortex
Functions Reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system

Functions of GABA are closely related to mood and emotions. It is an inhibitory

neurotransmitter that acts as a brake to excitatory neurotransmitters; thus when it is
abnormally low this can lead to anxiety. It is widely distributed in the brain and plays a
principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system.
Glutamate
Glutamate (Glu) is the most powerful excitatory neurotransmitter of the central
nervous system which ensures homeostasis with the effects of GABA. It is secreted by
neurons of the many of the sensory pathways entering the central nervous system, as
well as the cerebral cortex.
Key facts about the glutamate (Glu)
Type Excitatory
Released from Sensory neurons and cerebral cortex
Functions Regulates central nervous system excitability, learning process,
memory
Glutamate is the most common neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; it
takes part in the regulation of general excitability of the central nervous system,
learning processes, and memory. Thus, inappropriate glutamate neurotransmission
contributes to developing epilepsy and cognitive and affective disorders.
Serotonin
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that
has been found to be intimately involved in emotion and mood. It is secreted by the
neurons of the brainstem and by neurons that innervate the gastrointestinal tract
(enteric nervous system). In addition, serotonin is found in platelets (thrombocytes)
which release it during coagulation (hemostasis).
Key facts about the serotonin (5-HT)
Type Inhibitory
Released from Neurons of the brainstem and gastrointestinal tract,
thrombocytes
Functions Regulates body temperature, perception of pain, emotions, and
sleep cycle
In participates in regulation of body temperature, perception of pain, emotions, and
sleep cycle. An insufficient secretion of serotonin may result in decreased immune
system function, as well as a range of emotional disorders like depression, anger
control problems, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and even suicidal tendencies.
Histamine
Histamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by neurons of the hypothalamus,
cells of the stomach mucosa, mast cells, and basophils in the blood. In the central
nervous system, it is important for wakefulness, blood pressure, pain, and sexual
behavior. In the stomach, it increases the acidity.
Key facts about the histamine
Type Excitatory
Released from Hypothalamus, cells of the stomach mucosa, mast cells, and
basophils in the blood
Functions Regulates wakefulness, blood pressure, pain, and sexual
behavior; increases the acidity of the stomach; mediates inflammatory
reactions
It is involved primarily in the inflammatory response, as well as a range of other
functions such as vasodilation and regulation of the immune response to foreign
bodies. For example, when allergens are introduced into the bloodstream, histamine
assists in the fight against these microorganisms causing itching of the skin or
irritations of the throat, nose, and or lungs.

Disorders associated with neurotransmitters

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by learning and
memory impairments. It is associated with a lack of acetylcholine in certain regions of
the brain.
Depression is believed to be caused by a depletion of norepinephrine, serotonin, and
dopamine in the central nervous system. Hence, pharmacological treatment of
depression aims at increasing the concentrations of these neurotransmitters in the
central nervous system.
Schizophrenia, which is a severe mental illness, has been shown to involve excessive
amounts of dopamine in the frontal lobes, which leads to psychotic episodes in these
patients. The drugs that block dopamine are used to help schizophrenic conditions.
Parkinson’s disease, the destruction of the substantia nigra leads to the destruction
of the only central nervous system source of dopamine. Dopamine depletion leads to
uncontrollable muscle tremors seen in patients suffering from Parkinson's disease.
Epilepsy, some epileptic conditions are caused by the lack of inhibitory
neurotransmitters, such as GABA, or by the increase of excitatory neurotransmitters,
such is glutamate. Depending on the cause of the seizures, the treatment is aimed to
either increase GABA or decrease glutamate.
Huntington’s disease, besides epilepsy, a chronic reduction of GABA in the brain can
lead to Huntington’s disease. Even though this is an inherited disease related to
abnormality in DNA, one of the products of such disordered DNA is the reduced ability
of the neurons to take up GABA. There is no cure for Huntington’s disease, but we still
can treat symptoms by pharmacologically increasing the amount of inhibitory
neurotransmitters.
Myasthenia gravis is a rare chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the
impairment of synaptic transmission of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions,
leading to fatigue and muscular weakness without atrophy.
Most often, myasthenia gravis results from circulating antibodies that block
acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junction. This inhibits the
excitatory effects of acetylcholine on nicotinic receptors at neuromuscular junctions. In
a much rarer form, muscle weakness may result from a genetic defect in parts of the
neuromuscular junction which is inherited, as opposed to developing through passive
transmission from the mother's immune system at birth or through autoimmunity later
in life.
MODULE 4 - LESSON 4: NERVE REFLEXES
A reflex is a rapid, automatic response to a specific sensory signal. For a reflex to
occur, certain components must be intact. A sense organ or receptor is required to
detect the stimulus and convert it into action potentials.
Reflex reactions in humans are controlled by the reflex arc. When the safety of an
organism demands a very quick response, the signals may be passed directly from a
sensory neuron, via a relay neuron, to a motor neuron for instant, unthinking action.
This is a reflex action. A reflex arc is the nerve pathway which makes such a fast,
automatic response possible. It does not matter how brainy you are - you will always
pull your hand away from a flame without thinking about it. It is in-built, or innate,
behavior, and we all behave in the same way.
Reflex arc is essentially when we respond to something really quickly and in a
kind of an involuntary way these things and ensure that we don't cause any further
damage to our body. Reflex arc is a really quick response where we don't even have
time to think about it our body responds before we even think about it. So, what's
different about a reflex arc and the regular types of response or the regular types of
neural pathways we've been looking at so far? The real difference is the stimulus
sends a signal via the sensory neuron and when it reaches the inter neuron this relay
neuron here rather than waiting for a signal to go up to the brain and a signal to come
back down from the brain so rather than stopping and thinking about it sending
signals up to the brain and back down again essentially a message gets passed
straight on to the motor neuron so here the electrical impulse goes through the
sensory neuron through the interneuron and go straight into the motor neuron so
bypasses the brain and this essentially mean the response happens before we even
know it. Before the signal has even reached up in the brain or we ever type any
chance to actually respond we've already sent a signal out to the muscles to make us
move. And this really just ensures that we don't waste any time thinking about what
needs to happen when we really need to just respond quickly. If we put a hand on a
pin or on something hot like in a fire or something what's going to happen is the
signal is going to go so strong stimulus that that kind of often is a sign that that
something is causing us damage is going to send a strong signal down this. The
sensory neuron and it's going to go straight through the inter neuron bypassing the
brain as they keep it straight out the motor neuron and going to make our muscle
kind of spasm or move away from whatever is causing it damaged. These are kind of
pre-programmed or connected so that essentially it will result in a movement away
from whatever is causing us damage so, if you touch something with the open side of
your hand and it burns you or make your arm pull away essentially to prevent further
damage so reflex arc it's not really any different from what we covered in the
neuron’s tutorial except that the message doesn't go up to the brain and then come
back down and come out it goes directly from the sensory to the inter neuron onto
this motor neuron bypassing the brain ensuring an immediate quick response.
First step, stimulus telling us that there something's causing damage to our body.
Then, impulse goes sensory neuron so this is part of the peripheral nervous system, it
reaches an interneuron or relay neuron which is part of the central nervous system,
and it's found usually in the spinal cord, and essentially here they will seem to signal
up to the brain but essentially that's just to let the brain know what's going on it
doesn't wait for a response from the brain it passes the signal also straight on to a
motor neuron. Signal does actually go up to the brain but it will probably only reach
the brain after we've already responded or there's no time to actually think about how
we're going to respond a message is sent straight through this motor neuron which
again is part of the peripheral nervous system straight on to an effector so something
like a muscle which will contract and make us move away preventing any kind of
further damage
MODULE 4 - LESSON 5: CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion
around the CNS. It is produced by the choroid plexuses, specialized structures made of
ependymal cells, which are located in the ventricles. CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central
canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space. The CSF flows from the lateral ventricles
into the third ventricle and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle. A small
amount of CSF enters the central canal of the spinal cord. The CSF exits the fourth ventricle
through small openings in its walls and roof and enters the subarachnoid space. Masses of
arachnoid tissue, called arachnoid granulations, penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a Dural
venous sinus in the longitudinal fissure, and CSF passes from the subarachnoid space into the
blood through these granulations.
 The clear, colorless, and transparent fluid that circulates through ventricles of the
brain, subarachnoid space, and central canal of spinal cord
 Acts as a cushion or buffer for the cortex, providing a basic mechanical and
immunological protection to the brain inside the skull

Properties:
- Volume: 150 ml - Specific Gravity: 1.005 - Lymphocytes: 6 / cu mm
- Rate of reaction: 0.3 ml per minute - Reaction: Alkaline

Functions:
 Protection: the CSF protects the brain from damage by “buffering” the brain
 Excretion of waste products: the one-way flow from the CSF to the blood takes
potentially harmful metabolites, drugs, and other substances away from the brain
 Regulation of cranial content volume: Regulation of this volume is essential
because the brain may be affected if volume is increases. It is prevented by
greater absorption of CSF to give space for the cranial contents
Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak
 occurs when CSF escapes through a small tear or hole in the outermost layer of
connective tissue (called the dura mater) that surrounds the brain and spinal cord
and holds in the CSF. The tear or hole allows the CSF to leak out.
Symptoms:

- Headache, which feels worse when sitting up or standing and better when laying down
- Vision changes (blurred vision, double vision, visual field changes)
- Hearing changes/ringing in - Balance problems - Nausea and vomiting
ears - Neck stiffness and - Pain between the shoulder blades
- Sensitivity to light and sound pain

Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier

 It is the barrier between the blood and CSF that exists at the choroid plexus.
 It allows the movement of only those substances which are allowed by Blood Brain
Barrier like oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, etc.

CSF Pathological Conditions

Hydrocephalus
 pathological condition of abnormal accumulation of CSF caused by increased CSF
production, blockage of flow, or decreased absorption. The ventricles distend in
order to accommodate elevated CSF volumes, potentially causing damage to the
brain by pressing its tissue against the boney skull.
Meningitis
 a condition in which the coverings of the brain become inflamed
 Symptoms: Fever, Nuchal rigidity, Photophobia
 Diagnosis is made via an analysis of CSF obtained through LP
MODULE 4 - LESSON 6: ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Enteric Nervous System (ENS) consists of plexuses within the wall of the
digestive tract. The plexuses include sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract
to the CNS; sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that connect the CNS to the
digestive tract; and (3) enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric plexuses. A
unique feature of enteric neurons is that they are capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the CNS through local reflexes.
For example, stretching of the digestive tract is detected by enteric sensory
neurons, which stimulate enteric interneurons. The enteric inter-neurons stimulate
enteric motor neurons, which stimulate glands to secrete. Although the ENS is capable
of controlling the activities of the digestive tract completely independently of the CNS,
normally the two systems work together. CNS control of parasympathetic branches of
the vagus nerve and sympathetic nerves (primarily, the splanchnic nerves) can
override the actions of enteric neurons. Hence, the ENS is an independent subdivision
of the PNS that is integrated with the ANS.
> Two brains in one body
The enteric nervous system in the gut, or "second brain", shares many features with
the brain in your head. It can act autonomously and even influences behavior by
sending messages up the vagus nerve to the brain. The enteric nervous system
comprises a network of neurons spread throughout two layers of gut tissue, the
submucosal plexus and the myenteric plexus.

Brain Second Brain

Glial cells support Glial cells support
85 billion neurons 500 million neurons
100 neurotransmitters identified 40 neurotransmitters identified
Produces 50% of all dopamine Produces 50% of all dopamine
Produces 5% of all serotonin Produces 95% of all serotonin
Barrier restricts blood flow to brain Barrier restricts blood flow to second brain

The Enteric Nervous System is an intrinsic nervous system of the gastrointestinal

system. What this means is the there is a nervous system which acts autonomously
inside the stomach and intestines. There are reflex circuits which exist within the
enteric nervous system that needs no instruction from the brain in order to work.
These reflex circuits are split into two layers called the submucosal plexus, and the
myenteric plexus. These reflex circuits can detect the state of the gastrointestinal tract,
and adjust as necessary. For example, when you eat food, your small intestines are the
primary source for nutrient absorption. As the small intestine comes into contact with
the nutrients, the intestines increase contractile activity to move nutrients across the
small intestines. The permeability of the intestinal wall decreases in order to allow
greater nutrient exchange and the blood flow is increased to the small intestines to
assist with nutrient exchange. This is all done without consulting the brain, which is a
pretty unique capability. The fact that the gastrointestinal system has this unique
autonomous capability is the reason why people think of the G1 tract or "Gut" as a
"Second Brain." Since there are roughly 500 million neurons embedded in the gut,
which is more neurons than found in the brain of many small animals. However, just
because there are many neurons located in the gut, it does not necessarily mean that it
truly acts like a brain, or is completely autonomous. The central nervous system,
specifically the nerves of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system still
plays an important role in the regulation of the gastrointestinal tract.