Human Anatomy and Physiology

Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Some of these structures are very small and can
only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope, while other, larger structures can readily be seen,
manipulated, measured, and weighed. Physiology explains how the structures of the body work together to maintain
life. It is difficult to study structure (anatomy) without knowledge of function (physiology) and vice versa. The two
disciplines are typically studied together because form and function are closely related in all living things.

The human body has many intricate parts with coordinated functions maintained by a complex system of checks
and balances. The coordinated function of all parts of the human body allows us to interact with our surroundings by
adjusting how the body respond to changes in environmental information.

Though you may approach anatomy and physiology strictly as a requirement for your field of study, the knowledge
you gain in this course will serve you well in many aspects of your life. The study of human anatomy and physiology is
important for students who plan a career in the health sciences because health professionals need a sound knowledge of
structure and function in order to perform their duties. In addition, knowledge of anatomy and physiology can also
benefit your own health by providing the basis for understanding diseases. Familiarity with the human body can help
you make healthful choices and prompt you to take appropriate action when signs of illness arise. Your knowledge in this
field will help you understand news about nutrition, medications, medical devices, procedures and help you understand
genetic or infectious diseases.

At the conclusion of the anatomy and physiology course, students should have a strong understanding of the
anatomic conditions used in regards to one’s individual body, the location of major organs and space of one’s individual
body system, specific anatomy and physiology conditions, physiological functions and locations of cells of one’s
individual body and physiological components of all techniques of one’s individual body.

Course Description:

The course deals with the knowledge understanding of the structure of the parts of the human body and the basic
principles on which the parts perform their functions. It aims to provide the basic concepts and principles of its multi-
system integration.

Course Outcomes:

1. Demonstrate knowledge of the different structures and functions of the human body.
2. Summarize the relationships among the different body systems.
3. Apply the significance of the unified concept of structure and functions of all the body systems.
4. Make use of the complexity of the human body which reflects the nature of the Creator.
5. Value the knowledge that will help students to use the skills learned effectively in a meaningful way to value life
and its existence.

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY

This module integrates the unifying lessons on the introduction to anatomy and physiology, which covers The Chemical
Basis of Life, Transport Mechanisms of the Plasma Membrane, Tissues, Homeostasis, and the Introduction to Organ
Systems.
MODULE 1 - LESSON 1: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

LIFE CANNOT EXIST WITHOUT MANY OF THE ELEMENTS THAT ARE PART OF THE EARTH.

In fact, the smallest, most fundamental material components of the human body are made of the basic chemical
elements. These elements, in turn, can form both the inorganic and organic chemical compounds important to life,
including, water, glucose, proteins and DNA.

Chemicals make up the body's structures, and the interactions of chemicals with one another are responsible for the
body's functions. The processes of nerve impulse generation, digestion, muscle contraction and metabolism can all be
describes in chemical terms.

A basic understanding of chemistry is essential for understanding anatomy and physiology. Chemistry is the scientific
discipline concerned with the atomic composition and structure of substances and the reactions they undergo.

This lesson outlines some basic chemical principles and emphasizes their relationship to humans.

After exploring the entire lesson, you should be able to:

1. Recall the fundamental composition of matter, types of chemical bonding and chemical reactions, and the
importance of inorganic compounds that contribute to life;
2. Identify the major classes of organic compounds in the human body; and
3. Compare and contrast the four important classes of organic compounds according to their composition and
functional importance to human life.

JEOPARDY-CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

What am I? Living Things

Protoplasm - living part of the cell Multicellular - An Organism made of many cells
Mitochondria- produce the energy for the cell’s activities. Development - The process in which all Living things
Chloroplasts - use energy from the sun to make food for a become more complex
plant cell. Metabolism - The chemical reactions that occur in a
Cell Wall - give a plant cell its rigid, square shape. Living Thing
Evolution - A process by which organisms change over
time
Chemistry of Life
Carbohydrate - Biomolecules that are sources of energy

Proteins - For growth and repair of tissues

hormones - These are substances/ molecules that have roles in the normal functioning of the body

DNA - The most important macromolecule because it carries the hereditary information

More Cell Parts

Organelle - The scientific term for “cell parts” Lysosomes - The cell part that breaks down old used cell parts
ER - The cell part that transports materials throughout Ribosomes - Rough ER is covered by these protein factories
the cell
Chemistry and Anatomy

Enzymes - Substances that speed up certain chemical reactions without being consumed

Water - the most abundant compound in living material and accounts for 2/3 of our weight and transports chemicals
throughout the body

Proteins - Macromolecules that serve as structural materials, energy sources, hormones, cell surface receptors,
antibodies, and enzymes.

C, H, O, N - the four elements that make up so much of our body

The DNA double helix looks like a twisted ladder. What makes up each rung of the ladder? What holds the rungs
together at the sides? In DNA, the "rungs" between the two strands of DNA are formed from the nitrogenous
bases adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. The molecules are joined together by hydrogen bonds. The DNA
backbone is composed of Phosphate and sugar (deoxyribose)

MODULE 1 - LESSON 2: TRANSPORT MECHANISMS ACROSS

PLASMA MEMBRANES

Despite differences in structure and function, all living cells in multicellular organisms have a surrounding cell
membrane. As the outer layer of your skin separates your body from its environment, the cell membrane (also known as
the plasma membrane) separates the inner contents of a cell from its exterior environment. This cell membrane
provides a protective barrier around the cell and regulates which materials can pass in or out.

One of the great wonders of the cell membrane is its ability to regulate the concentration of substances inside the cell.
Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that they allow some substances, but not others, to pass in and out
of the cells. Intracellular material has a different composition than extracellular material, and the cell's survival depends
on maintaining the differences. Substances such as Ca++, Na+, K+, and Cl–; nutrients including sugars, fatty acids, and
amino acid must enter cells continually, while, waste products, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), must leave the cell.
Because of the permeability characteristics of cell membranes and their ability to transport certain molecules, cells are
able to maintain proper intracellular concentration of molecules. Rupture of the membrane, alteration of the
permeability characteristics, or inhibition of transport processes can disrupt the normal intracellular concentration of
molecules and may lead to cell death.

Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active. Passive membrane transport does not require the cell
to expend energy. Active membrane transport requires the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.

This lesson covers the specific types of movements across the cell membranes.

Objectives:

After exploring the entire lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the molecular components that make up the fluid mosaic membrane;
2. Relate structures of the cell membrane to its functions;
3. Describe how molecules cross the plasma membrane based on their properties and concentration gradient;
4. Compare and contrast different types of transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane, providing examples of
each.
MODULE 1 - LESSON 3: TISSUE, TISSUE INFLAMMATION,
DAMAGE AND REPAIR
Tissues of all types are vulnerable to injury and, inevitably, aging. In the former case, understanding how tissues respond
to damage can guide strategies to aid repair. In the latter case, understanding the impact of aging can help in the search
for ways to diminish its effects.

Objectives:

After exploring the entire lesson, you should be able to:

1. Describe the general makeup of a tissue;

2. Identify the cardinal signs of inflammation;
3. Create a flowchart to show the process of inflammation in response to tissue damage.
4. List the body’s response to tissue injury;
5. Explain the process of tissue repair

Tissue Injury and Aging

Learning Objectives: Describe the process of tissue response to injury.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Identify the cardinal signs of inflammation

2. List the body’s response to tissue injury
3. Explain the process of tissue repair
4. Discuss the progressive impact of aging on tissue
5. Describe cancerous mutations’ effect on tissue

Tissues of all types are vulnerable to injury and, inevitably, aging. In the former case, understanding how tissues respond
to damage can guide strategies to aid repair. In the latter case, understanding the impact of aging can help in the search
for ways to diminish its effects.

Tissue Injury and Repair

Inflammation is the standard, initial response of the body to injury. Whether biological, chemical, physical, or radiation
burns, all injuries lead to the same sequence of physiological events. Inflammation limits the extent of injury, partially or
fully eliminates the cause of injury, and initiates repair and regeneration of damaged tissue. Necrosis, or accidental cell
death, causes inflammation. Apoptosis is programmed cell death, a normal step-by-step process that destroys cells no
longer needed by the body. By mechanisms still under investigation, apoptosis does not initiate the inflammatory
response. Acute inflammation resolves over time by the healing of tissue. If inflammation persists, it becomes chronic
and leads to diseased conditions. Arthritis and tuberculosis are examples of chronic inflammation. The suffix “-itis”
denotes inflammation of a specific organ or type. For example, peritonitis is the inflammation of the peritoneum, and
meningitis refers to the inflammation of the meninges, the tough membranes that surround the central nervous system.

The four cardinal signs of inflammation—redness (at least for people with light colored skin), swelling, pain, and local
heat—were first recorded in antiquity. Cornelius Celsus is credited with documenting these signs during the days of the
Roman Empire, as early as the first century AD. A fifth sign, loss of function, may also accompany inflammation.

Upon tissue injury, damaged cells release inflammatory chemical signals that evoke local vasodilation, the widening of
the blood vessels. Increased blood flow can change the color of the integument and result in a localized temperature
increase. In response to injury, mast cells present in tissue degranulate, releasing the potent vasodilator histamine.
Increased blood flow and inflammatory mediators recruit white blood cells to the site of inflammation. The endothelium
lining the local blood vessel becomes “leaky” under the influence of histamine and other inflammatory mediators
allowing neutrophils, macrophages, and fluid to move from the blood into the interstitial tissue spaces. The excess liquid
in tissue causes swelling, properly called edema. The swollen tissues stimulate mechanical receptors, which can cause
the perception of pain. Prostaglandins released from injured cells also activate pain pathways. Non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) reduce perceived pain because they inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins. High levels of
NSAIDs reduce inflammation. Antihistamines decrease allergies by blocking histamine receptors and as a result, the
histamine response.

After containment of an injury, the tissue repair phase starts with removal of toxins and waste products. Clotting
(coagulation) reduces blood loss from damaged blood vessels and forms a network of fibrin proteins that trap blood cells
and bind the edges of the wound together. A scab forms when the clot dries, reducing the risk of infection. Sometimes a
mixture of dead leukocytes and fluid called pus accumulates in the wound. As healing progresses, fibroblasts from the
surrounding connective tissues replace the collagen and extracellular material lost by the injury. Angiogenesis, the
growth of new blood vessels, results in vascularization of the new tissue known as granulation tissue. The clot retracts
pulling the edges of the wound together, and it slowly dissolves as the tissue is repaired. When a large amount of
granulation tissue forms and capillaries disappear, a pale scar is often visible in the healed area. A primary union
describes the healing of a wound where the edges are close together. When there is a gaping wound, it takes longer to
refill the area with cells and collagen. The process called secondary union occurs as the edges of the wound are pulled
together by what is called wound contraction. When a wound is more than one quarter of an inch deep, sutures
(stitches) are recommended to promote a primary union and avoid the formation of a disfiguring scar. Regeneration is
the addition of new cells of the same type as the ones that were injured (Figure 4.6.1 – Tissue Healing).

Tissue and Aging

According to poet Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The surest poison is time.” In fact, biology confirms that many functions of
the body decline with age. All the cells, tissues, and organs are affected by senescence, with noticeable variability
between individuals owing to different genetic makeup and lifestyles. The outward signs of aging are easily recognizable.
The skin and other tissues become thinner and drier, reducing their elasticity, contributing to wrinkles and high blood
pressure. Hair turns gray because follicles produce less melanin, the brown pigment of hair and the iris of the eye. The
face looks flabby because elastic and collagen fibers decrease in connective tissue and muscle tone is lost. Glasses and
hearing aids may become parts of life as the senses slowly deteriorate, all due to reduced elasticity. Overall height
decreases as the bones lose calcium and other minerals. With age, fluid decreases in the fibrous cartilage disks
intercalated between the vertebrae in the spine. Joints lose cartilage and stiffen. Many tissues, including those in
muscles, lose mass through a process called atrophy. Lumps and rigidity become more widespread. As a consequence,
the passageways, blood vessels, and airways become more rigid. The brain and spinal cord lose mass. Nerves do not
transmit impulses with the same speed and frequency as in the past. Some loss of thought, clarity, and memory can
accompany aging. More severe problems are not necessarily associated with the aging process and may be symptoms of
an underlying illness.

As exterior signs of aging increase, so do the interior signs, which are not as noticeable. The incidence of heart diseases,
respiratory syndromes, and type 2 diabetes increases with age, though these are not necessarily age-dependent effects.
Wound healing is slower in the elderly, accompanied by a higher frequency of infection as the capacity of the immune
system to fend off pathogens declines.

Aging is also apparent at the cellular level because all cells experience changes with aging. Telomeres, regions of the
chromosomes necessary for cell division, shorten each time cells divide. As they do, cells are less able to divide and
regenerate. Because of alterations in cell membranes, transport of oxygen and nutrients into the cell and removal of
carbon dioxide and waste products from the cell are not as efficient in the elderly. Cells may begin to function
abnormally, which may lead to diseases associated with aging, including arthritis, memory issues, and some cancers.
The progressive impact of aging on the body varies considerably among individuals. However, studies indicate that
exercise and healthy lifestyle choices can slow down the deterioration of the body that comes with old age.

Homeostatic Imbalances: Tissues and Cancer

Cancer is a generic term for many diseases in which cells escape regulatory signals. Uncontrolled growth, invasion into
adjacent tissues, and colonization of other organs, if not treated early enough, are its hallmarks. Health suffers when
tumors “rob” blood supply from the “normal” organs.

A mutation is defined as a permanent change in the DNA of a cell. Epigenetic modifications, changes that do not affect
the code of the DNA but alter how the DNA is decoded, are also known to generate abnormal cells. Alterations in the
genetic material may be caused by environmental agents, infectious agents, or errors in the replication of DNA that
accumulate with age. Many mutations do not cause any noticeable change in the functions of a cell, however, if the
modification affects key proteins that have an impact on the cell’s ability to proliferate in an orderly fashion, the cell
starts to divide abnormally. As changes in cells accumulate, they lose their ability to form regular tissues. A tumor, a
mass of cells displaying abnormal architecture, forms in the tissue. Many tumors are benign, meaning they do not
metastasize nor cause disease. A tumor becomes malignant, or cancerous, when it breaches the confines of its tissue,
promotes angiogenesis, attracts the growth of capillaries, and metastasizes to other organs (Figure 4.6.2 Development
of Cancer). The specific names of cancers reflect the tissue of origin. Cancers derived from epithelial cells are referred to
as carcinomas. Cancer in myeloid tissue or blood cells form myelomas. Leukemias are cancers of white blood cells,
whereas sarcomas derive from connective tissue. Cells in tumors differ both in structure and function. Some cells, called
cancer stem cells, appear to be a subtype of cell responsible for uncontrolled growth. Recent research shows that
contrary to what was previously assumed, tumors are not disorganized masses of cells, but have their own structures.

Cancer treatments vary depending on the disease’s type and stage. Traditional approaches, including surgery, radiation,
chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy. The aim is to remove or kill rapidly dividing cancer cells, but these strategies have
their limitations. Depending on a tumor’s location, for example, cancer surgeons may be unable to remove it. Radiation
and chemotherapy are difficult, and it is often impossible to target only the cancer cells. The treatments inevitably
destroy healthy tissue as well. To address this, researchers are working on pharmaceuticals that can target specific
proteins implicated in cancer-associated molecular pathways.

Chapter Review

Inflammation is the classic response of the body to injury and follows a common sequence of events. The area is red,
feels warm to the touch, swells, and is painful. Injured cells, mast cells, and resident macrophages release chemical
signals that cause vasodilation and fluid leakage in the surrounding tissue. The repair phase includes blood clotting,
followed by regeneration of tissue as fibroblasts deposit collagen. Some tissues regenerate more readily than others.
Epithelial and connective tissues replace damaged or dead cells from a supply of adult stem cells. Muscle and nervous
tissues undergo either slow regeneration or do not repair at all.

Age affects all the tissues and organs of the body. Damaged cells do not regenerate as rapidly as in younger people.
Perception of sensation and effectiveness of response are lost in the nervous system. Muscles atrophy, and bones lose
mass and become brittle. Collagen decreases in some connective tissue, and joints stiffen.
MODULE 1 - LESSON 4: HOMEOSTASIS

ONE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF LIFE IS HOMEOSTASIS.

The term "homeostasis" was coined in 1930 by the physician Walter Cannon, which means from the Greek words for
"same" and "steady”. It refers to any process that living things use to actively maintain fairly stable conditions necessary
for survival. Homeostasis is the mechanism by how our body maintains the internal environment within limits and
return critical systems of the body to a set point within a narrow range of operation that allow us to survive.

Homeostasis is maintained at many levels, not just the level of the whole body as it is for temperature. Though certain
physiological systems operate within frequently larger ranges, certain body parameters are tightly controlled
homeostatically. For example, body temperature and blood pressure are controlled within a very narrow range. In
addition, the stomach maintains a pH that's different from that of surrounding organs, and each individual cell maintains
ion concentrations different from those of the surrounding fluid. Maintaining homeostasis at each level is key to
maintaining the body's overall function.
Objectives: After exploring the entire lesson, you should be able to:

1. List the components of a homeostatically controlled system

2. Discuss the role of homeostasis in the human body
3. Contrast negative and positive feedback, giving one physiologic example of each mechanism

MODULE 1 - LESSON 5: INTRODUCTION TO ORGAN

SYSTEMS

"THE HUMAN BODY IS THE MOST COMPLEX SYSTEM EVER CREATED. THE MORE WE LEARN ABOUT IT, THE MORE
APPRECIATION WE HAVE ABOUT A RICH SYSTEM IT IS." - Bill Gates

Life processes of the human body are maintained at several levels of structural organization. The levels of biological
organization are the hierarchy of living organisms from simplest to most complex: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ
system, and the organism level. Consequently, higher levels of organization built from levels are population,
communities, ecosystems, and finally, the biosphere.

After organelles and macromolecules, cells are the most basic part of the human body, and they are the foundation of
structure and function in the body. Every person has around 100 trillion cells, by the time that they grow into adulthood.
Every cell will carry out a special function that allows the body to survive, but they won’t all carry out the same function.
Cells are specialized in function and in their form, with the different types of cells carrying out different roles.

Cells that work together and form multicellular groups to carry out specific tasks are referred to as tissues, and the
human body is made up of four different types of tissue.

The term organ is used to refer to two or more types of tissue that work together to carry out a particular function. The
human body contains five organs that are considered vital for survival. They are the heart, brain, kidneys, liver, and
lungs. If any of the five vital organs stops functioning, the death of the organism is imminent without medical
intervention.

Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems. There are 11 major organ systems in the
human body. All of these systems together make up the entire organism. Our bodies are made up of complex systems
that go all the way down to the atomic level. While it is difficult to draw lines that perfectly separate the components of
the body into discrete categories, it is necessary for our ability to discuss and research the anatomy and physiology of
the human body.

Organ System Function Organs, tissues, and structures

involved
Integumentary Provides protection from injury Skin, hair, and nails
and fluid loss and provides
physical defense against
infection by microorganisms;
involved in temperature control
Skeletal Supports and protects soft Bones, cartilage, joints,
tissues of the body; provides tendons, and ligaments
movement at joints; produces
blood cells; and stores minerals
Muscular Provides movement, support, Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
and heat production muscles
Nervous Collects, transfers, and Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
processes information and sensory organs—eyes, ears,
directs short-term change in tongue, skin, and nose
other organ systems
Endocrine Provides communication within Pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
the body via hormones and parathyroids, endocrine
directs long-term change in pancreas, adrenals, testes, and
other organ systems to ovaries.
maintain homeostasis
Cardiovascular Transports oxygen, nutrients, Heart, blood, and blood vessels
and other substances to the
cells and transports wastes,
carbon dioxide, and other
substances away from the cells;
it can also help stabilize body
temperature and pH
Lymphatic Defends against infection and Lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph
disease and transfers lymph vessels; Leukocytes, tonsils,
between tissues and the blood adenoids, thymus, and spleen
stream; Defends against
microbial pathogens—disease-
causing agents—and other
diseases
Digestive Processes foods and absorbs Mouth, salivary glands,
nutrients, minerals, vitamins, esophagus, stomach, liver,
and water gallbladder, exocrine pancreas,
small intestine, and large
intestine
Respiratory Delivers air to sites where gas Mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx,
exchange can occur trachea, bronchi, lungs, and
diaphragm
Urinary Removes excess water, salts, Kidneys, ureters, urinary
and waste products from the bladder, and urethra
blood and body and controls pH
Reproductive Produces gametes—sex cells— Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
and sex hormones; ultimately ovaries, mammary glands
 produces offspring (female), testes, vas deferens,
seminal vesicles, prostate, and
penis (male)

MODULE 2 - INTRODUCTION
The skeletal system includes all the bones and joints in the body. An adult body is made up of 206 individual bones.
These bones are arranged into two major divisions: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The area where
two or more bones meet is the joint. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers,
and minerals. Living bone cells are found on the edges of bones and in small cavities inside of the bone matrix. Although
these cells make up very little of the total bone mass, they have several very important roles in the functions of the
skeletal system. The bone cells allow bones to: grow and develop, be repaired following an injury or daily wear and be
broken down to release their stored minerals.

As you explore this module, you will discover how bones work, change during life, what keeps bones healthy and the
important role played by the joints in your body. Furthermore, this will help you to become familiar and be able to
identify some of the pathological conditions related to bones and joints.
OBJECTIVES:

After exploring this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain the functions of the skeletal system;

2. Analyze the process of bone ossification, growth, remodeling and repair;
3. Discuss the role of bone in calcium homeostasis;
4. Classify various types of joints;
5. Demonstrate joint movement; and
6. Identify some bone and joint disorders.

MODULE 2 - LESSON 1: FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM
The skeletal system is made up of bones, cartilages, ligaments and other tissues that perform essential
functions for the human body. Together they perform the following vital functions:

Functions
1. Support
 Rigid strong bones – for bearing weight and is the major supporting tissue of the body.
 Cartilage – provides a firm yet flexible support within certain structures (ex. nose and external
ears).
 Ligaments – are strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that attach to bone and hold them
together.
2. Protection
 The hardness of the bone contributes to its ability to protect the vital organs of the body from
injury (ex.cranial bones protect the brain).
3. Movement
 Skeletal muscles attach to bones by tendons. When muscles contract, they pull on bones and
together they produce movement.
4. Storage
 Fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones.
 Stores several minerals especially calcium and phosphorus.
  Important in maintaining homeostasis of minerals in the blood with minerals stored in the bone are
released in response to body’s demand.
5. Blood cell production (hematopoiesis)
 Many bones contain cavities filled with bone marrow that gives rise to blood cells and platelets.
OSTEOLOGY - The study of bone structure and treatment of bone disorder.
BONE OSSIFICATION (OSTEOGENESIS) - It refers to the formation of bone by osteoblast.
 Two Types:
Intramembranous Ossification
 A process of bone development from fibrous membrane.
 It is involved in the formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible and clavicles.

Endochondral Ossification
 A process of bone development from hyaline cartilage.
 All of the bones of the body, except for the flat bones of the skull, mandible and clavicles are
formed through endochondral ossification

Bone Growth occur by:

Appositional Growth
 It refers to the formation of new bone on the surface of existing bone.
 Appositional growth results as osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of bones
between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix.
 Responsible for the increase in width or diameter of long bones and most growth of other
bones.

Endochondral Growth
 It refers to the growth of cartilage in the epiphyseal plate and its eventual replacement by
bone.
 Responsible for the increase in the length of the bone.
 Bones continue to grow in length until early childhood, the rate of growth is controlled by
hormones.

Bone Remodeling
 It involves the removal of old bone by cells called osteoclast and the deposition of new bone by
osteoblast.
 It occurs in all bone.
 Remodeling is responsible for:
1. Bone growth 2. Changes in bone shape 3. Adjustment of bone to stress
4. Bone repair 5. Calcium ion regulation
 Consists of three consecutive phases:
1. Resorption – during which osteoclasts digest old bone.
2. Reversal – when mononuclear cells appear on the bone surface.
3. Formation – when osteoblasts lay down new bone until the resorbed bone is completely replaced.
Bone Repair (Healing)
 A process in which a bone repairs itself following a bone fracture.
 When a bone is broken, a clot forms in the damaged area.
 Callus forms, the zone of tissue repair between the two bone fragments.
 Osteoblasts enter the callus and form cancellous bone.
 The cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact bone and the repair is complete.

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

 Bone serves as the major storage site for calcium.
 The movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood calcium levels.
 Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone.
 Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone.
 Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.

Bone and Joint Disorders

ACHONDROPLASIA
 A form of short-limbed dwarfism.
 Achondroplasia literally means “without cartilage formation”.
 In achondroplasia the problem is not in forming cartilage but in converting it to bone.

OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
 Also known as brittle bone disease.
 A genetic disorder that results from a lack of protein collagen producing very brittle bones that
are easily fractured.

RICKETS
 Bones of children are inadequately mineralized causing softened, weakened bones.
 Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are common.
 Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet, or by vitamin D deficiency.

OSTEOMALACIA
 Bones are inadequately mineralized causing softened, weakened bones.
 Main symptom is pain when weight is put on the affected bone.
 Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet, or by vitamin D deficiency.

OSTEOMYELITIS
 Infection in bone caused by Staphylococcus bacteria.
 The bacteria can enter a bone by: the bloodstream, injuries and surgery.

OSTEOPOROSIS
 Group of diseases in which bone reabsorption outpaces bone deposit.
 Spongy bone of the spine is most vulnerable.
  Occurs most often in postmenopausal women.
 Bones become so fragile that sneezing or stepping off a curb can cause fractures.

SCOLIOSIS
 Lateral curvature of the central part of the spine.
 The condition is brought on by:
1. congenitally malformed vertebra
2. chronic sciatica
3. paralysis of muscles on one side of the backbone
4. poor posture
ARTHRITIS
 It literally means “joint inflammation”; however, some forms could affect the skin and internal
organs.
 It is marked by pain, stiffness and swelling of the affected joint.
 It may include one or several joints.

OSTEOARTHRITIS
 Commonly known as “wear and tear” arthritis
 A degenerative joint disease in which the cartilage that covers the ends of the bones in the joint
deteriorates.
 Symptoms include: pain, restriction of movement, formation of hard nobs.
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
 An active chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease affecting synovial membrane.
GOUTY ARTHRITIS
 A disease associated with an inborn error of uric acid metabolism.
BURSITIS
 An acute or chronic inflammation of the bursa (a small sac filled with fluid and located at
friction points).
Fracture
 It refers to a break in a bone.
 Common types of fractures include simple, compound, compression, comminuted and
greenstick

MODULE 2 - LESSON 2: BONE OSSIFICATION, BONE GROWTH

AND BONE REMODELING
The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often used synonymously to indicate the process of bone formation. Parts
of the skeleton form during the first few weeks after conception. By the end of the eighth week after conception, the
skeletal pattern is formed in cartilage and connective tissue membranes and ossification begins. Bone development
continues throughout adulthood. Even after adult stature is attained, bone development continues for repair of
fractures and for remodeling to meet changing lifestyles.
MODULE 2 - LESSON 3: BONE REPAIR AND CALCIUM
HOMEOSTASIS
Despite their remarkable strength, bones are susceptible to fractures. A fracture, also known as broken bone is a
condition that changes the contour of the bone. Bone repair is the natural process in which a bone repairs itself
following a bone fracture. There are four stages in the repair of broken bone: the formation of hematoma at the break,
the formation of fibrocartilaginous callus, the formation of bony callus and remodeling.

Bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body, and movement of calcium into and out of bone helps to
determine blood calcium levels, which is critical for normal muscle and nervous system function.

MODULE 2 - LESSON 4: OVERVIEW OF THE ARTICULAR

SYSTEM
In the previous discussion, you have learned that bones facilitate body movements or locomotion. However, in order for
locomotion to occur, it is important that these bones are able to articulate with each other.

An articulation, or joint is defined as the physical point of connection between two bones. It holds bones together,
allows movement and makes bone growth possible. The science that deals with the study of joints is known as
Arthrology.

MODULE 2 - LESSON 4.1: CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

Joints can be classified in two ways: functionally and structurally. Functional classification focuses on the degree of
motion at each joint and it includes: synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis and diarthrosis. Structural classification is based on the
major connective tissue type that binds the bones together and whether there is a fluid filled joint capsule. The three
major structural classes of joints are: fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints and synovial joints.

ARTICULAR SYSTEM
Articulation or Joint - It is defined as the physical connection between two bones.
FUNCTIONS:
 It holds bones together.
 It allows movement.
 It makes bone growth possible.
ARTHROLOGY - The science that deals with the study of joints.
Classification of Joints
Functional Classification
 Focuses on the degree of motion at each joint.
 It Includes:
1. Synarthrosis – immovable joint (ex, skull)
2. Amphiarthrosis – slightly movable joint (ex. between vertebrae)
3. Diarthrosis – freely movable joint (ex. knee, elbow, wrist)
Structural Classification
  Based on the major connective tissue type that binds the bones together and whether there is a
fluid filled joint capsule.

Three Major Structural Classes of Joints

A. Fibrous Joints
 The bones are united by fibrous connective tissue.
 They allow little or no movement.
 Based on structure, joints in this group are further classified into:

1. Sutures
 These are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.
 They are immovable due to interlocking junctions between the bones and short numerous
connective fibers.
 Ex. coronal suture between frontal and parietal bones
2. Syndesmoses
 These are fibrous joints where the bones are separated by some distance and are held together by
ligaments.
 Ex. interosseous membrane between radius and ulna
3. Gomphoses
 Consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in place by ligaments.
 Ex. the joint between a tooth and its socket
B. Cartilaginous Joints
 Unite two bones by means of cartilage.
 Two types of cartilaginous joints:
1. Synchondrosis
 Bones are joined together by hyaline cartilage.
 Ex. costal cartilage connection between a rib and the sternum
2. Symphysis
 Bones are joined together by fibrocartilage.
Ex. pubic symphysis and the joints between the bodies of vertebrae.
C. Synovial Joints
 They are commonly referred to as freely movable joints, however their flexibility does vary.
 All synovial joints have certain characteristics in common.
Types of Synovial Joints
*The classification is according to the shape of the adjoining articular surfaces.
 1. Plane or Gliding Joints
 Consists of two opposed flat surfaces that glide over each other.
 Ex. between two carpal bones, articular processes between vertebra.
2. Saddle Joints
 Consists of two saddle – shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angles to one another.
 Allow movement in two planes.
 Ex. base of the thumb, trapezium of the wrist.
3. Hinge Joints
 Consists of a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a corresponding concavity of the other bone.
 Permit movement in one plane.
 Ex. elbow and knee joints.
4. Pivot Joints
 Consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone.
 Restrict movement to rotation around a single axis.
 Ex. joint between the atlas and axis, joint at proximal ends of radius and ulna.
5. Ball and Socket Joints
 Consist of a ball at the end of one bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into which a portion of
the ball fits.
 Allows a wide range of movement in any direction.
 Ex. shoulder and hip joints.
6. Ellipsoid or Condyloid
 A modified ball and socket joint in which the joint surfaces are elongated.
 The shape of the joint limits its range of movement nearly to a hinge motion, but in two planes.
 Ex. joint between the occipital condyles of the skull, atlas of the vertebral column.

MODULE 2 - LESSON 4.2: TYPES OF MOVEMENT

The types of movement occurring at a given joint are related to the structure of that joint. Some joints are limited to
only one type of movement, whereas others permit movement in several directions.

What are the types of movement permitted by the joints? To answer this question and to demonstrate this movements
please watch the video.

Flexion means bending a joint, decreases the angle Retraction means moving parts backward, just like the
Extension is the opposite, too much, hyperextension chin
Abduction means moving parts away from the midline Protraction's the opposite, thrust chin forward.
Adduction's the opposite, move toward middle Dorsiflexion means flexing the foot at the ankle
Pronation means moving hand so the palm is downward Plantar Flexion's opposite, bend foot downward
Supination's opposite, palm goes upward Rotations moves parts around an axis, say no no
Eversion means moving foot so the sole is outward Circumduction's waving arms, circular motion.
Inversion's the opposite, sole is inward
MODULE 2 - LESSON 5: BONE AND JOINT DISORDERS

Please refer to the skeletal system PowerPoint for the discussion of some pathological conditions related to bones and
joints.

If you want to further enrich your knowledge regarding some of the diseases mentioned in the discussion, you may also
visit this link.