Grammar: Conjunctions/Punctuation

COtiJUtiCTIOtiS

There are three main ways of putting clauses or sentences together: cO<)rdination, subordination and adverbial links:
You can co-ordinate or subordinate clauses by using conjunctions.
Conjunctions are used to join clauses into sentences and show how their meanings are related. There are two types of
conjunctions: a) cO<)rdinating conjunctions, which join parts of a sentence that are equivalent and
b) subordinating conjunctions, which join a subordinate clause to a main clause.
She put on her coat and left. You can leave if you want.
main clause conjunction main clause main clause conjunction subordinate clause
We can use simple co-ordinating, simple and compound subordinating conjunctions (but/as, even i~ and correlative
conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions consist of two linking words separated by one or more words (both ...
and/as/so ... as).

• Co-ordinating Conjunctions

"i!:,j.]rl·jm'uej[H___ ~MH''iI·jm'!Mj[.l'f ___ usage

r-- and
I like apples and adore apple-pies.
r- both ... and
not only ... but (also) addition
He was both handsome and rich.

but not ... but

I saw John but I didn't see Sam. It's not navy blue but black contrast

or either ... or (else)

Are you English or American? Either stop talking or (else) leave the room. a/ternative(s)

nor neither ... nor

I can't help you, nor do I wish to help. He is neither kind nor sympathetic. negative addition

Note
The comma is optional before a co-ordinating conjunction. However, we never put a comma when part of the first
sentence is omitted in the second.
Do you want tea {,} or would you like some coffee? You can either have a Coke or a lemonade.

• Subordinating Conjunctions

,..MiH$)W',+l.iIMII·I,t__ usage
as, than, like as/so ... as
as if, as though He is as naughty as a monkey. comparison
He acts as if he were the boss.

(al)though, while, whereas, despite, although ... yet/nevertheless contrast

even if, even though, in spite of,
in contrast to, contrary to He's not running for President, yeti
nevertheless he's willing to help in the
We're friends even though we've got campaign.
little in common.

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correlative coniundions usage

if, unless, given (that), so long as,

provided/providing (that), as long as, if ... then condition
in case, supposing (that), otherwise
(negative condition) If it's sunny, then we'll go swimming.
We're going on an excursion unless it
starts raining.
but, except (for), apart from, despite, exception
in spite of
Everyone came except (for) John.
as far as, so far that extent
The land belongs to us as far as the
eye can see.
We drove so far that we ran out of
petrol.
where, wherever place
Wherever he goes, he causes trouble.
rather / sooner than preference
Rather than help, he prefers to hinder.
so as to, so that, in order that, the ... the as ... so proportion
now (that), seeing that, why, for, etc The more noise you make, the more purpose
annoyed I get. As he got older, so his
performance failed.

as, because, since, on the grounds reason

of/that, now (tha~, seeing (tha~, why,
for, etc
I don't know why he was late. The
knight refused to kill his enemy, for
they had been friends.

so/such ... that result

It was such a difficult task that nobody
managed it.

if, whether whether ... or indirect question, alternative condition

Terry asked Sue whether/if she could I'm going home now whether you like
come to the party. it or not.

whenever, as, while, now (that), no sooner ... than, time

when, before, until, as soon as, after, hardly/barely ... when
since, once, the moment (that)/
immediately etc
I cry whenever I watch a sad film. The No sooner had she stepped into her
boby cried until he was blue in the flat than she fainted.
face. Hardly had she finished cooking
when the electricity was cut.

what, who, whom, whose, which, that relative

This is the man whose daughter is a
famous singer.
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Note:
A comma is placed between a subordinate clause and a main clause, when the subordinate clause is at the
beginning, or both clauses are rather long or complicated.
If the weather improves, we can go to the beach. but: We can go to the beach if the weather improves.

• Adverbial links

Adverbial links are adverbs which are used to join two or more clauses or whole sentences which themselves contain
co-ordinate or subordinate clauses.

besides, also, furthermore, above all, what is more, in addition, moreover, anyway, on top of
that, and then
I don't feel well enough to go shopping today. Besides, I don't have any money.
I am working long hours this week. On top of that, the au-pair girl has asked for a few days' leave.
I'm afraid I can't afford the luxury of a winter holiday. And then, there's the semester exams.

therefore, so, consequen~y, hence, thus, as a result, in consequence result

Oil resources are decreasing. Therefore, we need to find alternative sources of energy.

however, though, (and), yet, still, nevertheless, after all, even so, all the same, in contrast, contrast
instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, whereas/while
She's an intelligent student. However, she talks too much in class.
Delius is a famous composer. Mozart is more famous, though.
It was snowing. Nevertheless, the match went on as planned.
He never read a book. Instead, he went fishing and hunting.
They are very wealthy. Even so/All the same, they lead a modest life.

namely, in other words, for instance/example, that is (to say) exemplification

He would never consent to that, namely, he wouldn't approve of that marriage.

otherwise, alternatively alternatives

If you pay in cash you are entitled to a discount. Alternatively, you buy on credit at a low interest rate.

Note:
Adverbial links are separated from the rest of the sentence with commas.
He didn't want to go. However, he eventually did.

( COttUERSAnOttAL GRAMMAR)

1 Choose the correct item.

o "I hope you didn't go out in the hot sun." 2 "Can you come away with me for the weekend?"
"We waited ......... the sun had gone down, before "I can't as I'm decorating the kitchen .......... , my
we went for a walk./I mother is ill."
A that countil A Even so C All the same
B to D for B On top of that D After all
"Tell me about France; did you like it?/I 3 ............ reading the question carefully, Gary started
"Actually, we didn't go. We went to Italy .......... " writing.
A still C in contrast A After C Until
B on the other hand D instead B While D Since

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.4 "I hope you have enough money to take a cab 13 "Peter's amazing."
home." "1 know.......... he had a broken foot, he managed
"I took some extra money ......... I needed it." to walk 10 miles."
A even if C unless A Despite C Even though
B in case D so that B Whereas D Yet
5 "Jane is really conscientious, isn't she?"
"Absolutely.......... , she is very efficient."
A What is more C So
2 Complete the second sentence so that it has a
B All the same D Still
similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word
given. Do not change the word given. You must use
6 "Is Leona feeling alright?" between three and eight words, including the word
"Yes, but she had been feeling sick for over a week given .
......... she finally called a doctor."
A after C once The car has been voted Car of the Year. Its engine
B before D wh ile. has been modified.
7 "What do you think of the Jeffersons?" of
" ......... they appeared reserved at first, they are The car, .......................................................... .
very sociable." ........................ , has been voted Car of the Year.
A However C Although 2 Everyone abandoned the building. Shortly afterwards
B Despite D On the other hand we saw smoke billowing out of the upper floor
windows.
8 "What happened to the plane?"
evacuated
"It had hardly touched down ......... it burst into
Shortly ........................................................... .
flames."
................................................. we saw smoke
A when ethan
billowing out of the upper floor windows.
B that D sooner
3 It's rather unreasonable punishing Daniel for losing
9 "Peter speaks French very well." his key as he's only a child.
" ......... speaking French, he speaks German and hardly
Spanish." You ................................................................ .
A Furthermore C Nevertheless .......................................... as he's only a child.
B Instead of D As well as .4 The reason why I was given promotion was that
10 "Why are you so nervous about this exam?" Laurence recommended me.
"Because I need to get a high score .......... , I will have but
to resit for it." I wouldn't ....................................................... .
A On top of that C All the same ................................................. from Laurence.
B Otherwise D Besides 5 You have to be more co-operative! Your colleagues
won't respect you.
11 "Did the minister approve the building plans?"
"Not really. He turned them down ......... that the costs esteem
You will not be held ......................................... .
were too high."
A on the grounds C in case
................................ become more co-operative.
B provided D supposing
6 At the moment I only have time to think about my
12 "Did you arrive at the station on time?" university thesis.
"No, I missed the 5 o'clock train, ......... , there was
preoccupied
another one after 5 minutes."
At the moment ................................................. .
A despite C however
.......................................... my university thesis.
B besides D also

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PUHCTUATIOH

• to indicate the end of a grammatically complete sentence

He usually finishes work at 7 o'clock.
• in direct speech, to indicate the end of a spoken sentence
He said, "/'11 probably be late home tonight. "
But: If a reporting expression follows a direct speech, we usually put a comma.
I'll try again," he said.
II

Note
In modern British English, abbreviations tend to be written without full stops. Mr, Ltd, kg, MA, USA

• at the end of a direct question

What's the time?
• at the end of question tags
You've finished, haven't you?
Note
We do not use question marks after indirect questions.
He asked what time it was.

at the end of an exclamatory sentence, to emphasise surprise, horror or delight

I can hardly believe itl

• . to separate items in a list of nouns, adjectives or adverbs

She answered the question carefully, thoughtfully, accurately and appropriately.
• to separate main clauses which describe consecutive actions
He stormed out of the room, slammed the door behind him and left the class speechless.
• after a subordinate clause which precedes the main clause
When we first arrived in this country, we found many things strange and intimidating.
If we see him, we'll tell him what you said.
But: We'll tell him what you said if we see him.
• before and after a non-defining relative clause
This grammar book, which was published last year, is one of the best I've ever used.
But: The book that / borrowed from the college library is overdue.
• to separate an introductory word or phrase from the main part of the sentence
To be honest, we're not sure yet of the possible results.
• after "Yes" or "No" at the beginning of a sentence
No, I don't know where your glasses are.
• before or after introductory verbs in direct speech
"I've got a lot of work to do", she said, "so I'd better go home now".
The girl said, "/ seem to have lost my purse".
• before question tags
You will give me a lift, won't you?
• to keep the word order in a sentence when expressions or words interrupt its normal progression
The distance learning University, believe it or not, has issued many fake certificates.

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• before words or phrases which refer back to the statement preceding the colon and give more information about
the statement (which makes complete sense on its own)
The treatment was a complete success: all traces of the disease were eradicated.
Also: a semi-colon or a full stop can be used here, instead of a colon.
• to introduce a list of items (which might be complete sentences in themselves)
If you go trekking in these regions, the following items are essential: a torch, a first-aid kit and a compass.
Deposits on hired cars will be kept by the company in the following circumstances: when the car is damaged in
any way, when it is returned late or when the tank has not been refilled. .
• to introduce a quotation
Whenever I go through Customs at an airport, I am always tempted to repeat Oscar Wilde's classic comment: "I
have nothing to declare except my genius."
• when direct speech is introduced by a name or short phrase (as in the text of a play)
Here's a line from Shakespeare's "Othello": "one that loved not wisely, but too well ... "
• before capitals if a colon is followed by several complete sentences
This can be done if you proceed as follows: First, you plug your guitar into the amplifier. Second, you make sure
that the red lamp is on while ...

• for the first letter of the first word of a sentence

People are becoming more aware of the need to protect the environment.
• for the first letter of the first word in direct speech, immediately after the opening quotation marks
"Where have you been?" he asked.
He asked, "Where have you been?"
• for the personal pronoun "/"
I don't think I'll come with you.
• for the first letter of proper nouns such as the names of people, countries, towns, days of the week, months,
holidays, peoples, titles
On Saturday, Julia and Micha~1 went to Oxford Street in London to buy some Christmas presents for the family
and Mr Jones.
• for languages and adjectives of nationality
We stayed in a Swiss town while we were doing a short summer course in French.
• for the first letter of the more important words in the titles of books, films, plays, newspapers, magazines, hotels, etc
Our professor told us to read "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire" during the summer holiday.
Two of D.H. Lawrence's most famous books are "Sons and Lovers" and "Women in Love".
• for some abbreviations
RSPCA (Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals),
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)
but: Mr, Mrs, ltd

• in informal English, in the same way as colons or semi-colons, i.e. to separate a word or phrase which is independent
of the rest of the sentence; it may precede a comment, a definition or conclusion, emphasise the words which follow,
or introduce an afterthought
Anger, fear, frustration, disappointment - a whole array of emotions appeared on his face.
Despite all his assets - and they were considerable - his business enterprise failed.
We are flying on Friday morning - at least, I hope so.
• to show an interruption in speech
"But Sarah, I thought you said -", Jane began, then stopped abruptly.
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• where letters are omitted in contracted forms: isn't, I'm, didn't, I'll
• to denote possession:
a) in singular nouns, before the possessive s: the man's car, my mother's career
b) in plural nouns, after the plural s: the teachers' salaries, the nurses' demands
c) in irregular plurals, before the s: men's clothing, women's voices, children's interests
• with certain words showing time duration:
a) in the singular: an hour's iourney, a month's salary
b) in the plural: five hours' iourney, two hours' wait, three weeks' work
• in special plurals:
a) in plural forms of words which do not usually have plurals: The new employees were given a list of the do's
and don'ts
b) in plurals of letters: / can't make out his r's and v's.
c) in numbers: /t was in the late 7980's (or ... 7980s).
d) in abbreviations: / can recommend you two very good GP's (or ... GPs).

• to indicate direct speech, at the beginning and end of the words spoken
"/ can hardly believe it. H
• before and after titles of books, films, plays, newspapers and other special names
His performance in "Hamlet Hwas outstanding.
He was reading an Agatha Christie novel called HCat Among the Pigeons Hon the train.
• to indicate irony or suggest figurative use
We walked up the HgrandH staircase, which was, in fact, in a sad state of disrepair.
The island population has recently Hexploded H.
• for quotations inside quotations, we use double quotation marks inside single (or single inside double)
She said, '/tIS a case of Hhe who laughs last, laughs 10ngest Hif you ask me.'
Notes
a A comma precedes or ends direct speech.
She said, HWe'lI tell you later."
b Question marks or exclamation marks referring to the direct speech are placed inside the quotation marks.
"What a tremendous achievement!" he exclaimed.
"When are you leaving?" he asked.

• in some compound nouns: dining-room, air-conditioning; hyphens are becoming less common in modern English
and it is usually acceptable to write the two words separately: address book, health centre while some combinations
can be written in three ways i.e. with a hyphen, a space between the words or as a single lexical item: ski-boots,
ski boots, skiboots
• in some compound adjectives (the second part is usually a participle): broad-shouldered, smartly-dressed,
home-made, nice-looking
• to link a prefix with a noun or adjective: pre-war, anti-American, prCXJbortion, post-Victorian

• in numbers between tens and units: twenty-five, two hundred and sixty-three
• when expressions of measurement, amount or quantity are used as adjectives before a noun: a five-pound note,
a three-mile walk, a two-hour lecture, a one-year-old child

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to separate long parts of a sentence, each one of which is a complete clause on its own, but whose meanings are
closely connected. It shows a pause which is longer than a comma but shorter than a full stop.
Some critics considered him the best actor of his generation; others believed he never quite lived up to his early promise.
She was badly-dressed and slovenly in her appearance; the contrast to her sister could not have been greater.

to separate additional information or a comment from the rest of the sentence

The old Odeon cinema (where I saw the first Elvis Presley film) still stands on the corner of the street.
Also: commas can be used here instead of parentheses, which is preferable in formal writing.

3 Punctuate the following items.

next sunday im going to scotland to help my aunt 7 why i often ask myself can't they do something
who is a widow to move house about the traffic problem in this city
2 don t use the swiss cheese use the cheese which 8 the playwright arthur miller, who was at one time
is on the top shelf of the fridge marilyn monroes husband wrote the play death of a
3 i really like shakespeares play much ado about salesman
nothing because its very witty 9 i couldnt tell you about this last friday because i
4 we visited numerous cities in india madras delhi didnt know about it then
and agra where of course we visited the taj 10 your children are a pleasure to be with polite
mahal calcutta and mysore thoughtful and well-behaved i hope you know how
5 youre going to have to improve your appearance lucky you are
im afraid said the manager to the sales assistant 11 its a threehour walk to the nearest village hopefully
we need smartly dressed well groomed people you will only have to go there once or twice
6 we couldnt believe our eyes when we opened the 12 he was a quiet shy reserved sort of person his
front door books clothes drawers chairs all the brother on the other hand was the exact opposite
contents of our house it seemed had been thrown 13 its a well-paid job so id accept it if i were you
around the room sophia advised her friend

4. In most lines of the following text there is a spelling or punctuation error. Read the numbered lines 7-73
and then write the correct form of the word in the spaces provided for your answers. Some lines are correct.
Indicate these lines with a tick (~). The first one has been done for you.

PREHISTORIC PLANTS
o Everyone has seen animals in cages, even thought they may not like the idea. Then how would though
1 you feel about the prospect of plants in cages? You might think it to be some stunt dreamed
2 up for a science-fiction film - a re-make of John Wyndham's "The Day of the Triffids,
3 for example. You would, however be wrong. Believe it or not, caged plants do exist. They
4 are the Wollemi Pine, possibly the worlds oldest plants, and have been kept for breeding
5 and research purposes. The Wollemi Pine, which florished in Australia before continental
6 drift made for a drier climate, was discovered in 1994, after having been thought to be
7 exstinct for between 200 and 40 million years. It had previously been found only in
8 fossilised form. The present specimens, discovered in the Blue Mountains of new South
9 Wales, have been dated to over 1,000 years old. It is hoped that the thirty eight
10 genetically identical plants will thrive, despite the danger of desease which would arise from
11 there sharing the same DNA. One thing is for sure, though; unlike the dangerous,
12 and havoc-wreaking triffids, the Wollemi Pines will not be able to escape from their cages,
13 will they?

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 in Use

5 Read the text below and think of the word which best fits each space. Use only one word in each space.

NEW AGE VEHICLES

The motor industry says that (0) there are really no bad cars any more. Build, quality and reliability have
(1) ............................. huge strides, so even small cars today will keep you alive in a bad crash, and harmful
exhaust emissions are just a fraction of (2) ................................ they were. A (3) .............................. greater
variety of cars is available and they are recyclable at the (4) ............................. of their life span. The industry
also says that (5) ................................. to what people may think, the car of the future has already arrived: it
has just sneaked up on us (6) ........................... by bit. The most obvious changes will be (7) ........................ .
design. Designers will be playing (8) ........................... national identities and adding personality to their cars,
often (9) ......................... modern interpretations of traditional styling values. (10) ......................... will be a
greater (11) ........................................ of interesting mainstream cars, as well as more niche cars, that is to
(12) ....................... cars tailored to fit those with specific leisure interests or physical needs, and then, although
(13) ................................. will still be in the minority, alternative-technology cars. This group is set to expand
quickly, but ten years won't be (14) ....................................... near long enough for them to take over, for one
very good reason: making alternative technology work, is easier than making (15) ........................ affordable.

2Q8