✓ define collision theory and describe how it affects the chemical reaction;

✓ explain the different factors affecting the rate of reaction

✓ describe the concept of catalyst;
✓ realize the importance of a catalyst and how it affects your life.
✓ analyze a chemical reaction in order to determine which reactant is the
limiting reactant and which is the excess reactant;
✓ calculate the theoretical yield of a reaction when the available
amounts of each reactant are known; and
✓ calculate the percent yield of a reaction based on the theoretical and
actual yields

After going through this module, you are

expected to answer the key questions:

o What factors affect the rate of chemical reactions?

o How many products of reactant are involved in a
chemical reaction?
o What properties of chemical ingredients must be
considered carefully in commercial products?
o What is the importance of knowing the
precautionary measures in using cleaning and
cosmetic products?

1|
 Energy Changes

Collision Theory and Chemical Reaction

Chemical reactions occur every day almost everywhere: in our home, in our
body, in the environment. These phenomena happen to bring life, to provide
energy, and to make all things possible. But how are these chemical reactions
possible?
What is happening between substances that makes up the things around us?
How fast do these reactions occur? What are the requirements before reactions
happen?
Chemical changes happen when one chemical substance is
transformed into one or more different substances. Common
evidences of chemicalchanges are change of color (for example, silver
to reddish-brownwhen iron rusts), change in temperature or energy,
such as the production (exothermic) or loss (endothermic) of heat and
2|
change of composition - paper turning to ash when burned. But is it
possibleto control the rate of a chemical reaction? How?
Chemical Kinetics
• It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the mechanism and rates of
chemical reactions.
• It can describe reaction mechanisms that explain how atoms or units
of molecules combine to form products.

TYPE OF CHEMICAL REACTION

Collision Theory
One of the first theories that explain reaction mechanisms and
reaction rates is the collision theory. The collision theory established
how chemical changes initiate. This theory was proposed by Max Trautz
and William Lewis.
According to the collision theory, a chemical reaction can only occur upon
following a specific set of conditions. There are three conditions needed to be
met, known as the theory’s basic principles, namely:
3|
 1. the molecules should collide in order to react;
When two particles collide, sometimes a chemical reaction can
occur, which means the bonds between two or more particles are
broken and reformed, creating one or more new substances. The
substances or particles that exist before chemical reaction takes
place are called reactants and the substances that are formed are
called products.
2. the collision of molecules should be in the proper orientation; and
3. the colliding molecules should have enough energy to react.

The energy of molecules involved in a chemical reaction is as important

as their collision for a successful chemical reaction to take place. Chemical
reactions need a minimum energy requirement for them to proceed, known as
activation energy (Ea).

Collision Theory
“the rate of chemical reaction is proportional to the number of
collisions between the reactant particles”
Reacting substances must come into contact (collide) with enough
activation energy, and in correct orientation (facing the correct
way), so that their electron shells can rearrange to form the
products in the reaction.

4|
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3

➢ Factors Affect the Rate of a Chemical Reactions

1. Activation energy - The activation energy refers to the minimum

energy required for a reaction to take place. When a collision
provides energy equal to or greater than theactivation energy,
the product can form. On the other hand,if the particles have
energy that is less than the activation energy, the collision is
not effective, and they just bounce off each other unchanged.
2. Concentration of reactant - The rate of a chemical reaction is
affected by the concentration of reacting substances. The
term concentration refers to the number of particles present in a
given volume of solution. Concentration may also mean a
measure of how much of the solute (something to be dissolved)
is dissolved in a solvent (dissolving medium) to form a
homogeneous mixture. So, a higher concentration means
there is more of the solute in the solution. If the concentration
of the reactant is increased, the rate of reaction also increases.
When the number of particles of the reactant is increased,
there is a great chance for particles to collide.

5|
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3
3. Temperature - Temperature refers to how hot or cold a certain
substance is. The rate of a chemical reaction increases with
increasing temperature. As the temperature increases,
collision between atoms and molecules becomes faster
resulting in buildup of more energy. The increased kinetic
energy will equal or exceed the activation energy resulting in
more collisions giving rise to a reaction.

4. Surface area and particle size - Surface area is the measure ofhow
much exposed area a solid object has, expressed in square
units. In a reaction between a solid and a liquid, the more finely
divided a solid is, the faster is the rate of reaction. Likewise,as you
powder a solid, its surface area becomes greater, thus the
particles have a higher chance of colliding and faster reaction
happens.
5. The presence of a catalyst - A catalyst is a substance which
speeds up a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at its end.
Collisions only result in a reaction if the particles collide with a
certain minimum energy called the activation energy for the
reaction. To increase the rate of a reaction, the number of
successful collisions must be increased. One possible way of
doing this is to provide an alternative way for the reaction to
6|
 happen which has a lower activation energy. Adding a catalyst
has this effect on activation energy. A catalyst provides an
alternative route for the reaction with a lower activation energy.
When the reaction has finished, the mass ofthe catalyst is the
same as at the beginning.

Topic 2 Stoichiometry Calculations

in Chemical Reactions
Stoichiometry is the science of measuring chemicals that go
into, and come out of, any given reaction. “stoicheion” means
element and “metron” means measure. It deals with the study of
the quantitative relationships between the amounts of reactants
used and the amounts of products formed in a chemical reaction.
Stoichiometry is used in industry quite often to determine the
amount of materials required to produce the desired amount of
products in a given useful equation. Companies make manychemical
substances, through chemical reactions, stoichiometryhelps them
predict how much of a reactant participates in a chemical reaction,
how much product they can get, and how much reactant might be left
over.

Mole Ratios

One of the fundamental principles in stoichiometry is that matter is

conserved in a chemical reaction. This means that the amount of each
element found in the reactants should be the same as the amount of
the same elements in the products. As such, a definite amount of one
reactant reacts with a definite amount of another reactant in a chemical
reaction.

7|
 Example: Suppose that you are a cook in a Burger restaurant.
In order to make a regular burger, you need 2 buns and 1
burger patty. In this problem, visualize that the buns and burger
patty are the reactants while the burger is the product from the
reaction of 2 buns and 1 burger patty.

2 buns + 1 burger patty →1 regular burger

If you have 30 pieces of buns and 12 pieces of burger patty,

how many burgers can you make?
(Use the ratio of the coefficients)

24 buns + 12 patties → 12 burgers

Chemical equations give the ideal stoichiometric relationshipamong

reactants and products. However, sometimes the amount of
reactants used are not mixed in exact or proper ratio. Thus, there are
instances that some reactants will be excess, and the others will be
completely used up. In a chemical reaction, reactants that are not
used up when the reaction is finished are called excess reagents.
The reagent that is completely used up or reacted is called the
limiting reagent, because its quantity limits the amount of products
formed.

In the example above:

Which of the two ingredients run out first?

Patty – limiting reagent

Which of the two ingredients is the excess ingredient?

Buns (6 pieces of buns) – excess reagent

Balancing Chemical Equations

8|
 The first and most important step for any stoichiometric
calculation—such as finding the limiting reagent or theoretical yield—
is to start with a balanced equation. Since our calculations use ratios based
on the stoichiometric coefficients, our answers will be incorrect if the
stoichiometric coefficients are not right.

The law of conservation of mass states that in chemical reaction,

atoms are neither created nor destroyed. This is best explained using
the concept of a balanced chemical equation. To balance a chemical
equation, a coefficient is placed before a chemical formula.

Sample

1. Combustion of propane (C3H8) to form water and carbon

dioxide.

C3H8(g) + O2(g) H2O(l) + CO2(g)

REACTANT PRODUCT
C-3 C-1
H-8 H-2
O-2 O-3

The equation is not balanced therefore add coefficient to

make the chemical equation balance.

C3H8(g) + 5 O2 ( g ) 4 H2O(l) +3 CO2(g)

O 5x2=10 H 4x2=8 O 3x2=6

O 4x1=4

REACTANT PRODUCT
C-3 C-3
H-8 H-8
O-10 O-10
9|
 Final equation: C3H8(g) + 5 O2( g ) 4 H2O(l) +3 CO2(g)

2. Balance the equation

CO2(g) +H2O (l) C₆H₁₂O₆ (s) + O2 (g)

REACTANT PRODUCT
C-1 C-6
O-3 O-8
H-2 H-12

add coefficient to make the chemical equation balance.

6 CO2(g) +6H2O (l)

REACTANT PRODUCT
C-6 C-6
H-12 H-12
O-18 O-18

Final equation:

6 CO2(g) +6H2O (l) C₆H₁₂O₆ (s) +6 O2 (g)

Mole-to-Mole Stoichiometry
Since matter is conserved in all chemical reactions, increasing the
amount of one reactant means that the amount of other reactants
must also increase. Consequently, the amount of products formed in
the reaction would also increase. The new amounts of each
substance can be calculated with the use of mole ratios. Mole ratios
are used as conversion factors for calculations of amounts.

10 |
 1. Molar Mass or Molecular Mass

a. Changing from mole to mole

How many moles of oxygen are needed to react with 7
moles of methane?

CO2 + 2H2O

Using the conversion factor: 1 mol CH4 ; 1 mol CO2

2 mol O₂ 2 mol H2O

7 mol CH4 X 2 mol O₂ = 14 mol O₂

1 mol CH4
b. Changing from mole to mass
Find the molecular mass of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
ammonium oxalate [(NH4)2C2O4] .
To fine the molecular mass construct a table:
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Element # of moles Atomic mass Product
H 2 1 2
S 1 32 32

O 4 16 64
98g/mol

ammonium oxalate [(NH4)2C2O4]

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product
N 2 14 28
H 8 1 8
C 2 12 24
O 4 16 64
124g/mol

11 |
 Sample Problem:

1. How many grams is the equivalent of 3 moles of water?

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product

H 2 1 2
O 1 16 16
18g

3 mol H2O X _18g

1 mol H2O

3 moles=54g H2O

2. How many grams is the equivalent of 5 moles of gold (Au)

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product

Au 1 197 197
197g

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3

5 mol Au X _197g
1 mol Au

4 moles=985g Au

c. Changing from mass to mole

How many moles is the equivalent of 500g of table sugar
(C12H22O11)

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product

C 12 12 144
12 |
 H 22 1 22
O 11 16 176
342g

500g X _1 mole

1.46 mole

Sample Problem

1.A sample of NaCl with mass 22.0 g is made to react with 21.0 g of
sulfuric (H2SO4).

NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO(aq)4+HCl(aq)

a. Which is the limiting reagent?

b. How many grams of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) are produced?

13 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3
• Balance the equation

2 NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)

Given: 22.0 g mass of NaCl

21.0 g mass of H2SO4
Ask: a. limiting reactant
b. grams of Na2SO4

Solution:

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product

Na 1 23 23
Cl 1 35 35
58g

a. 22.0 g NaCl x 1 mol NaCl x 1 mol Na2SO4 = 0.19 mol Na2SO4

58 g 2 mol NaCl

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product

H 2 1 2
S 1 32 32
O 4 16 64
98g

21.0 g H2SO4 x 1 mol NaCl x 1 mol Na2SO4 = 0.21 mol Na2SO4

98 g H2SO4 1 mol H2SO4

14 |
 Limiting reactant is NaCl

15 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3

Element # of moles Atomic mass Product

Na 2 23 46
S 1 32 32
O 4 16 64
142g

a. 22.0 g NaCl x 1 mol NaCl x 1 mol Na2SO4 x 142 g Na2SO4

58 g NaCl 2 mol NaCl 1 mol Na2SO4

26.7 g Na2SO4

➢ Percentage composition
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product you
would expect from a reaction based on the amount of limiting
reagent. In practice, however, chemists don’t always obtain the
maximum yield for many reasons. When running a reaction in the lab,
loss of product often occurs during purification or isolation steps.
Your actual yield may change based on factors such as the relative
stability of reactants and products, the purity of the chemicals used,
or the humidity on a given day. In some cases, you might be left with
all starting materials and no products after your reaction. Since
chemists know that the actual yield might be less than the theoretical
yield, we report the actual yield using percent yield, which tells us
what percentage of the theoretical yield we obtained. Thepercentage
yield is an important indicator of the efficiency of a particular
laboratory reaction or industrial process.

FORMULA:

% yield = actual yield (in grams) X 100

theoretical yield (in grams)

16 |
Example 1
Calcium carbonate decomposes in the presence of heat to form calcium oxide
and carbon dioxide.

Therefore, the reaction has a 90% yield.

17 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3
Sample Problem

Answer the following questions about the reaction of 78.0 g of CH4

with 102 g of O2.

a. Which is the limiting reactant?

b. How much CO2 in grams is formed?
c. What is the percentage yield of the reaction if 67.0 g of CO2 is
experimentally obtained?

CH4(g)+O2(g) H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

• Balance the equation

CH4(g)+2O2(g) 2H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

• Calculate the molecular masses

For CH4:
Element # of moles Atomic mass Product
C 1 12 12
H 4 1 4
16g/mol
For O2:
Element # of moles Atomic mass Product
O 2 16 32
32g/mol
For CO2:
Element # of moles Atomic mass Product
C 1 12 12
O 2 16 32
44g/mol

18 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3
• Use the conversion in mole/g method approach (refer in page
10 diagram)
CH4(g)+2O2(g) 2H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
CO2 from CH4

78.0 g CH4 x 1 mol CH4 x 1 mol CO2 x 44 g CO2 = 214 g CO2

16 g CH4 1 mol CH4 1 mol

CO2 from O2

102.0 g O2 x 1 mol O2 x 1 mol CO2 x 44 g CO2 = 70 g CO2

32 g O2 2s mol O2 1 mol CO2

a. Limiting reactant is O2.

b. The mass of CO2 formed is 70g.

c.
% yield = actual yield (in grams) X 100
theoretical yield (in grams)

= 67.0 g CO2 X 100

70.1 g CO2
= 95.6%

19 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3

Topic 3 Practical Applications of Chemistry

Chemical Components: Active and Inert

Active ingredient is the component of a product which,

regardless of quantity, directly enables it to serve its purpose.
They may give different side effects to humans. They can give
either positive or negative side effects to us. So before
using these cleaning materials be sure to read first the
instructions. Don’t forget to
follow all precautionary and safety measures before using
them (e.g., clean and disinfect)
Inert ingredient refers to all the other substances in a product.
(e.g., dyes, preservatives, and fragrance)

Here are some of the active ingredients found in different cleaning

materials we use at home.

1. Ethanol. Ethanol is a natural byproduct of plant fermentation and

can be produced through the hydration of ethylene. It mixes easily
with water and many organic compounds, and makes an effective
solvent for use in paints, lacquers and varnish, as well as personal
care and household cleaning products. Ethanol is highly flammable

20 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3
and should not be used near open flames. Ethanol inhalation can
cause coughing or headaches.
2. Alcohol Ethoxylate (AE). Alcohol ethoxylates are a class of
compounds that are commonly used throughout many industrial
practices and commercial markets. These compounds are
synthesized via the reaction of a fatty alcohol and ethylene oxide,
resulting in a molecule that consists of two main components, (1) the
oleophilic, carbon-rich, fatty alcohol and (2) the hydrophilic,
polyoxymethylene chain. Alcohol ethoxylate surfactants enhance
the mixing and solubilization of oil and water by having these
contrasting sections within the same compound. With this unique
structure, a single molecule can inhabit the interface of two
immiscible phases (i.e.oil and water), effectively bringing them closer
together and lowering the interfacial energy associated between
them. Because these compounds are surfactants, they can be
usedwhenever oily substances encounter water or a surface. It
can beused as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers,
degreasers andemollients in many lines of commercially
available products andindustrial practices.
3. Sodium Alkyl Sulfates Sodium alkyl sulfate are members of alkyl
sulfates. They are water-soluble and can form soap bubbles. The
chemical formula is CnH2n+1OSO2ONa. It can be used in
detergents, dish washing liquids, shower gels, shampoos, hair
conditioners and fabric softeners. It can also be used as fire
extinguishing agent, because it is not flammable. In the cosmetic
industry it is used as an emulsifier to mix oily and water-soluble
compounds for toothpaste or moisturizing products. It can produce
irritating vapors when heated, consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide and others. As all detergents it can irritate
skin and eyes. If swallowed, it will cause nausea or vomiting.
4. Ammonia. Ammonia is a colorless, soluble alkali gas that occurs
naturally in the environment. It is a chemical containing one nitrogen
and three hydrogen atoms bonded together. It was traditionally

21 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3
used in many household cleaners, though today it's still found in glass
cleaner, all-purpose cleaners, and smelling salts. When used in
cleaning compounds, it’s called “household ammonia.” Ammonia
fumes are powerful irritant, potentially harming your skin, eyes, nose,
lungs and throat. When found in oven cleaners and window cleaning
formulations, it is an irritant to the mucous membranes. When working
with ammonia, wearing heavy-duty gloves, goggles, and a face mask
are smart precautions to protect your health.
5. Sodium hypochlorite. Bleach, or sodium hypochlorite, is another
alkali disinfectant. Bleach works by oxidizing, or breaking down the
molecular bonds of stains and germs. Bleach in the bottle is generally
a 5 percent solution. Toxic chlorine gas can be formed if bleach is mixed
with acids, such as bowl cleaners. Another useful but dangerous
cleaner it also has strong corrosive properties that may do serious
damage to the human body. Ammonia and bleach are a particularly
dangerous combination, creating potentially deadly gases when
mixed. Never store these two chemicals in the same place. Bleach in
the bottle is generally a five percent solution. Toxic chlorine gas can be
formed if bleach is mixed with acids, such as bowl cleaners.
6. Phenol. Phenol, any of a family of organic compounds
characterized by a hydroxyl (―OH) group attached to a carbon atom
that is part of an aromatic ring. Besides serving as the genericname
for the entire family, the term phenol is also the specific namefor its
simplest member, monohydroxybenzene (C6H5OH), alsoknown as
benzenol, or carbolic acid. Phenols are similar to alcohols but form
stronger hydrogen bonds. They are more soluble in water than are
alcohols and have higher boiling points. Phenols occur either as
colorless liquids or white solids at room temperature and may be
highly toxic and caustic. Phenols are widely used in household
products and as intermediates for industrial synthesis. Forexample,
phenol itself is used (in low concentrations) as a disinfectant in
household cleaners and in mouthwash. Phenol may

22 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3
have been the first surgical antiseptic. In 1865 the British surgeon
Joseph Lister used phenol as an antiseptic to sterilize his operating
field. Skin exposure to large amounts of phenol has resulted in liver
damage, diarrhea, dark urine and hemolytic anemia.
7. Quaternary ammonium. Quaternary ammonium compounds are
derived from an ammonia ion and are used as disinfectants.
Sometimes called “quats,” these compounds are surface-active
agents that break down the cell walls of microbes causing leakage of
the internal contents. As with phenols, there are a wide variety of
quaternary ammonium compounds under a variety of names on the
market, and each has its own benefits and health/environmental
risks.
8. Sodium percarbonate. Sodium percarbonate is a powder that
releases hydrogen peroxide, and is very concentrated. It is a
granulated powder which can be nice for scrubbing stains and stuck-
on-gunk off dishes. Scouring powder is made from hydrogen
peroxide. It can be made into a paste, too, and used on tile grout and
tough stains. In using this product, follow and read the instructions
carefully. Be very careful in handling all household cleaning products.
9. D-Limonene. D-Limonene is a neutral compound extracted from
citrus rind. Straight d-limonene can be used as a solvent; d-limonene
combined with a surfactant can be used as a rinseable cleaning
solution. However, Buburuz is concerned that the gasses used to
artificially ripen citrus fruits may remain in the rind when they’re made
into d-limonene.
10. Enzymes and bacteria are used in degreasers, drain cleaners and
stain removers. These live organisms consume organic materials, thus
removing the blockage, stain or odor.
11. Hydrogen peroxide is an acidic disinfectant commonly used in a3
percent solution as a skin antiseptic. Like bleach, it works as an
oxidizer. It can be used to whiten paper pulp and treat drinking

23 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3
water. It is often combined with other disinfectants for greater
efficacy.

Most commonly found ingredients in cosmetic products.

1.Moisturizers draw moisture from the environment and then latch it
onto the skin. Moisture defines as the wetness one feels as vapor in
the environment or as condensed liquid on the surfaces of some
objects.
2. Antioxidants and preservatives are added to prevent the
deterioration of cosmetic products. Vitamin E or tocopherol is themost
common antioxidant used in the cosmetic industry. It reducesthe
damage caused by pollution and UV rays from the sun. Tetrasodium
EDTA is a salt used as a preservative because of its chelating property;
it can sequester metal ions to prevent them from reacting with other
ingredients. Parabens are synthetic chemicals that are used as
preservatives.
3. Antimicrobials refer to a group of drugs that fight fungi, bacteria,
viruses, and protozoans.
4. Waxes and thickeners are ingredients added in blushes and
lipsticks to increase their hardness and prevent them from melting at
higher temperatures.
5. Solvents are added to dilute or homogeneously disperse other
components in cosmetics.
6. Emulsifiers is a mixture of two immiscible liquids, with one present as
droplets of microscopic size and distributed throughout the other
liquid. To bind water and oil in lotions or creams, manufacturers add
an emulsifier.
7. Color additives is used to make product more attractive and even
informative. These can be synthetic organic colors or inorganic
pigments. Organic colors obtained from petroleum and coal are not
allowed to use around the eyes.
8. pH adjusters stabilize other substances in a product by adjusting the
pH.

24 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3

Precautionary Measures in the Use of Some Personal Care Products

To avoid the harmful chemicals in different personal care products,

we should be informed about the proper use of the products and
reduce our exposure to them, and this is made possible by
considering the following:
• Read about the safety of the products before using them. Look
for the ingredients, toxicity and health effects.
• Choose safer alternatives like those labeled as
“fragrance-free”,”phthalate-free” and “paraben-free”.
• Read the labels of the products and avoid the ingredients that
are listed as
a.Butylated Hydroxy Anisole (BHA) and Butylatedhydroxytoluene
(BHT). BHA and BHT are skin allergens. BHA is considered a human
carcinogen and can cause skin depigmentation, studies show that
BHT promotes tumors and can disrupt the hormonal system.
b. Parabens. These substances are found in the labels of
personal care products with prefixes methyl, ethyl, butyl, or
propyl. Parabens can cause allergic reactions or dermatitis
insome people, and have been found in biopsied tissue from
breast cancer tumors.
c. Phthalates. Phthalates are widely used as fixatives in
fragrances, and are considered developmental and
reproductive toxicants.
d. Triethanolamine (TEA). TEA and DEA (diethanolamine) are
substances that combine with nitrates to form nitrosamines,
considered as possible carcinogens (cancer-causing
agents).TEA is toxic to the skin, and to the respiratory and
immune systems of humans.
e.Triclosan. It has been linked to skin irritation and eczema.
Prolonged exposure to triclosan may lead to increased

25 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 –
Module 3
allergies, asthma, and thyroid disruption which affects the
normal development of individuals.
• Use fewer personal care products and less often.
• Do not expose children to too many sources of harmful
chemicals. They have young bodies and immature
metabolism. This may cause diseases later in life.

26 |
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 11 – Module 3

Punzalan, J, et.al. (2016). Physical Science, Quezon City: Sibs

Publishing House, Inc.,
Camacho, D, et.al. (2018). Fundamental Physical Science. Quezon
City: ABIVA Publishing House, Inc.,
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zpxv97h/revision/1
https://www.cleanlink.com/hs/article/Chem-101-What-you-need-
to-know-about-active-ingredients--372

“Casting all your anxieties on him, because he cares for you” 1 Peter 5:7

27 |
28 |