Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa

Relation, Function and

Graph
Learning objectives/outcomes:
After completion of this unit, the students will be enable to
i) Define ordered pair, cartesian product, relation, domain and range of relation,
inverse relation and solve the related problems.
ii) Define function, domain and range of a function, one to one function (injective
funtion), onto function (surjective function), bijective function (both injective
and surjective), inverse of a function and composite function of given
functions.
iii) Find domain and range of a function.
iv) Find inverse function of given invertible(bijective) function.
v) Calculate composite function of given functions.
vi) Check whether the given function is one to one or onto or both.

1.3.1 Introduction
In mathematics, function plays very crucial role in all the brances of mathematics,
not only in the mathematics but also other fields of studies such as physics,
engineering, medicine, biology, business, computer science and industry has been
used widely. The notion of the function are used day to day life as well.
1.3.2 Ordered pair
Before defining an ordered pair we need to define what is a pair? A set with two
elements is called a pair. For examples:- a couple of crows, a pair of sandals, a pair
of bags and a pair of natural number and so on. But orders are not mentioned in each
of the above examples. Infact, a pair which are kept(arranged) in an order is
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 58
called an ordered pair. Since, (a, b) and (b, a) are two ordered pairs. In first ordered
pair a is the first element and b is the second element. But, in second ordered pair, b
is the first element and a is second element although their elements are same. The
ordered pair are written within a parenthesis bracket i.e. (,) but {} or curly brackets
are used to denote a set. The co-ordinates on a graph are represented by an ordered
pair, x and y. Where first element is x and second element is y. Two ordered pairs are
said to be equal orif the corresponding elements are same which is also called an
equality of an ordered pair. But (a, b) and (b, a) are not equal ordered pair because
their corresponding elements are different i.e. a  b and b  a.

1.3.3 Cartesian product

Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. Then, the Cartesian product X × Y between two
sets X and Y is the set of all possible ordered pairs with first element from X and
second element from Y.
X × Y = {(x, y) : x  X and y  Y}.
Where X is the set of points on the x – axis, Y is the set of points on the y-axis,
and X×Y is the xy – plane. Since, the Cartesian product of X and Y is denoted by
X × Y and read as "X cross Y".
Examples:
1. If P = {2, 4, 6} and Q = {8, 9}, find P×Q and Q× P.
Solution:Here,
P = {2, 4, 6}
Q = {8, 9}
 P × Q = {2, 4, 6} × {8, 9}
= {(2, 8), (2, 9), (4, 8), (4, 9), (6, 8), (6, 9)}
P Q
P×Q
2
8
4
9
6

And,
 Q × P = {8, 9} × {2, 4, 6}
= {(8, 2), (8, 4), (8, 6), (9, 2), (9, 4), (9, 6)}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 59
Q P
Q×P
2
8
4
9
6

Hence, P × Q  Q × P
2. Find A = {2, 8, 9} find the Cartesian product with itself.
Soln: Here,
A = {2, 8, 9}
A × A = {2, 8, 9} × {2, 8, 9}
= {(2, 2), (2, 8), (2, 9), (8, 2), (8, 8), (8, 9), (9, 2), (9, 8), (9, 9)}
Representation of Cartesian product: The Cartesian product can be
represented in a mapping diagram, in a tabular form and Graphical form.
Example: If A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {a, b, c} find (A × B) in a mapping diagram,
in a tabular form and a graphical form.
Here,
A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {a, b, c}
A × B = {2, 4, 6} × {a, b, c}
= {(2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c), (6, a), (6, b), (6, c)}
i) In a mapping diagram
A B

2 a
4 b
6 c

ii) In a tabular form

B
A×B a b c
2 (2, a) (2, b) (2, c)
A
4 (4, a) (4, b) (4, c)
6 (6, a) (6, b) (6, c)
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 60
iii) In a graphical method:
c

b
B
a

0 2 4 6
A

1.3.4 Relation
If A and B be two non-empty sets, then the relation ℜ from set A to set B is a subset
of the Cartesian product A and B i.e. A × B such that ℜ ⊆ (A × B). If (x, y) 
ℜ,then we write x ℜ y and read as x is related to y. A relation from set A to itself is
called a relation on A.
In other word, an association/mapping between the elements of first set A to
the elements of second set B based on some properties(conditions) possesses by
them is called a relation. It is denoted by ℜ. Indeed, a relation is the relationship
between two or more sets of values. Let us assume that X and Y be two sets. Since,
set X has relation with set Y, then the values of x are called domain where the values
of set Y are called range.
For example:
ℜ = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (7, 8)}
Domain = D(f ) = {1, 3, 5, 7} [Input]
Range = R(f ) = {2, 4, 6, 8} [Output]
Types of Relations:
There are various types of relations which are described below:
(i) Empty Relation: A relation which has no relation between any elements of set
is called empty relation or void relation. For example: If A = {1, 2}. Then one
of the void relation can be ℜ = { x, y} where | x - y| = 6
(ii) Identity Relation: A relation in which every element of a set is related to itself
only.
If A = {a, b} then its identity relation i.e.
A × A = {a, b} × {a, b} = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}
 It's identity Relation = I = {(a, a), (b, b)}
(iii) Inverse Relation : An inverse relation is the set of ordered pairs which is
obtained by interchanging the first and second elements of each pair. It is
denoted by R – 1. For example:
ℜ = {(2, 3), (4, 5), (6, 7), (8, 9)}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 61
–1
 ℜ = {(3, 2), (5, 4), (7, 6), (9, 8)}
(iv) Reflexive Relation: A relation ℜ in a set A is said to be reflexive if and only if
for each a  A : (a, a)  ℜ or a ℜ a.
For example: Let ℜ be a relation is defined on a set A = {1, 2, 3}.
ℜ = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(v) Symmetric Relation: A relation ℜ on set A is said to be a symmetric relation
iff (if and only if) (a, b)  ℜ  (b, a)  ℜ or a ℜ b  b ℜ a
Thus, a relation is a symmetric if ℜ = ℜ – 1.
For example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and ℜ be a relation defined on set A as:
ℜ = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)} then
ℜ – 1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
Since, ℜ = ℜ – 1, it is symmetric Relation.
Note:
a)  is symmetric relation b) A × A is a symmetric relation.
(vi) Transitive relation: Let A be any set. A relation ℜ on A is said to be a
transitive relation if (a, b)  ℜ and (b, c)  ℜ  (a, c)  ℜ for all a, b, c A.
For example: If A = {1, 2, 3}. Then, the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} is a
transitive because 1 ℜ 2 and 2 ℜ 3 1 ℜ 3.
(vii) Equivalence Relation: A relation on a set A is called an equivalence relation
on A if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. It is generally denoted by the
symbol ~ .

Moreover,

(viii) Anti-Symmetric Relation: A relation ℜ is said to be anti-symmetric on a set

A, If x ℜ y and y ℜ x hold when x  y or it can be defined as; relation R is anti-
symmetric if either (x, y)  ℜ or (y, x)  ℜ whenever x = y. For example:
a) If ℜ = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 4)}
Here, ℜ is not anti-symmetric because of (1, 2)  ℜ and (2, 1)  ℜ, but 1  2.
Also, (1, 4)  ℜ and (4, 1)  ℜ but 1  4.
b) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then, ℜ = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} is anti-symmetric
relation on A.
(ix) Asymmetric Relation: A relation ℜ on a set A is said to be Asymmetric
relation if (a, b)  ℜ  (b, a)  ℜ.
For example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
ℜ 1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 1)}  is an Asymmetric
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 62
ℜ 2 = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (4, 3)}  It is not Asymmetric

Worked out examples:

Example:1
If (2x + y, 3) and (2, x – y) are equal ordered pairs, find the values of x and y.
Soln: Given,
(2x + y, 3) = (2, x – y)
Equating the corresponding elements, we get,
2x + y = 2 ..... (i) and x – y = 3 ..... (ii)
Adding eqn (i) and eqn (ii), we get,
5
3x = 5 or, x=3

Substituting the value of x in eqn (i).

5
2× 3+y=2

10 6 – 10 – 4
or, y = 2 – 3 = 3 = 3

5 –4
Hence, the required values of x is 3 and y is 3

Example:2
If A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 3} and C = {1, 3, 4} find (i) (A  B) × C
(ii) (A – B) × C (iii) (A  B) × C,
Note: AB = (A – B)(B – A), where,  - Symmetric Difference between sets A
and B.
Solution: Here,
A = {1, 2}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 4}
(i) (A  B) × C
A  B = {1, 2}  {2, 3} = {2}
 (A  B) × C = {2} × {1, 3, 4} = {(2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
(ii) (A – B) × C
(A – B) = {1, 2} – {2, 3} = {1}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 63
 (A – B) × C = {1} × {1, 3, 4} = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4)}
(iii) (A  B ) × C
A  B = (A – B) (B – A) = {1}  {3} = {1, 3}
(A  B) × C = {1, 3} × {1, 3, 4} = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
Example:3
If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 3, 5}. Find the relation ℜ from set A to set B
determined by the relation x > y where, x ϵ A and y ϵ B.
Solution: Here,
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {1, 3, 5}
A × B = {1, 2, 3, 4} × {1, 3, 5}
= {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 5), (4, 1),
(4, 3), (4, 5)}
Under the relation ℜ x >y is {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (4, 3)}

Example:4
If A = {3, 4, 5, 6}, find the relation ℜ in A × A satisfying the condition
x + y = 9; x  A, y  A.
Solution: Here,
A = {3, 4, 5, 6}
A × A = {3, 4, 5, 6} × {3, 4, 5, 6}
= {(3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 3), (5, 4),
(5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)}
Under the relation ℜ x + y = 9 i.e.
(A × A)x + y = 9 is {(3, 6), (4, 5), (5, 4), (6, 3)}
Example:5
If ℜ = {(a, b), (c, d), (e, f), (g, h)}. Find ℜ 1.
Solution: Here
ℜ = {(a, b), (c, d), (e, f), (g, h)}
 ℜ – 1 = {(b, a), (d, c), (f, e), (h, g)}
Exercise
1. Find the values of a and b if
a) (a + b, 2) = (3, a – b)
b) (a – 1, b + 2) = (b – 2, 2a + 1)
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 64
2) If P = {2, 3}, Q = {1, 2} and R = {2, 4, 6}. Find
a) P × Q b) Q × P c) (P  Q) × R
d) (P  Q) × R e) (P – Q) × R f) (P  Q) × R
3) If A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {a, b, c}, find A × B and B × A. Are they equal?
4) If P = {1, 2, 3}, Q = {4, 5, 6} and R = {c, d, e} verify that:
a) P × (Q  R) = (P × Q)  (P × R)
b) (P × Q)  (P × R) = P × (Q  R)
5) Find the domain, range and inverse of the following relations.
a) ℜ 1 = {(4, 5), (5, 6), (6, 7), (7, 8)}
b) ℜ 2 = {(1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9)}
c) ℜ 3 = {(1, 4), (3, 4), (5, 4), (7, 4)}
d) ℜ 4 = {(1, 4), (1, 4), (2, 1), (4, 3), (4, 5)}
6. If P = {2, 4, 6} and Q = {2, 3, 6,8}. Find the relation from set P to set Q
determined by the condition that x
divides y.Also,find the domain and range of the relation.
7. Let P= { 1,2,3,4} and the relation is defined as ℜ = {(x, y): x, y∈ P and x+ y ≤ 4}.
Express ℜ as a set of ordered pairs. Find the domain, Range and ℜ –1
Answers
5 1
1.(a) a = 2 and b = 2 b) a = 2 and b=3.

2. (a) P × Q = {(2,1),(2,2),(3,1),(3,2)}
(b)Q × P = {(1,2),(1,3),(2,2),(2,3)}
(c) (P  Q) × R ={(1,2),(1,4),(1,6),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(3,2),(3,4),(3,6)}.
(d)(P  Q) × R ={ (2,2),(2,4),(2,6)}.
(e) (P – Q) × R = {(3,2),(3,4),(3,6)}.
(f) (P  Q) × R = {(1,2),(1,4),(1,6),(3,2),(3,4),(3,6)}.
3.A × B = {(2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(4,a),(4,b),(4,c),(6,a),(6,b),(6,c)}
B × A = {(a,2),(b,2),(c,2),(a,4),(b,4),(c,4),(a,6),(b,6),(c,6)}
∴(A × B) ≠ (B × A).
5. a) Domain ={4,5,6,7}, Range ={ 5,6,7,8} and inverse relation i.e. R1–1 = {(5, 4),
(6, 5), (7, 6), (8, )}
b) Domain ={1,2,3,4}, Range = {3,5,7,9} and inverse relation i.eR2–1 = {(3, 1), (5,
2), (7, 3), (9, 4)}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 65
–1
c) Domain ={ 1,3,5,7},Range ={4} and inverse relation i.e. R3 = {(4, 1), (4, 3), (4,
5), (4, 7)}
d) Domain ={ 1,2,4},Range ={ 1,3,5}and inverse relation i.e. R4 –1 = {(4, 1), (4, 1),
(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 4)}
6. R={ (2,2),(2,6),(2,8),(4,8),(6,6)}, Domain = { 2,4,6} and Range ={ 2,6,8}.
7. R = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,1),(2,2),(3,1)},Domain ={1,2,3} and Range ={ 1,2,3}

1.3.5 Functions
The concept of a function was developed after the development of calculus in the
17th century. Functions are everywhere where the technologies have been used
widely. A refinement of the concept of relation provides is the important definitions
of function. In information technology, function is regarded as processing.
Definition: Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A function from set A to set B is a
relation/association/mapping/rule from A to B such that for all x  A there is one and
only one (unique) element y  B with (x, y)  f. We write f : A  B to mean f is a
function from set A to set B.
If a variable y is so related to a variable x that whenever a numerical value is
assigned to x, there is a rule according to which a unique value of y is determined,
then y is said to be a function of the independent variable x. Commonly, the relation
in Cartesian form is symbolized as y = f (x). In addition to f (x) other symbols also is
used such as g(x), h(x) and p(x) etc.
The above definition can be rephrase as given below:
A function from set A to set B is a relation or rule which associates each element of set
A with the unique element of set B. Symbolically, we write f : A  B which means f
is the function from set A to set B. The equation y = f (x), read, 'y equals f of x', is said
to define the function f from A to B. Here, f (x) is known as the image of f at x. The
following mapping diagram clearly define which one is a function or not.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 66
f g
A B A B
a 5 a e
b f
b 6 c g
c 7 d
(i) (ii)

h k
P Q
a g a p

b h b q
c k c r
(iii) (iv)

From the above mapping diagrams (i) and (iv) are functions because every
elements in a domain has unique image in the Co-domain. But, fig (ii) and fig (iii)
are not functions because in fig (iii) element 'a' has two images which disobey the
definition of a function and in fig (ii) there is one-element in a set A which doesnot
associate in set B.
Domain, Co-domain and Range of the function
Domain and Co-domain: If f : A  B be a function then the first set A or set of
input is the domain and second set B is called the Co-domain of the function f .
Range : The range is the set of possible output (images) values which are shown on
the y-axis of the graph. In shorten: the set of all values of f is called the range of f .
The range of f is denoted by f (x). Or, Set of images is Range.
Example: Let P = {– 3, – 1, 0, 2, 4} and a function is defined by f (x) = x – 4. Find
the values of f (– 3), f (– 1), f (0), f (2) and f (4).
Solution: Given,
f (x) =  x– 4
f (– 3) = – 3 – 4 = 3 – 4 = – 1
f (– 1) = – 1 – 4 = 1 – 4 = – 3
f (0) = 0 – 4 = 0 – 4 = – 4
f (2) = 2 – 4 = 2 – 4 = – 2
f (4) = 4 – 4 = 4 – 4 = 0
 Domain of f = P = {– 3, – 1, 0, 2, 4}
 Range of f = {– 1, – 3, – 4, – 2, 0}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 67
Image and Pre-imageof a function: If a function f : A  B where x  A and y  B
then y = f (x) is said to be image of f at x or value of f at x. Then, x is said to be a
Pre-image of y under f . For eg:-
f
A B
a 4
b 5
c 6
d 7

Since, image of a is 6, image of an element b is 4, image of an element c is 7, image

of an element d is 6 and,
Pre-image of 6 is a and Pre-image of 4 is b.
Pre-image of 7 is c and Pre-image of 6 is d.
Note: The set of all images is called range of the function.
1.3.6 Types of function
(i) One to one function (injective function): A function f : A  B is said to be
injective or one to one function if it maps distinct elements of its domain to
distinct elements of its Co-domain.

Thus, in this case, for x1 x2, we must have f (x1)  f (x2). [distinct object  distinct
image]
Equivalently, f (x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2. [ equal image  equal object]
Counter Example:-
a) The function f : ℕ  ℕ is defined by f (x) = x2 where ℕ is the set of
natural numbers.
Solution:-
Given, f : ℕ  ℕ where, ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4 .....}
Now,
2, 3  ℕ f (2) = 22 = 4
f (3) = 32 = 9
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Then, 2  3  f (2)  f (3)
Hence, f is one to one function.
N N
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

b) If f : ℝ  ℝ be defined by f (x) = 4x – 3.
Solution:- For any x1, x2 ℝ
let f(x1) = f (x2)  4x1 – 3 = 4x2 – 3
 4x1 = 4x2
 x1 = x2
 f (x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2
Hence, f is one to one or injective function.
(ii) Onto function (or Surjective function): A function f : A  B is said to be
onto or surjective if every element of B has at least one Pre-image in set A.
OR,
This means that f : A  B is onto function if range of f is equal to Co-domain
then f (A) = B or f(x) = y , Where x  A and y  B.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 69
Counter Examples:
a) If ℝ be the set of real numbers, show that the function defined by
f : ℝ  ℝ such that f (x) = 4x – 7, x  ℝ onto function.
Solution:-
Let y = f(x), then
y = 4x – 7
or, y + 7 = 4x
y+7
or, x = 4

Given, f (x) = 4x – 7
 y + 7 y + 7
 f  4  = 4 4  – 7 = y + 7 – 7 = y
   
⇒ f(x) = y
So, f is onto function.
b) If f : ℞ +  ℞ + be defined by f(x) = x, where ℞ +is the set of positive
integers. It can be shown as;
f
℞+ ℞+
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9

Since, Range is equal to Co-domains. It is onto function.

Or,
Let y = f(x)
⇒ y=x
⇒ x=y
⇒ for every y ∈ ℞+, x ∈ ℞+. Hence, given function is onto.
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c) If f : ℞  ℞ be defined by f(x) = 2x, where ℞ is the set of positive integers.
+ + +

Solution:-
Let y = f(x)
⇒ y = 2x
𝑦
⇒ x=2
⇒ for every y ∈ ℞+, x ∉ ℞+. Hence, given function is not onto.
d) Check whether f : [– 2, 3]  ℝ given f (x) = x3 onto function.
Solution: Here,
f (x) = x3
And, f : [– 2, 3]  ℝ
f (– 2) = (– 2)3 = 8
f (3) = 33 = 27
 – 2  3  8  27
So, f is one to one function
Again, For onto function,
Range of f = Co-domain of f
But, Range of f = [f (– 2), f (3)]
= [– 8, 27]
Here, Co-domain of f = R
but, [– 8, 27]  ℝ
Hence, f is not onto function.
e) Let P = {2, 4, 6} and Q = {2, 6}. If a function f : P  Q is onto function.
f
P Q
2
2
4
6
6

Here, Range of f = Co-domain of f

Hence, f is onto function.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 71
(iii) Bijective function (One to one onto): A function f : A  B is said to be
bijective function if it is both injective (one to one) and surjective (onto).

Counter Examples:
a) Let P = {2, 3, 4, 5} and Q = {3, 4, 5, 6} and a function f : P  Q is defined by
f (x) = x + 1. Is it a bijective function ?
Here,
P = {2, 3, 4, 5} P
f(x) = (x + 1)
Q
Q = {3, 4, 5, 6} 2 3
Since, every elements of domain have unique image in co-domain. 3 4
So, it is one to one function. And, range is equal to co-domain. It is 4 5
also onto function. 5 6

 yes, it is a bijective function because it is both one to one onto

b) If a function f : ℝ  ℝ defined by f (x) = 2x + 3 for all x  R is a bijective.
Here,
f (x) = 2x + 3
Let, x1, x2 R then,
f (x1) = 2x1 + 3
f (x2) = 2x2 + 3
 f (x1) = f (x2)  2x1 + 3 = 2x2 + 3
 2x1= 2x2
 x1 = x2
So, f (x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2
So, it is injective function.
Again, for onto
f (x) = 2x + 3
or, y = 2x + 3
or, y – 3 = 2x
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 72
(y – 3)
or, x = 2
Now,
y – 3 (y – 3)
f  2  = 2. 2 + 3 = y – 3 + 3 = y
 
y – 3
or, f  2  = y
 
⇒ f(x) = y
 It is surjective function as the range is equal to Co-domain.
Hence, the given function is bijective as it is injective and surjective both.
c) Let f : ℕ  {2} defined by f (x) = 2 for all x  ℕ, obviously, f is onto
function but is not one to one function. Hence, it is not bijective function.
d) The identity function is always a bijective as it is one to one both.

Worked out Examples:

Example:1
A function f (x) is defined as follows:
4x – 2 for x  1 
f (x) =  
 2x for x < 1 
f(h) – f(1)
Find (i) f (2) (ii) f (1) (iii) f (– 1) (iv) for 1  h.
h
Solution: Here,
 4x – 2 for x  1 
f (x) =  
 2x for x < 1 
(i) f (2) = 4 × 2 – 2 = 8 – 2 = 6 (ii) f (1) = 4 × 1 – 2 = 4 – 2 = 2
f(h) – f(1)
(iii) f (– 1) = 2 × (– 1) = – 2 (iv) For h
f (h) = 4h – 2 as 1  h
f(h) – f(1) 4h – 2 – 2 4h – 4 4(h – 1)
 = = =
h h h h .
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 73

Example:2
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and a function f : A  ℚ is defined by
x
f (x) = 2. Find the range of f , where ℚ is the set of rational numbers.

Solution: Here,
x
f : A  Q be defined by f (x) = 2,

where A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
0
when x = 0, f (0) = 2 = 0

1
when x = 1, f (1) = 2

2
when x = 2, f (2) = 2 = 1

3
when x = 3, f (3) = 2

4
when x = 4, f (4) = = 2.
2
5
when x = 5, f (5) = 2

6
when x = 6, f (6) = 2 = 3
 1 3 5 
 Range of f = 0‚ 2‚ 1‚ 2‚ 2‚ 2‚ 3
 

Example:3
If a function f (x) is defined by f (x) = 4x – 3 on the interval [– 2, 2], find the value
1
of the following: a) f(0) b) f(3) c) f(2) d) f 2
 
Solution: Here,
f (x) = 4x – 3
a) When x = 0, f (0) = 4 × 0 – 3 = – 3 [ x  [– 2, 2]  – 2  x  2]
b) When x = 3, f (3) is not defined because 3 [– 2, 2].
c) When x = 2, f (2) = 4 × 2 – 3 = 8 – 3 = 5
1 1 1
d) When x = 2, f 2 = 4 × 2 – 3 = 2 – 3 = – 1
 
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 74

Example:4
If f : ℕ  ℕ is a functions defined by f (x) = 4x – 3. Find
(i) f (2), f (3) and f (4)
(ii) The domain and range of f
(iii) Is this function bijective. Justify your answer.
Solution: Here,
f (x) = 4x – 3
For (i) f (2) = 4 × 2 – 3 = 8 – 3 = 5
f (3) = 4 × 3 – 3 = 12 – 3 = 9
f (4) = 4 × 4 – 3 = 16 – 3 = 13
For (ii) Domain of function f = { 2, 3, 4} and the range of function f = {5, 9, 13}.

For (iii) Let, x1, x2 N then,

f (x1) = 4.x1 – 3
f (x2) = 4.x2 – 3
Now, f (x1) = f (x2)  4x1 – 3 = 4x2 – 3
 4x1 = 4x2
 x1 = x2
f (x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2
So, f is one to one
For onto
f (x) = 4x – 3
or, y = 4x – 3
or, 4x = y + 3
(y + 3)
or, x = 4  ℕ which is not natural number for each y  ℕ.
Hence, it is not onto function
OR,
Range of f  ℕ. So, f is not onto function
 f is not bijective function.
Example:5
If P = {– 3, – 1, 0, 1, 3} and Q = {9, 0, 1}. A function f : P  Q is defined by.
f(– 3) f(– 1)
 
f(3)  = 9, f (0) = 0, f(1)  = 1
Solution: Here,
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 75
f(– 3) f(– 1)
 = 9, f (0) = 0, 
f(3)  f(1)  = 1. Is this function bijetive?
The elements – 3 and 3 have same image i.e. 9. So the given function is not one
to one. But, it is onto function as
Range = {9, 0, 1}
Co-domain i.e. Q = {9, 0, 1}
 Range = Co-domain. It is an onto function. So, the given function is not a
bijective as it is not one to one onto both.
Example:6
Check whether the function f : [– 2, 2]  ℝ is defined by f (x) = x2 is one to one,
onto or both.
Solution: Here,
f (x) = x2
f (– 2) = (– 2)2 = 4
f (2) = (2)2 = 4
 – 2  2 f (– 2) = f (2)
Which contradicts to our definition of one to one function
i.e. x1 x2f (x1) f (x2). So, it is not one to one function.
And, Range of a function is 4. i.e. Range  Real number (R).
 The given function is not a bijective function.
Example:7
Let Q be the set of all rational numbers. Show that the function f : Q  Q such that f
(x) = 3x + 5 for all x  Q is one to one and onto.
Solution: Here,
f (x) = 3x + 4
(i) For one to one function:
Let, x1, x2 Q. Then
f (x1) = 3x1 + 5
f (x2) = 3x2 + 5.
Now,
f (x1) = f (x2)  3x1 + 5 = 3x2 + 5
 3x1 = 3x2
 x1 = x2
Since, for f (x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2. So, f is one to one function.
ii) For onto function:
f (x) = 3x + 5
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 76
or, y = 3x + 5
or, 3x = y – 5
(y – 5)
or, x = 3  Q.
(y – 5)
Thus, for every y  Q, there exists 3  Q such that
y – 5 y – 5
f  3  = 3.  3  + 5 = y – 5 + 5 = y. So, f is onto function.
   
Exercise-3.2
1. If P = {1, 3, 5, 7} and Q = {a, b, c, d}. Determine which of the following
relations between P and Q are functions. Find the domain and range if it is a
function.
a) {(1, a), (3, b), (5, c), (7, d)}
b) {(1, a), (1, b), (3, b), (5, c), (7, d)}
c) {(1, d), (3, a), (5, b), (7, c), (3, c)}
d) {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (1, d)}
2. a) If f (x, 2x2 – 4x + 1). Find the values of f (0), f (3), f (– 2), f (P – 1) and
f(a + h) – f(a)
h
(5 – x) 3 + a
b) If h(x) = (x – 2) ; find h(5), h(– 3), h{1, – 2} and h 2 .
 
2
 3 – x for x > 1 
c) If f (x) =  4x for x = 1  find the value of
 7 + x for x < 1 
3
i) f (– 2) ii) f 2 iii) f (– 4.5) iv) f (1)
 
3. If a function h(x) is defined by h(x) = 3x 2 – 2 on an interval – 1  x  4. Find
the values of the following:
1 – 3
i) h(– 1 ) ii) h(0) iii) h2 iv) h 2  v) h(4)
   
x
4. Let A = {– 1, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8} and f : A  ℝ is defined by f (x) = x + 2 . Find
range of f .
5. Check whether the following functions are one to one, onto or neither if
a) f : ℕ  ℕ given by f (x) = 3x
b) g : ℚ  ℚ given by g(x) =2 x +3
c) f : ℝ  ℝ given by f (x) = x2 – 1
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 77
d) f : ℝ  ℝ given by f (x) = |x|
e) f : [– 2, 3]  ℝ defined by f (x) = x2
f) k : [0, 3]  ℝ defined by k(x) = x2
g) h : [0, ∞ ) ℝ defined by k(x) = x2
h) f: [1,4]  ℝ defined by f(x) = x2
x+1
6. Let function f : A → B be defined by f(x) = 2x–1 .Find the range of f.Is the
function f one to one onto both? If not ,how can the function be made one to
one and onto both?
x–1
7. Let function f : A → B be defined by f(x)= x+2 with A ={ -1,0,1,2,3,4} and
1 1 12
B= { –2,1,–2 ,0,2 ,4 5 } Find the range of f. Is the function f one to one onto both?
If not ,how can the function be made one to one and onto both?
Answers
1. a, c and d defined a function a function.
For (a) Domain ={1,3,5,7} and Range ={a,b,c,d}
(c) Domain ={1,3,5,7} and Range= {a,b,c,d}
(d) Domain = {1} and Range = {a,b,c,d}
2. (a) f(0)= 1, f(3) = 7,f(–2) = 17 and f(p–1) = 2p2 –8p +7.
–8 –7 3 + a 7–a
(b) h(5)= 0, h(– 3)= 5 , h{1, – 2}= {– 4 , 4 }and h 2  = a–1 .
 
3
(c) i) 5 ii) 4 iii) 2.5 iv) 4
–5 19
3.(i) 1 ii) -2 iii) iv) v) 46
4 4
1 2 3 4
4. { –1,0,2 , 3 ,4 ,5 }
5.(a) One to one function . (b) one to one onto (c) Neither (d)Neither (e) one to
one (f) one to one onto
g) one to one but not onto. h) one to one but not onto.
1
6. Range of f = ℝ –{ 2 } 7.Range of f = ℝ –{1}.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 78
1.3.7 (a) Inverse image of an element:
Let A and B be sets and let f: A  B. Let x A. Then we define f(x) by
f(x) = {yB:  xx : y = f(x)} = {f(x)B: xx}.
We say that f(x) as "the image of x". Which is the image of a set. Then, for inverse
image of an element.
Let A and B be sets and f: A  B. Let Y  B then we define f –1 (y) be f –1 (y) = { x
 A: there exists y  Y such that f –1 (y) is the inverse of y:
A f B

x y = f(x)

Example:
1. Let f: X  Y be defined by the function shown in an arrow diagram. Then,
X Y
a 1
b
c 2
d 3
2. If h : Z Z defined by the function f(x) = x2, then
f – 1 (9) = {3,– 3}, f –1(4) = {2, – 2}, f –1(0) = 0,
f –1(– 2) = and so on.
b) Inverse function: Let f: A  B be a bijective function (i.e. one to one and
onto). Then, there exists an another function f – 1: B  A, which associate every
elements of set B to the unique element of set A. Such function is called the
inverse function of f and it is denoted by f – 1.
In other word "If f is a function then the set of ordered pair obtained by interchange
the first and second co-ordinates of each ordered pair in f is called the inverse of f. It
is denoted by f – 1. For example:
If G = {(1, 2), (3,4), (5, 6), (7,8)}
 G – 1 = {(2, 1) (4,3), (6,5), (8,7)}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 79

A f B B f –1 A
1 2 2 1
3 4 4 3
And,
5 6 6 5
7 8 8 7

Notes:
i) To find inverse function, first of all, need to check whether it is bijective or not.
ii) When a function is a bijective, then f – 1 exist.
1
iii) f – 1(x) f(x) . It is very important not to confuse function notation, with negative
exponents.
Required steps to find the inverse function:
Sept 1: Check whether the given function is a bijective or not. If it is not then write
inverse does not exist. If it exists then go to step 2.
Step 2: Change f(x) to y.
Step 3: Interchange x and y.
Step 4: Solve for y.
Step 5: Change y back to f – 1(x).
Counter Example:-
If a function f: ℝ  ℝ defined by f(x) = 4x – 7, x  ℝ. Find f – 1 (x).
Solution:-
let y = f(x)
Given, f(x) = 4 x – 7.
Or, y = 4x – 7
Interchanging x and y. We get
x = 4y – 7
Or, 4y = x + 7
x+7
Or, y = 4
(x + 7)
Or, f – 1(x) = y = 4
(x + 7)
 f – 1(x) = 4 .
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 80
c) Composition of functions: A composite function is a function that depends on
another function. A composite function is created when one function is
substituted into another function. For example, f (g (x)) is the composite
function that is formed when g(x) is substituted for x in f(x). f(g(x)) is read as "f
of g of x".
f(g(x)) can also be written as (fog) (x) or fg(x). In the composition (fog)(x),
then domain of f becomes g(x).
Let f:A  B and g : B  C be any two functions defined from A to B and B to
C. Then, the new function defined from A to C is called composite
function(function of function) of f and g. It is denoted by gof or gf. For
example:
A f C
g0f
a 6

b 8

c 9
B
f 1 g
2

From the above mapping diagram, gof = {(a,6), (b,8), (c, 9)}.

Example:1
If f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3) (d, 4)} and g = {1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6), (4, 8)}. Find the value
of gf (a), gf(c) and gf(d).
Solution: Here,
f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4)}.
g = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6), (4, 8)}.
 gf (a) = g[ f(a)] = g(1) = 4 i.e (a, 4).
 gf (c) = g[f(c)] = g(3) = 6 i.e. (c, 6).
 gf (d) = g[f(d)] = g(4) = 8 i.e (d, 8).

Example:2
If A, B and C be the sets of real number. Such that f : A  B and g : B  C are defined
by f(x) = x2 + 6 and g(x) = 2x – 1, find (a) (fog) (x) (b) (gof) (x).
Solution: Here,
f(x) = x2 + 6.
g(x) = 2x – 1.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 81
(a) (fog) (x) = f[g(x)]
= f(2x – 1) = (2x – 1)2 + 6.
2
= 4x – 4x + 1 + 6. = 4x2 – 4x + 7.
(b) (gof) (x) = g[f(x)]
= g (x2 + 6) = 2 (x2 + 6) – 1
= 2x2 + 12 – 1 = 2x2 + 11.
Properties of composite functions:
1. Composite functions are not commutative i.e. fog  gof.
2. Composite function are associative i.e. (fog)oh = fo(goh).
3. A function f : A  B and g : B  C are one to one functions.
Then gof : A  C is also one to one.
4. A function f: A  B and g: B  C are onto function then gof: A  C is also
onto. Indeed, two functions f and g can be combined in various ways to form a
new function, such as:
i) (f  g) (x) = f(x)  g(x)
ii) (fg) (x) = f(x). g(x)
f f(x)
iv) g (x) = g(x) ; g (x)  0.
 
Worked out examples:
Example:1
By studying the adjoining diagram, find the values of the following:
i) h – 1 (d) ii) h – 1 (a)
iv) h – 1(a, b, c) iv) h(p)
h
P Q
2 a
4 b
6 c
8 d

Solution:
Here,
From the given mapping diagram
i) h – 1(d) =  ii) h – 1 (a) = {2, 4}
iii) h – 1(a, b, c) = {2, 4, 6} iv) h(p) = {a, b, c}
Example:2
If h(a) = 4, h(b) = 6 and h(c) = 8 where P = {a, b, c} and Q = {4, 6 8}. Write down
h – 1: Q  P as a set of ordered pairs
Solution: Here,
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 82
h(a) = 4
h(b) = 6
h(c) = 8
h(x)
P h(x) Q
a 4
b 6
c 8

It is a bijective function because distinct elements of set P has distinct image in set Q
i.e. it is one to one function. Also, it is onto function as well because range i.e. {4, 6
8} is equal to co-domain.
 Function h(x) is a bijective so that h – 1(x) exists.
Now, h(a) = 4  a = h – 1 (4) or, h – 1 (4) = a
h(b) = 6  b = h – 1 (6) or, h – 1 (6) = b
h(c) = 8  c = h – 1(8) or, h – 1 (8) = c
 h – 1 : Q  P = {(4, a), (6, b), (8, c)}
Example:3
If a function g: ℝ  ℝ defined by g(x) = 4x – 7, x  ℝ. Check whether g is one to
one or onto or both. Find g – 1 (x).
Solution:
Here,
Since, g : ℝ  ℝ defined by
g(x) = 4x – 7, x  ℝ.
At first, we need to check whether a given function is a bijective or not.
For this, Let x1, x2 ℝ (domain).
g(x1) = 4x1 – 7 and g(x2) = 4x2 – 7.
Now, g(x1) = g(x2)  4x1 – 7 = 4x2 – 7
 4x1 = 4x2
 x1 = x2
i.e. g(x1) = g(x2)  x1 = x2.
 g is one to one function.
For onto function: Let, y  ℝ. Then,
g(x) = 4x – 7, x  ℝ.
Or, y = 4x – 7
Or, y + 7 = 4x
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 83
(y + 7)
4  R (Which is a real number).
Or, x=

y + 7   y + 7
Or, g 4  = 4.  4  – 7
   
=y+7–7 =y
y + 7 
 g 4 =y
 
It is onto function because range is equal to co-domain.
Hence, function g(x) is one to one onto so the inverse of a function g(x) i.e. g– 1(x) exists.
Now, To find g– 1(x),
g (x) = 4 x – 7.
Or, y = 4x – 7
Interchanging x and y. We get
x = 4y – 7
Or, 4y = x + 7
x+7
Or, y = 4
(x + 7)
Or, g – 1(x) = y = 4
(x + 7)
 g – 1(x) = 4

Example:4
Let h : ℝ  ℝ by h(x) = 3x + 2 and g: ℝ  ℝ by g(x) = x3. Then find:
a) goh (x) b) hog (x) c) gog (– 3) d) goh– 1(x).
Solution:
Here,
h(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) = x3.
Since, the function h(x) is a linear. So, it is always a bijective. Therefore, h– 1(x)
exists.
Then, h(x) = 3x + 2
Or, y = 3x + 2
Interchanging x and y, we get.
x = 3y + 2.
Or, x – 2 = 3y
(x – 2)
Or, y = 3
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 84
(x – 2)
Or, h– 1 (x) = y = 3 .
a) goh (x) = g[h(x)] = g(3x + 2)
= (3x + 2)3 = (3x)3 + 3.(3x)2. 2+ 3 .3x.22 + 23
= 27x3 + 54 x2 + 36x + 8
b) hog(x) = h[g(x)] = h(x3)
= 3.x3 + 2 = 3x3 + 2.
c) gog (–3) = g[g(– 3)] = g{(– 3)3}
= g (– 27) = (– 27)3 = – 19683.
3 3 3 2
–1 x – 2 x – 2 (x – 2) x – 6x + 12x – 8
d) goh (x) = g 3  =  3  = 27 = .
    27
Example:5
Find the domain and range of the following function defined on the real valued
functions.
1
a) y = 3x + 1 b) y = – x2 + 4x – 3 c) y = x + 1
𝑥−2
d) y = x2 – 3x – 4 e) 𝑥−2
a) Solution: Here,
y = 3x + 1.
For domain,
For all x  ℝ, y is defined.
 Domain of f = D(f) = (– , ) = ℝ.
For range;
y = 3x + 1.
Or, 3x = (y – 1)
y–1
Or, x = 3  ℝ.
For all x  ℝ, y  ℝ
 Range of f = ℝ = (– , ).
b) Solution: Here,
y = – x2 + 4x – 3.
For domain,
For all x  ℝ, y is defined.
 Domain of f = D (f) = ℝ = (– , ).
For range:
y = – x2 + 4x – 3
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 85
2 2 2
Or, –y = x – 2.x.2 + 2 – 2 + 3.
Or, –y = (x – 2)2 – 4 + 3.
Or, –y = (x – 2)2 – 1
Or, 1–y = (x – 2)2
As, (x – 2)2  0.
So, (1 – y)  0.
Or, 1  y.
Or, y  (– , 1]
 Range of f = R(f) = (– , 1)
c) Solution: Here,
1
y = (x + 1)
For domain:
y is defined for all x except at x = – 1
 Domain of f = y = ℝ – {– 1}.
For range;
1
y = x+1
Or, xy + y = 1.
Or, xy = 1–y
1–y
Or, x = y ; Provided y  0.
 Range of f = ℝ – {0}.

d) Solution:
Here,
y = x2 – 3x – 4
2
3 3 32
Or, y = x2 – 2.x. 2 + 2 – 2 – 4
   
2
 3 25
Or, y = x – 2 – 4
 
2 2
 3 5
Or, y = x – 2 –2
   
The function is defined only where
2
{  32 5
x – 2 – 2
   
} 0.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 86
2 2
 3 5
Or, x – 2 – 2  0.
   
2
 32 5
Or, x – 2  2 .
   
 3 5
Or, x – 2  2
 
For + ve sign, For – ve sign,
3 5 3 5
x– 2 2 x–2–2
8 3 5
Or, x  2 Or, x  2 – 2
3–5
Or, x4 Or, x  2
Or, x  – 1
Domain of f = [4, ) [– 1, )

For range;
y = x2– 3x – 4
Or, y2 = x2 – 3x – 4
Or, y2 + 4 = x2– 3x.
3 32 32
Or, y2 + 4 = x2 – 2.x. 2 + 2 – 2 .
   
2
9  3
Or, y2 + 4 + 4 = x – 2 .
 
2
 3 25
Or, y2 = x – 2 – 4
 
2 2
 3 5
Or, y= x – 2 – 2
   
2 2
If {x – 32 – 32 } 0 the range is only defined. So,
Range of f = R (f) = [0, ).
𝑥−2
e)
𝑥−2
𝑥−2
𝑥−2
= 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0
𝑥−2
Solution: Let y = e) = 𝑥−2
𝑥−2
− = −1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 − 2 < 0
𝑥−2
So, Domain = ℝ -{2} and Range = {1, 1}
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 87

Exercise-3.3
1. a) Let f: P  Q be defined by f = {(a, b), (b, c), (c, d), (d, e) be a function. If
f – 1 exists, find f – 1as a set of ordered pairs.
b) Draw a mapping diagram of the inverse of the function f.
c) Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {4, 5, 6, 7} and f: P  Q is a function such that
f(1) = 4, f(2) = 5, f(3) = 6 and f(4) = 7. Find f– 1 as a set of ordered pairs.
2. If f: ℝ  ℝ defined by the following functions. Find the inverse of each of the
given functions.
a) f(x) = x3 + 5
b) f(x) = 4x – 7, x  ℝ
c) f(x) = cx + d, where c  0.
3. a) If f = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)} and g = {(2, 3), (4, 1), (6, 5)}. Find fog and
gof. Are they equal?
b) Find fog and gof of the following:
i) f(x) = 2x + 3, g(x) = x2, ii) h(x) = 2x – 1, k(x) = x2 – 2.
x+2
iii) k(x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = 3 iv) p(x) = x3 – 1 and q(x) = x2.
4. Let ℚ be the set of all rational number. Show that the function f: ℚ  ℚ Such
that f(x) = 3x – 5 for all x  ℚ. Find f – 1 (x).
5. State the condition for a function to be bijective, f(x) = x3 + 5, x  R, find f – 1.
6. If f: ℝ  ℝ be defined by f(x) = x 2 – 3, find f – 1(x). Also, determine
whether fof – 1(x) = f – 1of(x).
1
7. Show that f : ℝ – {2}  ℝ – {0} given by f(x) = (x – 2) is bijective. Also, find
f – 1.
8. If f : ℝ  ℝ defined by f(x) = 2x + 3 is bijective. Also, find f – 1(2).
9. Find the domain and range of the following real valued functions.
a) y = 4x – 3 b) y = x2 – 1 c) y = x3.
1
d) y = x + 5 e) y = x f) y = – x2 + 4x – 3
x
g) y = 5 – (x + 3)2 h) y = |x| i) y = x – 2
x2 – 16
j) y = x – 4 k) y = x2 – 2x – 8 l) y = 21 – 4x – x2
|x – 1| 1 1
m) y = x – 1 n) y = 2 o) y =
x + 6x + 8 4 + 3x – x2
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 88
10. If g : ℝ  ℝ, h : ℝ  ℝ defined by g = {(a, d), (b, e), (c, f)} and hog = {(a, a),
(b, e), (c, i)}. Find h. Present hog in arrow diagram. Can goh be defined? Given
reason.
Answers
1. (a) f–1 = { (b,a),(c,b),(d,c),(e,d)} (c) f–1 = { (4,1),(5,2),(6,3),(7,4)}
3 x+7 x–d
2. (a) f –1(x) =y= 𝑥– 5 (b) f –1(x) = 4 (c) f –1(x) = c
3 (a) fog={ (1,3),(3,1),(5,5)} (b) gof={ (3,1),(1,3),(5,5)}.Yes, they are equal
2
(b) (i) gof=4x +12x +9 (ii) hok =2x2 –5
(iii)koh = 4x2 –4x –1 (iv)poq=x6 –1
(v) qop =x6–2x3 +1
x+5 3
4. f –1(x) = 3 (5) f –1(x)= 𝑥– 5 (6) f –1(x) = 𝑥 + 3
1 1
7. f –1(x) = x +2 (8) f–1(x) = – 2

9. (a) D =(– ∞, ∞) and R = (– ∞, ∞) (b) D = (– ∞, ∞) and R = [– 1, ∞)

(c) D =(– ∞, ∞) and R = (– ∞, ∞) (d) D = ℝ – {–5} and R = (0, 1]
(e) D= [0,∞) and R = [0,∞) (f) D= (– ∞, ∞) and R = (–∞ ,
(g) D = (– ∞, ∞) and R = (– ∞, 5] (h) D = ℝ –{0} and R = {1,–1}
(i) D = [ 2,∞) and R = [ 0,∞) (j) D = ℝ – {4} and R = (– ∞, ∞)
(k) D = (–∞,–2] ∪ [4,∞) and R = [0,∞) (L) D = [–7,3] and R = [0,∞)
(m) D = ℝ –(1} and R ={–1,1} (n) ......, R = (0,1)
(o) D = (–1,4) and R = (0,1)

1.3.8 Real valued function:

A real valued function is a function whose value are real number. In other words; A
function f :A  B is said to be a real valued function whose range is R or some
subset of R. There are two types of real valued functions;
 Algebraic function.
 Transcendental functions.
Algebraic functions: An algebraic function is a function that can be defined as the
root of a polynomials. An algebraic functions are algebraic expressions using a finite
number of terms, involving only the algebraic operators such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication division or raising the power of the independent variable x is called
algebraic functions such as constant function, identity function, linear function,
quadratic function, cubic function, polynomial function, Rational function,
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 89
polynomial function, Absolute value function and greatest integer function are the
algebraic functions.
a) Constant function: A function f : A  B which is expressed in the f(x) = C
for all x A and for some C B is called a constant function. Example: The
function y = 4 is a constant function where C = 4. The domain is the sets of all
real number ℝ. The co-domain is just 4.
The constant function is an even function. So, y-axis is the line of symmetry.
y

y=4

x
x' O

y'

b) Linear function: A function f: A  B which is expressed in the form

y = mx + c for all x  A; m and c are constants is called a linear function. The
graph of a linear function is shown in the adjoining figure:
If A = B = ℝ, the set of real numbers, the function defined by f(x) = y = x + 2
y

y=x+2

(0, 2)

O
x' x
(– 2, 0)

y'

c) Identity function: A function f: AA is said to be an identity function, if it is

expressed in the form y = f(x) = x for all x  ℝ. It is usually denoted by IA. The
graph of an identity function is shown in the adjoining diagram.
y

y = f(x) = x

x' x
O

y'
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 90
d) Quadratic function: A function f: A B defined by y =f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a
 0 for x A, where a, b and c are constants, is called a quadratic function.
If A = B = ℝ, the set of real numbers, the function defined by y = f(x)= x 2 is a
quadratic function. The graph of a quadratic function is shown in the adjoining
diagram.
y
y = x2

x' x
O

y'

e) Cubic function: A function f: AB defined by y = f(x) = ax 3 + bx2 + cx +

d, a  0, where a, b, c and d are constants and x  ℝ is called a cubic function.
If A = B = ℝ, the set of real numbers, the function defined by y = f(x) = x3 is a
cubic function. Its graph is shown alongside.
y

y = x3

x' x

y'
f) Greatest integer function: The greatest integer function is denoted by y = [x].
For all real number x. the greatest integer function returns the largest integer
less than or equal to x. Since, it can be written to the nearest integer. For
example:
[1] = 1, [1.5] = 1, [3.7] = 4, [4.3] = 4
Beware;
[– 2] = – 2 [– 1.6] = – 2, [– 3.2] = – 3.
For example; if we have f(x) = [– 1.6], the two closest integer are – 1 and – 2.
For the greatest integer value, we always choose the small integer, this means
that [– 1.6] = – 2.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 91
Also, if the number inside the brackets is an integer, we return to the original number
such as [2] = 2, [– 5] = – 5 and [0] = 0
Let us see the graph of the greatest integer function as:
x –4x–2 –2x0 0x2 2x4
Y –4 –2 0 2
y

x' x
O

y'

p(x)
g) Rational function: A function f defined by f (x) = q(x), where p(x) and q(x)
are polynomial in x and q(x)  0 is known as a rational function for example:
4x3 – 3x2
f(x) = x2 + 8x – 7 is a rational function.
h) Absolute value function: If x is a real number, then absolute value or modulus
of x is a non- negative real number denoted by |x| is defined by;
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|x| =
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Since, the domain of the absolute value is the set of real number and range is
non-negative real number. Thus,
Domain = D(f) = ℝ
Range = R(f) = [0, )
The graph of the absolute value function f(x) = |x| is shown in the adjoining
figure,
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 92
y

x
O

y'

 Transcendental functions: A transcendental function is an analytic function

that does not satisfy a polynomial equation. For examples; trigonometric
functions, exponential functions, logarithmic functions and hyperbolic functions.
a) Trigonometric function: A function which is defined as B
the function of an angle of a triangle. Indeed, the
relationship between the angles and sides of a triangle
are given by trigonometric function. Such as sine, cosine,
tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant are six simple 
trigonometric functions. O A
Let OA be an initial line and AB be a revolving line which maker an angle 'O'
with the positive direction of OA. Such that  AOB = . In right angled
AB OA AB OB
triangle, OAB, sin = OB , Cos  = OB , tan = OA , cosec = AB , Sec =
OB OA
OA and Cot = AB are Sin functions defined above are known as
trigonometric functions or trigonometric ratios.
i) Sine function: A function f : ℝ  ℝ
is said to be sine function if it is expressed as f(x) = y = sin x.
Domain = D(f) = ℝ
Range = [– 1, 1]
Table of since function:
 –360º – 270º –180º – 90º 0 90º 180º 270º 360º
y = sin 0 –1 0 –1 0 1 0 –1 0

Graph of sine function:

y
y = sinx

x' x
–360º –270º –180º –90º 0 90º 180º 270º 360º

y'  |sinx |  1
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 93
ii) Cosine function: A function f: ℝ  ℝ is said to be cosine function if it is
expressed as f(x) = y = cosx.
Domain = D (f) = ℝ.
Range = [– 1, 1]
Table of cosine function:
y

+1

x' x
–360º –270º –180º –90º 0 90º 180º 270º 360º

–1
 |cosx |  1
y'


iii) Tangent function: A function f: ℝ – { (2n + 1). 2 , n ℞ ℝ is said to be
tangent function if it is expressed as y = f(x) = tan x.

Domain = D (f) = ℝ – { (2n + 1). 2 , n ℞ }.
Range = ℝ
Table of tangent function:
 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º 120º 135º 150º 180º 210º 225º 240º 270º 300º 315º 330º 360º
Y= tan 0 0.58 1 0.73  –1.73 – 1 –0.58 0 0.58 1 1.73  –1.73 –1 –0.58 0
y
– 270º – 90º 90º 270º

x x'
O

y'

By the above method, the graph of cosec, sec and cot can be shown.
b) Exponential function: A function f: ℝ  (0, ) defined by y = f(x) = ax,
x  ℝ where a  0, a  1 is called an exponential function of base a. It is bijective ex
n
lim  1 lim
n 
is a typical exponential function. Where, e= 1 + n = (1+h)1/h.
 h 
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 94
y y
y = a,x a  1

(0, 1)
(0, 1)

x x' x x'
O O
o a  1

y' y'

y = f(x) > 0, domain = ℝ and Range = (0, )

Since,E is an irrational number whose values lies between 2, 3 i.e. 2  e  3.
The graph of simple exponential function y = 2x.
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x
y=2 1 1 1 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
y

x x
y = (1/2) y=2

(0, 1)

x x'
O

y'
x
1
And, Graph of y = 2 and y = 2xintersect at the point (0, 1).
 
c) Logarithmic function: Let a and b are two positive real number and a  1. Such
that ax= b then x is called logarithmic of b to the base a . i.e. ax = b x  logab.
The domain of the logarithmic function is the set of positive real numbers ℝ +
and the range is ℝ.
Remarks
i) The logarithm of a number with base 10 is called common logarithm and the
logarithm with base e is called natural logarithm.
ii) The natural logarithm i.e. logex is simply written as lnx.
The graph of y = logex = logx = lnx.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 95
y
y = ax

(1, a)

y = loga x

(a, 1)

(0, 1)

x x'
O (1, 0)

y'

Properties of logarithms function:

Theorem- 1: For any number x, y and a; loga (x, y) = logax + logay
Proof: For any positive number x, y and a;
logax = b and logay = c
b
Or, x = a or, y = ac.
So, x. y = ab. ac = a b + c
Or, a(b + c) = x. y
By the definition of logarithm.
Hence, loga(x.y) = b + c
Or, loga(x.y) = logax +loga y
 loga (x.y) = logax + logay
Theorem-2: For any positive number a and x,
logaxm = m logax. Where m is any real number.
Proof: Here,
For any positive number a and x,
Put logax = b  x = ab
Or, xm = (ab)m = amb
Taking log both sides
Hence, logaxm = mb = mlogax.
 logaxm = m logax.
Theorem-3: For all positive real numbers x, y and a.
x
logay = logax – logay.
 
Proof: Here,
For any positive numbers x, y and a
Put, logax = p x = ap
logay = q  y = aq.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 96
p
x a
Now, y = aq = ap – q.

x
Or, (p – q) = logay
 
 x
Or, loga x – logay = logay
 
 x
 loga y = (logax – logay)
 
Theorem-4: For any positive number x, y and a.
logax = logab. logbx (change base)
Proof:
Let, logbx = P x = bp
Hence, logax = logabp = plogab= logab. logbx
1
Theorem -5: For any positive number x, n and a, logana = n logax ; n  0.
Proof:
loganx = logana. logax …… (i)
Put, logana = y  a = (an)y
 a = any
 ny = 1
1
y =n
1
 logana = n
Then,
loganx = logana. logax.
1
 loganx = n . logax.
Theorem -6: Prove that loga1 = 0
Proof: Here,
aº = 1
Or, 0 = loga1
Or, loga1 = 0
Theorem-7: For any positive integer a, Prove that logaa =1.
Proof: Here,
a1= a
Or, loga a= 1 [ 23 = 8  log28 = 3]
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 97
Theorem-8: For all positive real numbers a and b, prove that: logab. logba= 1.
Proof: Here,
logaa = logab. logba.
Or, 1 = logab. logba.
 logab. logba = 1.

Worked out examples:

Example:1
Prove that: logax2– 2loga x = logax.
Solution: Here,
L.H.S = logax2 – 2loga x
1
2 2 2 2× 2
= logax – loga( x) . = logax – loga(x) = logax2 – logax
x2
= loga x = logax
R.H.S Proved Ans
Example:2
(x + y) 1
If x2 + y2 = 7xy, prove that: log = 2 (logx + logy)
3
Solution: Here,
x2 + y2 = 7xy
Or, (x + y)2– 2xy = 7xy
Or, (x + y)2 = 2xy + 7xy
Or, (x + y)2 = 9xy
(x + y)2
Or, = xy
9
Taking 'log' both sides
2
x + y
log   = llog(xy)
 3 
x + y
2 log 3  = log x + log y
 
 x + y log x + log y
log 3  = 
   2 
x + y 1
 log  3  = 2 (logx + logy).
 
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 98

Example:3
Prove that: xlogy –logz.ylogz –logx. zlogx–logy= 1.
Solution: Here,
Put, k = xlogy –logz.ylogz –logx. zlogx–logy
Taking 'log' both sides.
logk = log (xlogy –logz.ylogz –logx. zlogx–logy)
Or, logk = logxlogy –logz + ylogz –logx + zlogx–logy
Or, logk = (log y – logz). logx + (logz – logx). logy + (logx – logy). logz
= logx. logy – logx. logz + logy. logz –logx. logy + logx. logz –logy. logz
Or, logk = 0
Or, logk = log 1
Or, k = 1.
 xlogy –logz.ylogz –logx. zlogx–logy= 1.
R.H.S. = R.H.S
Example:4
If x= log2aa, y = log3a2a and z = log4a3a, Prove that: xyz + 1 = 2yz.
Solution: Here,
x = log2aa, y = log3a2a and z = log4a3a.
L.H.S.
xyz + 1
= log2aa. log3a2a. z + 1 = log3a2a. log2aa.z + 1 = log3aa.z + 1
= log3aa. log4a3a + 1 = log4a3a. log3aa + 1 = log4aa + 1
= log4aa + log4a4a = log4a (a. 4a) = log4a(2a)2
= 2log4a2a. = 2. log4a 3a. log3a2a = 2.z.y
= 2yz = R.H.S
Example:5
1
If log45 = a and log56 = b, then prove that: llog23 = 2ab –1
Solution: Here,
a= log45 and b = log56.
a.b = log45. log56
Or, 2ab = 2log46.
log 6
Or, 2ab – 1 = 2 log4 – 1
log(2 × 3)
Or, 2ab – 1 = 2. log22 – 1.
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa Mathematics| 99
log2 + log3
Or, 2ab – 1 = 2. –1
2log2
log2 log3
Or, 2ab – 1 = log2 + log2 – 1
log3
Or, 2ab – 1 = 1 + log2 – 1.
log3
Or, 2ab – 1 = log2
1 log2
Or, 2ab –1 = log3
1 logb
 log32 = 2ab – 1 [ logab = loga ]
logb logb
Note: [Let, logab = p  b = ap logb = logap logb = ploga  =P = logab]
loga loga

Exercise - 3.5
1 (a) Prove that: Cosh2x = 2cosh2x – 1
2tanhx
b) Prove that: tanh2x = 1 + tanh2x
2. Find the value of x if
–1
a) log5x = 5 b) log5x = 2
3. Prove that:
3
pq 
a) loga r2  = logap + 3logaq – 2logar. b) logax = logax2 – 2loga x
 
logx
c) b = x. d) log (4 + 5 + 6) = log4 + log5 + log6
7
e) loga a a a = 8
4. Prove that:
a) xlog (y/z). ylog(z/x). zlog(x/y) = 1.
b) (yz)logy –logz. (zx)logz –logx. (xy)logx – logy = 1.
a+b 1
5. If a2 + b2 = 7ab, then prove that: log10 3 = 2 (log10 a + log10b)

1 + x
6. If h(x) = log  1 – x (– 1 < x < 1), show that;
 
a+b
h(a) + h(b) = h 1 + ab (|a| < 1, |b| < 1)
 
Kumar Subedi, Lecturer, Mechi Multiple Campus, Jhapa
Mathematics| 100
logx logy logz
7. If y – z = z – x = x – y , prove that xx. yy. zz = 1.

4 5
8. Show that: logv 43 × logw v5 × log4 w4 = 3
1 1 1
9. If x = logabc, y = logbca, z = logcab Prove that: x + 1 + y + 1 + z + 1 = 1
Answer
1
2(a) 3125 b)
5

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