1

CHAPTER 1

FLUID PROPERTIES

1.1 CONCEPT OF A FLUID

Fluid, any liquid, gas, or generally any material that cannot sustain a tangential, or shearing force
when at rest and that undergoes a continuous change in shape when subjected to such a stress. This
continuous and irrecoverable change of position of one part of the material relative to another part
when under shear stress constitutes flow, a characteristic property of fluids.

Liquids and gases are called fluids because they can be made to flow, or move. In any fluid, the
molecules themselves are in constant, random motion, colliding with each other and with the walls
of any container.

Liquids vs. Gasses

Liquids and gasses behave in much the same way

Some specific differences are

1. A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as being incompressible. A gas is easily to
compress and usually treated as such - it changes volume with pressure.
2. A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and will form a free surface. A gas has no
fixed volume; it changes volume to expand to fill the containing vessel. No free surface is
formed.

1.2 CONTINUUM

As gas molecules are far apart from each other and as there is empty, space between molecules
doubt arises as to whether a gas volume can be considered as a continuous matter like a solid for
situations similar to application of forces.

The concept of continuum assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system
with no empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.

The test for continuum is to measure properties like density by sampling at different locations and
reducing the sampling volume to low levels. If the property is constant, irrespective of the location

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and size of sample volume, then the gas body can be considered as a continuum for purposes of
mechanics (application of force, consideration of acceleration, velocity etc.) and for the gas volume
to be considered as a single body or entity.

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics or Hydraulics is the application of the laws of force and motion to fluids, i.e. liquids
and gases.

Fluid Statics or hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest. The main equation required for this is
Newton's second law for nonaccelerating bodies, i.e. ΣF = 0.

Fluid Dynamics is the study of fluids in motio n. The main equation required for this is Newton's
second law for accelerating bodies, i.e. ΣF = ma.

Fluid Kinematics deals with response of fluids in motion without concern with the actual forces
necessary to produce the motion. The principles of conservation of mass and conservation of
momentum permit some patterns of fluid motion, and exclude others.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID

- No definite shape of its own and takes the shape of its container
- It offers no resistance to shear force and will continue to deform when subjected to shear
stress
- Lacks the ability to resist deformation force. It moves and it flows under the action of the
force
- Its shape will change continuously as long as the force is applied

A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a tangential force acts on a surface.

A A’ B B’ F

F C D
Figure 1.1: Shearing force, F, acting on a fluid element

Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F, are known as shearing forces.

If a fluid is at rest there are NO shearing forces acting on it, and any force must be acting
perpendicular to the fluid.

When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to
one another. When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid velocity is the
same at every point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.

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Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing. At the pipe wall the velocity of the water will
be zero. The velocity will increase as the fluid moves toward the center of the pipe.

Figure 1.2: Velocity profile in a pipe

Change in velocity with distance is “velocity gradient” = du

dy

Because particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different velocities there are shear
forces in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are normally present in a moving fluid. On the other hand,
if a fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling with the same velocity,
the velocity profile would look something like this:

Figure 1.3: Velocity profile in a uniform flow

No velocity gradient, no shear forces. No shear forces present as all particles have zero relative
velocity.

1.4 COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

If the density of a fluid varies significantly due to moderate changes in pressure or temperature,
then the fluid is called compressible fluid. Generally, gases and vapors under normal conditions can
be classified as compressible fluids. In these phases, the distance between atoms or molecules is
large and cohesive forces are small. So increase in pressure or temperature will change the density
by a significant value.

If the change in density of a fluid is small due to changes in temperature and or pressure, then the
fluid is called incompressible fluid. All liquids are classified under this category.

When the change in pressure and temperature is small, gases and vapors are treated as
incompressible fluids. For certain applications like propagation of pressure disturbances, liquids
should be considered as compressible.

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1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID

1. Ideal fluid
2. Real fluid
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic fluid

Ideal fluid

A hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid and the
resulting motion is called as ideal or inviscid flow (the flow is smooth, no turbulence) . In an ideal
flow, there is no existence of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.

Inviscid fluid has no internal friction ( η = 0)

Ideal fluid do not actually exist in nature, but sometimes used for fluid flow problems.

Real fluid

Fluid that have viscosity(μ > 0) and their motion known as viscous flow.
All the fluids in actual practice are real fluids.

Newtonian Fluids:

A real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient).

Ideal Plastic Fluid

A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate
of shear strain (or velocity gradient).

Non-Newtonian Fluid

A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose viscosity is variable based on applied stress or force. The
most common everyday example of a non-Newtonian fluid is cornstarch dissolved in water.

A real fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain. There are certain
fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and the deformation rate (velocity
gradient in parallel flow) as expressed by the τ = µ du is not valid. For these fluids the viscosity
varies with rate of deformation. dy

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Thixotropic fluid

A thixotropic fluid is a fluid that takes a finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity when
introduced to a steep change in shear rate. Viscosity decreases with length of time shear force is
applied

Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such as ketchup, and are called
pseudoplastic fluids. Eg. Blood plasma, latex, inks, gelatin

No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity decreases with rate of shear.

Figure 1.4: Shear stress and deformation rate relationship of different fluids

Dilatant Fluids

Viscosity increases with rate of shear. When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as
sugar in water, aqueous suspension of rice starch, quicksand etc.

Plastic

Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences.

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Bingham plastic

As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress must be achieved. With this classification n =
1. An example is sewage sludge.

Rheopectic substances

Viscosity increases with length of time shear force is applied, e.g. Synovial fluid, printer ink,
gypsum paste

Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large change in shear they
behave like plastic. Most non- Newtonian fluids ate time independent and exhibit elastic
(rubberlike) behavior are called viscoelastic fluids. Ex. lubricants, whipped cream, Silly Putty

1.6 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

Consider a 3d rectangular element of fluid, like that in the figure below, under the action of the
force F.

Figure 1.5: Fluid element under a shear force

The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This area is given by A = δz x δx.

Thus the shear stress which is equal to force per unit area is:

F
τ=
A
The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size of the angle ɸ and is known
as shear strain.

In a solid shear strain, ɸ, is constant for a fixed shear stress τ.

In a fluid, ɸ increases for as long as τ is applied - the fluid flows.

It has been found experimentally that the rate of shear stress (shear stress per unit time, t/time) is
directly proportional to the shear stress.

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If the particle at point E (Fig. 1.4) moves under the shear stress to point E’ and it takes time t to get
there, it has moved the distance x. For small deformations:

x
Shear strain, ɸ =
y
ɸ x x 1 u
Rate of shear strain = = = • =
t ty t y y
x
where = u is the velocity of the particle at E.
t

Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain then

ɸ u
τ∞ ; τ = Constant x
t y

u
The term is the change in velocity with y, or the velocity gradient, and may be written in the
y
differential form du . The constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity, µ , of
dy
du
the fluid, giving τ=µ ; known as the Newton’s Law of Viscosity
dy

1.7 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Dimensions

The word “dimension” is used to describe basic concepts like mass, length, time, temperature and
force. “Large mass, long distance, high temperature” does not mean much in terms of visualizing the
quantity. Dimension merely describes the concept and does not provide any method for the
quantitative expression of the same.

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The arbitrary magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units. There are two types of dimensions, primary or fundamental and
secondary or derived dimensions.

The qualitative description is conveniently given in terms of certain primary quantities, such as
length, L, time, T, mass, M, and temperature, θ. These primary quantities can then be used to
provide a qualitative description of any other secondary quantity: for example, area = L2, velocity =
LT-1, density = ML-3 and so on, where the symbol = is used to indicate the dimensions of the
secondary quantity in terms of the primary quantities. Thus, to describe qualitatively a velocity, V,
we would write

V = LT-1

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and say that “the dimensions of a velocity equal length divided by time.” The primary quantities are
also referred to as basic dimensions.

For a wide variety of problems involving fluid mechanics, only the three basic dimensions, L, T, and
M are required. Alternatively, L, T, and F could be used, where F is the basic dimensions of force.
Since Newton’s law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration, it follows that F = MLT-2 or
M = FL-1T2. Thus, secondary quantities expressed in terms of M can be expressed in terms of F
through the relationship above. For example, stress, ς, is a force per unit area, so that ς = FL-2, but
an equivalent dimensional equation is ς =ML-1T-2.

All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous—that is, the dimensions of the
left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right side, and all additive separate terms
must have the same dimensions. For example, the equation for the velocity, V, of a uniformly
accelerated body is
V = V0 + at

where V0 is the initial velocity, a the acceleration, and t the time interval. In terms of dimensions the
equation is
LT-1 = LT-1 + LT-1

and thus the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

Example 1.1 . A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate of flow, Q, of a liquid
through an orifice located in the side of a tank is

Q = 0.61 A 2gh

where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration of gravity, and h is the height of the liquid
above the orifice. Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula.

Solution:

The dimensions of the various terms in the equation are Q = volume/time = L3T-1, A = area = L2, g =
acceleration of gravity = LT-2, h = height = L.

These terms, when substituted into the equation, yield the dimensional form:

L3T-1 = 0.61 L2 2 (LT-2)1/2 (L)1/2

Or L3T-1 = 0.61 2 (L 3T-1)

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If we were going to use this relationship repeatedly we might be tempted to simplify it by replacing
g with its standard value of 32,2 ft/ sec2 and rewriting the formula as

Q = 4.90 A h

A quick check of the dimensions reveals that

L3T-1 = 4.90 L5/2

and, therefore, the equation expressed above can only be dimensionally correct if the number 4.90
has the dimensions of L1/2T-1.

Units

Units are the means of expressing the value of the dimension quantitatively or numerically The term
“second” for example is used to quantify time. “Ten seconds elapsed between starting and ending of
an act” is the way of expressing the elapsed time in numerical form. The value of dimension should
be expressed in terms of units before any quantitative assessment can be made.

There are three widely used systems of units in the world. These are (1) British or English system (it
is not in official use now in Briton) (2) Metric system and (3) SI system (System International d’Unites
or International System of Units).

The SI System of units

The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience secondary units are used in general practices which are made from combinations of
these primary units.

Primary Units

The primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:

Primary Dimension Symbol SI unit Dimension

mass m (sometimes M) kg (kilogram) M
length L (sometimes l) m (meter) L
time t (sometimes T) s (second) T
temperature T (sometimes q ) K (Kelvin) θ
electric current I (sometimes i) A (ampere) I
amount of light C (sometimes I) c (candela) Cd

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(luminous intensity)
amount of matter n or N (sometimes μ) mol (mole) N

Table 1.1: Primary dimensions and units

Derived Units

There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units. Those most
used are shown in the table below:

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Table 1.2: Derived properties and dimensions

The unit of force is defined using Newton’s second law of motion which states that applied force is
proportional to the time rate of change of momentum of the body on which the force acts.

For a given mass m, subjected to the action of a force F, resulting in an acceleration a, Newton’s law
can be written in the form

F = (1/go) m a

where go is a dimensional constant whose numerical value and units depend on those selected for
force, F, mass, m, and acceleration, a. The unit of force is newton (N) in the SI system.

The force unit, called the newton (N), is defined from Newton’s second law as

1 N = (1/go) × 1 kg × 1 m/s2

hence go = 1 kg m/N s2

Thus, a 1-N force acting on a 1-kg mass will give the mass an acceleration of 1 m/s2. Standard
gravity in SI is 9.8066 m/s2 (commonly approximated as 9.81 m/s2) so that a 1-kg mass weighs 9.81 N
under standard gravity.

In metric system, the unit of force is kgf defined as the force acted on one kg mass by standard
gravitational acceleration taken as 9.81 m/s2. The value of go is 9.81 kg m/kgf s2.

In the English system, the unit of force is lbf defined as the force on one lb mass due to standard
gravitational acceleration of 32.2 ft/s2. The value of go is 32.2 ft lb/lbf s2.

The unit of work in SI is the joule (J), which is the work done when the point of application of a 1-N
force is displaced through a 1-m distance in the direction of a force. Thus,

1J=1N-m

The unit of power is the watt (W) defined as a joule per second. Thus,

1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N – m/s

British Gravitational (BG) System. In the BG system the unit of length is the foot (ft), the time unit
is the second (s), the force unit is the pound (lb), and the temperature unit is the degree Fahrenheit
o
F or the absolute temperature unit is the degree Rankine oR where

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°R = °F + 459.67

The mass unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton’s second law (force =mass x acceleration) as

1 lbf = (1 slug) (1 ft/s2)

This relationship indicates that a 1-lb force acting on a mass of 1 slug will give the mass an
acceleration of 1 ft/s2.

The weight, W (which is the force due to gravity, g) of a mass, m, is given by the equation

W = mg
and in BG units
W(lbf) = m (slugs) x g (ft/s2)

Since the earth’s standard gravity is taken as g = 32.174 ft/s2 (commonly approximated as 32.174
ft/s2), it follows that a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 lb under standard gravity.

English Engineering (EE) System. In the EE system units for force and mass are defined
independently. The basic unit of mass is the pound mass (lbm), the unit of force is the pound (lbf). To
make the equation expressing Newton’s second law dimensionally homogeneous we write it as

ma
F=
gc

where gc is a constant of proportionality which allows us to define units for both force and mass.
For the BG system only the force unit was prescribed and the mass unit defined in a consistent
manner such that gc = 1.

Example 1.2. A tank of water having a total mass of 36 kg rests on the floor of an elevator.
Determine the force (in newtons) that the tank exerts on the floor when the elevator is accelerating
upward at 7 ft/s2.

Solution:

W a

Ff
Figure E1.1: Free Body Diagram for Example 1.2

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A free-body diagram of the tank is shown above where W is the weight of the tank and water, and Ff
is the reaction of the floor on the tank. Application of Newton’s second law of motion to this body
gives
ΣF = ma
Ff – W = ma ; W = mg
Ff = ma + mg
Ff = m (g + a) = 36 kg [9.81 m/s2 + (7 ft/s2 )x (1m/3.28 ft)]
Ff = 430 N (downward)

The direction is downward since the force shown on the free-body diagram is the force of the floor
on the tank so that the force the tank exerts on the floor is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction.

1.8 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUID

 Density

Density determines the compactness of the matter in a substance. It includes the mass of a
substance and how much space this substance occupies. The denser the object, the more tightly
packed its matter. The less dense an object, the more spread out its matter, so as with liquids.
A city, for example, might be called more “dense” than a town because more people are
squeezed into the city’s space than the town’s space.

The density of a material depends on what phase it is in and the temperature. The density of
fluids (liquids and gases) is extremely temperature dependent.

The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ρ (rho), is defined as its mass per unit
volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system.

ρ= m
V
Dimensions: ML-3

Typical values: Water = 1000kgm-3, Mercury = 13,546kgm-3

Air = 1.23kgm-3, Paraffin Oil = 800kgm-3

 Specific Volume

The specific volume, ѵ, is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the reciprocal of the
density—that is,
ѵ= 1
ρ

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In the case of solids and liquids, the change in density or specific volume with changes in
pressure and temperature is rather small, whereas in the case of gases and vapors, density will
change significantly due to changes in pressure and/or temperature.

Dimensions: M-1 L3

 Weight Density or Specific weight

The force due to gravity on the mass in unit volume is defined as Weight Density or Specific
Weight. The specific weight of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ɤ (gamma), is defined as
its weight per unit volume.

Weight of fluid, W
ɤ=
Volume of fluid, V

Thus, specific weight is related to density through the equation

ɤ = ρg, at a location where g is the local acceleration due to gravity.

ɤ = (g/go) ρ, with variations in gravitational acceleration.

where: go = 1 kg m/N s2

Dimensions: ML -2T -2

Typical values: Water =9814 N/m3, Mercury = 132943 N/m3

Air =12.07 N/m3, Paraffin Oil =7851 N/m3

 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density (or specific
weight) of the fluid to the density (or specific weight) of water at some specified temperature.
Usually the specified temperature is taken as 4oC (39.2oF) and at this temperature the density of
water is 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3.

ρ
SG =
ρ water @ 4oC

Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.

Dimensions: M0L0T0

Example 1.3: Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of 1 liter of liquid, which
weighs 7N.

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Given: Volume, V = 1 li = 1000 m3

Weight, W = 1 N

Solution:

W 7N
a. ɤ= = = 7 x 10 -3 N/ m3
V 1000 m3

ɤ 7 x 10 -3 N/ m3 7 x 10 -3 kg- m/s2/ m3
b. ɤ = ρg; ρ= =
2
= 2
= 713.5 kg/ m3
g 9.81 m/s 9.81 m/s

ɤ 7 x 10 -3 N/ m3
c. SG = = = 0.7135
ɤ water @ 4oC 9810 N/ m3

Example 1.4: If 5 m3 of a certain oil weighs 4000 kgf, calculate the specific weight, mass density and
specific gravity of this oil.

Given: Volume, V = 5 m3
Weight, W = 1 kgf

Solution:

Woil 4000 kgf 9.81 N

a. ɤoil = = 3
= 800 kgf/m3 x = 7, 848 N/m3
Voil 5m kgf

800 kgf / m3 kgf - s2 9.81 kgm- m

b. ρoil = ɤoil = = 81.55 x = 800 kgm / m3
g 9.81 m/s 2
m-m 3
kgf - s2

ɤoil ɤoil 7, 848 N/m3

c. SGoil = = = = o.8
ɤ water @ 4oC ɤ water @ 4oC 9810 N/ m3

Example 1.5: The weight of an object measured on ground level where ge = 9.81 m/s2 is 35,000 N.
Calculate its weight at the following locations (a) Moon, gm = 1.62 m/s2 (b) Sun, gs = 274.68 m/s2 (c)
Mercury, gme = 3.53 m/s2 (d) Jupiter, gj = 26.0 m/s2 (e) Saturn, gsa = 11.2 m/s2 and (f) Venus, gv = 8.54
m/s2.

Solution:

Mass of the object on earth, me = weight × (go/g) = 35,000 N × (kg m/N s2)/(9.81m/s2) = 3567.8 kg

Weight of the object on a planet, p = me × (gp/go) where me is the mass on earth, gp is gravity on the
planet and go has the usual meaning, force conversion constant.

Hence the weight of the given object on,

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a. Moon = 3567.8 kg x (1.62 m/s2) / (kg m/N s2) = 5,780 N

b. Sun = 3567.8 kg x (274.68 m/s2) ) / (kg m/N s2) = 9,80,000 N
c. Mercury = 3567.8 kg x (3.53 m/s2) / (kg m/N s2) = 12,594 N
d. Jupiter = 3567.8 kg x (26.0 m/s2) / (kg m/N s2) = 92,762 N
e. Saturn = 3567.8 kg x (11.2 m/s2) / (kg m/N s2) = 39,959 N
f. Venus = 3567.8 kg x (8.54 m/s2) / (kg m/N s2) = 30,469 N

Note that the mass is constant whereas the weight varies directly with the gravitational constant.
Also note that the ratio of weights will be the same as the ratio of gravity values.

1.9 VISCOSITY

It is the property of a real fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to a shearing force. It offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another layer adjacent to it.

From §1.6

τ=µ du ; known as the Newton’s Law of Viscosity

dy

where µ = proportionality constant or coefficient of dynamic viscosity or

viscosity

τ = shear stress
du
= = rate of shear strain or velocity gradient or rate of shear
dy
deformation

There are two ways of expressing viscosity

1. Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

µ = the shear stress, τ, required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another
layer a unit distance away.

τ Force/Area Mass
µ= = =
du velocity Length x Time
dy distance

Units: N s/m2 or kg/m s (kg m-1 s-1)

Dimensions: ML-1T-1

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Typical values: Water =1.14 X 10-3 Ns/m2, Air =1.78 x 10-5 Ns/m2,
Mercury =1.552 Ns/m2, Paraffin Oil =1.9 Ns/m2.

Dynamic viscosity is often expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system

with units of dyne • sec/cm2. This combination is called a poise, abbreviated P. (Note that µ
is often expressed in Poise, P, where 10 P = 1 N s/m2 (Pa. sec).

2. Kinematic Viscosity

ʋ = the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density. It is a measure of the resistive flow of a
fluid under the influence of gravity.

Units: m2s-1
µ
ѵ=
ρ

Dimension: L2T-1

Typical values: Water =1.14 x 10-6 m2/s, Air =1.46 x 10-5 m2/s
Mercury =1.145 x 10-4 m2/s, Paraffin Oil =2.375 x 10-3 m2/s

In the CGS system, kinematic viscosity has units of cm2/s, and this combination is called a
stoke, abbreviated St.

Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature.

The effect of temperature on viscosity can be closely approximated using two empirical
formulas. For gases the Sutherland equation can be expressed as

µ= CT3/2
T+S

where C and S are empirical constants, and T is absolute temperature. Thus, if the viscosity
is known at two temperatures, C and S can be determined.

For liquids an empirical equation that has been used is

µ = De B/T

where D and B are constants and T is absolute temperature. This equation is often referred
to as Andrade’s equation. As was the case for gases, the viscosity must be known at least for
two temperatures so the two constants can be determined.

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A dimensionless combination of variables that is important in the study of viscous flow

through pipes is called the Reynolds number, Re, defined as ρVD/µ where ρ is the fluid
density, V the mean fluid velocity, D the pipe diameter, and µ the fluid viscosity.

Example 1.5: A Newtonian fluid having a viscosity of 0.38 N.s/m2 and a specific gravity of 0.91
flows through a 25-mm-diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the value of the
Reynolds number using (a) SI units, and (b) BG units.

Solution:

ρ = SG• ρH2O@4°C = 0.91 (1000 kg/m3) = 910 kg/m3

and from the definition of the Reynolds number

ρVD (910 kg/m3)(2.6 m/s)(0.025 m)

Re = = = 156
µ 0.38 N.s/m2

The value of any dimensionless quantity does not depend on the system of units used if all
variables that make up the quantity are expressed in a consistent set of units. It should be noted
that in the Reynolds number it is actually the ratio µ/ρ that is important, and this is the property
that we have defined as the kinematic viscosity.

Example 1.6: A plate (2m x 2m ), 0.25 mm distant apart from a fixed plate, moves at 40 cm/s
and requires a force of 1 N. Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid in between the plates.

Given data:
Change of velocity, dv = 40 cm/s
Distance between the plates, dy = 0.25 mm = 0.025cm
Contact area A = 2x2 = 4 m2

Solution:

Force required, F = 1 N

Now,

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Shear stress, τ = F/A = 0.25N/m2

And τ = μ du/dy
Answer: μ = 1.54 x 10-4 Pa. s

Example 1.7: At a certain point in an oil the shear stress is 0.2 N/m2 and the velocity gradient is
0.21 s-1. If the mass density of the oil is 950 kg/ m3 find the kinematic viscosity.

Given data:
Velocity Gradient, du/dy = 0.21 s-1
.
Shear stress τ = 0.2 N/m2

Solution:

τ = μ dv/dy ; μ = 0.9524 Pa. s

Then,

Kinematic viscosity,  

Answer: ѵ = 10.02 stokes

Example 1.8: As shown in the figure a cubical block of 20 cm side and of 20 kg weight is allowed
to slide down along a plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal on which there is a film of oil having
viscosity 2.16x10-3 Ns/m2 .What will be the terminal velocity of the block if the film thickness is
0.025mm?

Figure E1.2: Cubical block sliding down along the inclined plane

Given data :

Weight = 20 kg Block dimension = 20x20x20 cm3

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 20

Solution:

Driving force along the plane; F = Wsin 30o

= 98.1 N

Shear force, τ = F/A = 2452.5 N/m2

Contact area, A = 0.2 x 0.2 m2

Also τ = μ dv/dy
Answer: V = 28.38m/s.

Example1.9: A block of weight W is sliding down an incline at constant speed V on a thin film of
oil of thickness h, as shown below:

Figure E1.3: Representation for Example 1.8

Find the speed V as a function of the other variables in the problem.

Solution:
Draw a free body diagram of the block. The forces acting on the block are its weight, W, a
normal force, N, due to pressure of the oil on the bottom surface of the block, and a viscous
force, Fviscous, due to friction on the bottom of the block.

Figure E1.4: FBD for Example 1.8

N = W cos ɸ

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 21

Fviscous = W sin ɸ

τ=µ du = µ V
dy h

Fviscous = τ. A = µVA = W sin ɸ

h

Wh sin ɸ
V=
µA

Example 1.10: The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide,
parallel plates (see Fig. 1.10) is given by the equation

3V y 2
u=
2
[1–( h
) ]
where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04 lb.s/ft2. When V = 2 ft/s and h =
0.2 in. determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the shearing stress
acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline (midplane).

Figure E1.5: Parallel plate representation for Example 1.9

Solution:

du
τ=µ
dy

evaluating the velocity gradient, du/dy,

du y 2
= d { 3V [1–( ) ]}
dy dy 2 h

= 3Vy
h2
(a) Along the bottom wall y = – h so that

du 3V
=
dy h
and therefore the shearing stress is

3V (0.04 lb.s/ft2) (3) (2 ft/s)

CHAPTER 1 h (0.2 in) (1ft/12 in.) FLUID PROPERTIES
 22

τbotto, wall = µ = = 14.4 lbf/ft2

This stress creates a drag on the wall. Since the velocity distribution is symmetrical, the shearing
stress along the upper wall would have the same magnitude and direction.

du
(b) Along the midplane , dy = 0, and thus the shearing stress is τmidplane = 0

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

When temperature increases the distance between molecules increases and the cohesive force
decreases. Therefore, viscosity of liquids decrease when temperature increases.

In the case of gases, the contribution to viscosity is more due to momentum transfer. As
temperature increases, more molecules cross over with higher momentum differences. Hence, in
the case of gases, viscosity increases with temperature.

With increase in temperature kinematic viscosity decreases in the case of liquids and increases in
the case of gases. For liquids and gases, absolute (dynamic) viscosity is not influenced significantly
by pressure, but kinematic viscosity of gases is influenced by pressure due to the change in density.
In gas flow it is better to use absolute viscosity and density, rather than tabulated values of
kinematic viscosity, which is usually for 1 atm.

1.10 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS

A property that is commonly used to characterize compressibility is the bulk modulus, K.

The bulk modulus (which is also referred to as the bulk modulus of elasticity) has dimensions of
pressure, FL-2. Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively
incompressible—that is, it takes a large pressure change to create a small change in volume.

The use of bulk modulus as a property describing compressibility is most prevalent when dealing
with liquids, although the bulk modulus can also be determined for gases.

Consider a gas enclosed inside a cylinder with initial state (P1, V1). Then it is compressed up to a
final state ((P2, V2) as shown in Fig. 1.11;

② ①

Gas

Piston
P2, V2 P1, V1

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 23

Figure 1.6: Compression of gas in a cylinder

Change in pressure, ΔP = P2 – P1 (compressive stress)

Change in Volume, ΔV = V2 – V1 (negative, because volume is reduced)

Change in volume
Volumetric strain = = – dV
Original volume V

Compressive stress dP dP
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) = = = –V
Volumetric strain ( – dV ) dV
V
Unit: N/m2

Dimension: FL -2

Compressibility (C) = 1
K
Relationship between k and P of a Gas

a. For isothermal process

p
pv = C or =C
ρ

p and v are variables, differentiating (v = specific volume)

p dv + v dp = 0 or p dv = – v dp
dp
hence p=–v and p=k
dv

b. For Adiabatic Process

pVk = C or p =C
k
V

differentiating

k k
p d(v ) + v dp = 0

p . k . v k – 1 dv + vk dp = 0

p k dv + v dp = 0

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 24

p k dv = – v dp

dp
hence pk=–v and pk=K
dv
where: k – ratio of specific heats
K – Bulk Modulus

Example 1.11: Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid if the pressure of this liquid is
increased from 70 N/cm2 to 130 N/cm2. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15%.

Given: P1 = 70 N/cm2

P2 = 130 N/cm2

Increase in pressure = 130 – 70 = 60 N/cm2

Decrease in volume = 0.15%

Solution:
– dV 0.15
= –
V 100
dP dP 60 N/cm2
Bulk Modulus, K = – v = = = 40, 000 N/cm2
dV – dV 0.15
( )
V 100

Example 1.12: What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, which is compresses in a
cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m3 at a pressure of 80 N/cm2 to a volume of 0.0124m3 and
pressure of 150 N/cm2.

Given: V1 = 0.0125 m3 V2 = 0.0124 m3

P1 = 60 N/cm2 P2 = 150 N/cm2
Solution:

Decrease in volume, dV = (0.0124 – 0.0125) = - 0.0001 m3

– dV - 0.0001
=
V 0.0125
Decrease in pressure, dp = 150 – 80 = 70 N/cm2

dP dP 70 N/cm2
Bulk Modulus, K = – v = = = 8, 750 N/cm2
dV – dV ( 0.0001 )
V 0.0125

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 25

1.11 SPEED OF SOUND

A loud speaker diaphragm causes a localized disturbance as it vibrates, and the small change in
pressure created by the motion of the diaphragm is propagated through the air with a finite
velocity. The velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called the acoustic velocity or
the speed of sound, c.

c= dp
dρ
or in terms of the bulk modulus

Ev
c=
ρ

and making use of the ideal gas law, it follows that

c= kRT

Note that the speed of sound in water is much higher than in air. If a fluid were truly incompressible
(Ev = ∞) the speed of sound would be infinite.

Example 1.13: A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 550 mph at an altitude of 35,000 ft, where the
temperature is –66oF. Determine the ratio of the speed of the aircraft, V, to that of the speed of
sound, c, at the specified altitude. Assume k =1.4.

Solution:
c = kRT = (1.40) (1716 ft. lb/slug -°R) (– 66 + 460) °R

= 973 ft/s

(550 mi/hr) (5280 ft/mi)

The air speed is V= = 807 ft/sec
(3600 sec/hr)

V 807 ft/s
The ratio is = = 0.829
c 973 ft/s

This ratio is called the Mach number, Ma. If Ma < 1.0, the aircraft is flying at subsonic speeds
whereas for Ma > 1.0, it is flying at supersonic speeds. The Mach number is an important
dimensionless parameter used in the study of the flow of gases at high speeds.

1.12 VAPOR PRESSURE

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 26

It is a common observation that liquids such as water and gasoline will evaporate if they are
simply placed in a container open to the atmosphere. Evaporation takes place because some
liquid molecules at the surface have sufficient momentum to overcome the intermolecular
cohesive forces and escape into the atmosphere. If the container is closed with a small air space
left above the surface, and this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in
the space as a result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping molecules. When an
equilibrium condition is reached so that the number of molecules leaving the surface is equal to
the number entering, the vapor is said to be saturated and the pressure that the vapor exerts on
the liquid surface is termed the vapor pressure.

Boiling, which is the formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid mass, is initiated when the
absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the vapor pressure.

When vapor bubbles are formed in a flowing fluid they are swept along into regions of higher
pressure where they suddenly collapse with sufficient intensity to actually cause structural
damage. The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a flowing fluid is called
cavitation.

In flowing liquids it is possible for the pressure in localized regions to reach vapor pressure
thereby causing cavitation.

Surface Tension (σ)

Surface tension is the apparent interfacial tensile stress (force per unit length of interface) that
acts whenever a liquid has a density interface, such as when the liquid contacts a gas, vapor,
second liquid, or a solid. The liquid surface appears to act as stretched elastic membrane as seen
by nearly spherical shapes of small droplets and soap bubbles. With some care, it may be
possible to place a needle on the water surface and find it supported by surface tension.
Or

It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the
surface between two immiscible liquid such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane
under tension.

Surface tension of liquids arises due to two kind of intermolecular forces:

 Cohesion
 Adhesion

Force of cohesion

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 27

The force of attraction between the molecules of a liquid by virtue of which they are bound
to its other to remain as one assemblage of particles. This force enables the liquid to resist
tensile stress.

Force of adhesion

The force of attraction between unlike molecules or between the molecules of a liquid and
those with a solid body when they are in contact with each other. This force enables two
different liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a solid body or surface.

The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1.11. If
the spherical drop is cut in half, the force developed around the edge due to surface tension is
2πRς. This force must be balanced by the pressure difference, Δp, between the internal
pressure pi, and the external pressure pe, acting over the circular area, πR2.

Δp = pi – pe =

Figure 1.7: Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop.

The tensile force due to surface tension acting on the circumference of the cut portion of the
droplet
=ςπd

Pressure force on the area

π d2
= Δp
4
Under equilibrium condition, tensile force = pressure force

π d2
ςπd = Δp
4
4ς 2ς
hence, Δp = =
d R
for a hollow bubble:
8ς
Δp =
d
For a liquid jet: d
2Lς 2ς
L
Lxd d
CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES
 28

Δp = =

Example 1.14: Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside
pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.

Given: d = 40 mm = 0.040 m
Δp = 2.5 N/m2

Solution:
for a hollow bubble:

8ς
Δp =
d

Δp x d 2.5 N/m2 x 0.040 m

ς = = = 0. 0125 N/m
8 8

Among common phenomena associated with surface tension is the rise (or fall) of a liquid in a
capillary tube. If a small open tube is inserted into water, the water level in the tube will rise
above the water level outside the tube (Fig. 1.12).

The height h, is governed by the value of the surface tension ς, the tube radius R, the specific
weight ɤ of the liquid, and the angle of contact θ, between the fluid and tube. From the free-
body diagram of Fig. 1.12b we see that the vertical force due to the surface tension is equal to
2πR σ cos θ and the weight is ɤπR2h and these two forces must balance for equilibrium.

ɤπR2h = 2πR ς cos θ

The angle of contact is a
h= 2ς cos θ
function of both the liquid
ɤR
and the surface. For water in
contact with clean glass θ ≈
0oC

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 29

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8: Effect of capillary action in small tubes. (a) Rise of column for a liquid that wets the
tube. (b) Free-body diagram for calculating column height. (c) Depression of column for a
nonwetting liquid.

Example 1.15: Pressures are sometimes determined by measuring the height of a column of
liquid in a vertical tube. What diameter of clean glass tubing is required so that the rise of water
at 20oC in a tube due to capillary action (as opposed to pressure in the tube) is less than 1.0
mm?

Solution:
2ς cos θ
h=
ɤR

R= 2ς cos θ
ɤh
For water at 20oC, ς = 0.0728 N/m and ɤ = 9.789 kN/m3. Since θ ≈ 0oC it follows that for h = 1.0
mm.

2 (0.0728 N/m) (1)

R= = 0.0149 m
(9.789 kN/m3) (1mm) (10-3 m/mm)

and the minimum required tube diameter, D, is D = 2R = 0.0298 m = 29.8 mm

Example 1.16: Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed
vertically in (a) water, (b) mercury.
Take ςwater = 0.0725 N/m
ςHg = 0.52 N/m
SGHg = 13.6

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 30

θHg = 1300
Solution:

Capillary rise for water

2ς cos θ 4ς cos θ 4ς cos θ

h= = =
ɤR ɤd ρgd

4 x 0.0725 N/m cos 0o

h= = 0.0118 m = 11.8 mm
1000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 x 0.0025 m

Capillary rise for mercury

2ς cos θ 4ς cos θ 4ς cos θ

h= = =
ɤR ɤd ρgd

4 (0.52 N/m) (cos 130o)

h= = – 0.004 m = – 4 mm
13.6 (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (0.0025)
m
the negative sign indicates capillary fall or depression

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 31

Name: ___________________________ Date: ______________

Course/Year/Section: _______________

Assignment Seatwork

PROBLEM SET 1

1. Express the following quantities in SI units: (a) 10.2 in./min, (b) 4.81 slugs, (c) 3.02lb, (d) 73.1
ft/s2, (e) 0.0234 lb·s/ft2.

2. Verify the dimensions, in both the FLT and MLT systems, of the following quantities which
appear in Table 1.2. (a) angular velocity, (b) energy, (c) moment of inertia (area), (d) power,
and (e) pressure.

3. A container weighs 3.22 lb force when empty. Filled with water at 60°F the mass of the
container and its contents is 1.95 slugs. Find the weight of the water in the container and its
volume in cubic feet. Assume density of water = 62.4 lb force/ft3.

4. The kinematic viscosity of oxygen at 20°C and a pressure of 150 kPa (abs) is 0.104 stokes.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of oxygen at this temperature and pressure.
Ans. 2.05 x 10-5 N-s/m2

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 32

5. According to information found in an old hydraulics book, the energy loss per unit weight of
fluid flowing through a nozzle connected to a hose can be estimated by the formula

h = (0.04 to 0.09) (D/d)4 (V2/2g)

where h is the energy loss per unit weight, D the hose diameter, d the nozzle tip diameter, V
the fluid velocity in the hose, and g the acceleration of gravity. Check if this equation is valid
in any system of units.

Name: ___________________________ Date: ______________

Course/Year/Section: _______________

Assignment Seatwork

PROBLEM SET 2

1. Clouds can weigh thousands of pounds due to their liquid water content. Often this content
is measured in grams per cubic meter (g/m3). Assume that a cumulus cloud occupies a
volume of one cubic kilometer, and its liquid water content is 0.2 g/m3. (a) What is the
volume of this cloud in cubic miles? (b) How much does the water in the cloud weigh in
pounds?

2. A tank of oil has a mass of 3 0 slugs. (a) Determine its weight in pounds and in newtons at
the earth's surface. (b) What would be its mass (in slugs) and its weight (in pounds) if
located on the moon's surface where the gravitational attraction is approximately one-sixth
that at the earth's surface?

3. If p is a pressure, V a velocity, and ρ a fluid density, what are the dimensions (in the MLT
system) of (a) p/ρ, (b) pVρ, and (c) p/ρV2?

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 33

4. The viscosity of a certain fluid is 5 x 10-4 poise. Determine its viscosity in both SI and BG
units.

5. Crude oil having a viscosity of 9.52 X 10-4 Ib·s/ft2 is contained between parallel plates. The
bottom plate is fixed and upper plate moves when a force P is applied (Fig. P1.1). If the
distance between the two plates is 0.1 in., what value of P is required to translate the plate
with a velocity of 3 ft/s? The effective area of the upper plate is 200 in.2. Ans. 0.476 lb

Figure P1.1: Plate with fixed bottom and upper moving

Name: ___________________________ Date: ______________

Course/Year/Section: _______________

Assignment Seatwork

PROBLEM SET 3

1. The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81
kN/m3). The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Compute the density of water and the
specific weight and density of mercury.

2. A 40-lb, 0.8-ft-diameter, I-ft-tall cylindrical tank slides slowly down a ramp with a constant
speed of 0.1 ft/s as shown in Fig. P1.2. The uniform-thickness oil layer on the ramp has a
viscosity of 0.2 lb. s/ft2. Determine the angle, θ of the ramp. Ans. 7.22o

Figure P1.2: Cylindrical tank on the ramp

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 34

3. A piston having a diameter of 5.48 in. and a length of 9.50 in. slides downward with a
velocity V through a vertical pipe. The downward motion is resisted by an oil film between
the piston and the pipe wall. The film thickness is 0.002 in., and the cylinder weighs 0.5 lb.
Estimate V if the oil viscosity is 0.016 Ib·s/ft2. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is
linear. Ans. 0.00459 ft/s

4. A tire having a volume of 3 ft3 contains air at a gage pressure of 26 psi and a temperature of
70 oF. Determine the density of the air and the weight of the air contained in the tire. Ans.
0.622 lb

5. Calculate the speed of sound in m/s for (a) gasoline, (b) mercury, and (c) seawater.

Name: ___________________________ Date: ______________

Course/Year/Section: _______________

Assignment Seatwork

PROBLEM SET 4

1. Oxygen at 30°C and 300 kPa absolute pressure expands isotherrnalIy to an absolute
pressure of l20 kPa. Determine the final density of the gas. Ans. 1.52 kg/m3

2. Air is enclosed by a rigid cylinder containing a piston. A pressure gage attached to the
cylinder indicates an initial reading of 25 psi. Determine the reading on the gage when the
piston has compressed the air to one-third its original volume. Assume the compression
process to be isothermal and the local atmospheric pressure to be 14.7 psi. Ans. 104 psig

3. The viscosity of liquids can be measured through the use of a rotating cylinder viscometer of
the type illustrated in Fig. P1.3. In this device the outer cylinder is fixed and the inner
cylinder is rotated with an angular velocity ω. The torque ㆜, required to develop ω is
measured and the viscosity is calculated from these two measurements. Develop an
equation relating µ, ω, ㆜, ℓ, Ro and Ri. Neglect end effects and assume the velocity
distribution in the gap is linear.

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 35

Figure P1.3: Rotating cylinder viscometer

4. The space between two 6-in. long concentric cylinders is filled with glycerin (viscosity = 8.5 X
10-3 Ib·s/ft2). The inner cylinder has a radius of 3 in. and the gap width between cylinders is
0.1 in. Determine the torque and the power required to rotate the inner cylinder at 180 rev
/min. The outer cylinder is fixed. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap to be linear.
Refer to Fig. P1.3. Ans. 0.944 ft.-lb, 17.8 ft-lb/s

Name: ___________________________ Date: ______________

Course/Year/Section: _______________

Assignment Seatwork

PROBLEM SET 5

1. The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81
kN/m3). The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Compute the density of water and
the specific weight and density of mercury.

2. One cubic foot of oxygen at 100°F and 15 psia is compressed adiabatically to 0.4 ft. What
then, are the temperature and pressure of the gas. If the process had been isothermal, what
would the temperature and pressure have been?

3. In a test to determine the bulk modulus of a liquid it was found that as the absolute
pressure was changed from 15 to 3000 psi the volume decreased from 10.240 to 10.138 in.3
Determine the bulk modulus for this liquid. Ans. 3 x 105 psi

4. A formula for estimating the volume rate of flow, Q. over the spillway of a dam is

Q = C 2g B (H + V2/2g)3/2

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

 36

where C is a constant, g the acceleration of gravity, B the spillway width, H the depth of
water passing over the spillway and V the velocity of water just upstream of the dam. Check
if this equation be valid in any system of units.

5. A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a 0.1-in. gap
between the two plates filled with glycerin as shown in Fig. P1.4. Determine the torque
required to rotate the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm. Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear stress on the edge of the rotating plate is negligible.
Ans. 0.0772 ft-lb

Figure P1.4: Illustration for Example 1.5

CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES