A project of Volunteers

in Asia

by: Brenda Borta,

Jack

Ruttle,

and Marc Podems

ewsp Inc. 33 Ea8t Minor Street Emmaws, PA 18049 USA

bo, Inc.

Brenda Bortz Jack Ruttle Murc Podsms

St many people think of tish as a potential crop. Ru: thatsjust what carp, catfish, trout, and bassare. Till recently, fi3h has been a wild foc:din this country -hunted and caddhtin opctnwater: , then taken homeor to ma&t. But all that is changing.Wild stock is being dcpletrd by overfishing and cou!;~mirlatccl industry, and by the cost ot trcsh and frozen fish keeps climbing. Luckily, theres a happyending to this fish story. In other landspeople havebeen stocking, breeding, fecding, andharvesting fish for centuries. And more recently, American s&Intists havebegun to domesticatede, siratle native specieslike truut and r%,,tfish. Putting this knowhow to work, cummerLia1 farms now raise huge numbersof fish much like agribusiness erode cx tie and chickens. At the oth,. extreme, countrv peopie still en,01the farm pond-stocked for ;ecre,ltion and occasionalmeals, but not truly cultured. Now, though, theres a middle ground. Its a backyardfish culture, ;I method that lets you grow fish like a gardencrop. Like the foods you grow in 4, the fish in your water garden will need regular at tention and feeding or fertilization. Cared for in this way, a pond the sizeof a modest swimming pool can supplyenoughfish for a family,Artda typical farm pond can yield enoughto haveplenty left over for sale. Backyml fish vs. barnyard animale For many people, a crop of fish can alsoturn out to be the best choice in livestock. Highly digestible and low,in fat, fish are rich in protein. And their protein comes closer t. meeting the bodysneeds than meat protein does. Sincefish are cold blooded, they

WIWBEAFlSHFARMER

dont burn food just to keep warm. Whichmeanst Iicy arcone of t Iits most energy efficient livestock around. And unlike barnyard animals, theyre absolutely quicl and odorless. Since theres no pen or manurepile to offend the neighbors, raising fish is .analmost invisible wily to grow sonit~ of your own nit\& in town or in the suburbs.

CREATINGABALANCED
J&t like organic gardening, fish culturr involvesworking with a whole living system. Ihc water that will be your growth mediumis much more than the equivalentof nourishing garden soil. Its also the atmosphere that provides life-giving oxygen. Many forces interact in this total environmtnt, and as a beginner in aquacultureyoull want to know about those that directly affect fish.

72*

Clean water is a must in fish culture, and fortunately the water in most farm ponds, rural streams, springs, and wells is naturally clean, Keep in mind, though, that the kind of water best for fish farming is far from crystal clear. A healthy bloom of algaeis vital to a high-yielding system, and these microscopicpea green to ruddy brown plants can make water look soupy. If you suspect, however,that your water source contains man-madepollutants, you shouldhaveit analyzed. Yourcounty Agricultural Extension Agent or your statesFish and Came Commissionpeople can tell you how to do this. Youmust also be alert to natural sourcesof trouble. Even ordinary soil ai ded by erosion or the rooting of ducks can foul water too nluch for the fishes liking, In heavily stocked lx)ndg, droppings the fish thcmselvescan get thick enought, tn clog 110with tiny particles. Unconsumedbits of food can do the same thing. Happily, these prr>blems arent
frm

common-especially when other org;lnisms in the pondare doing their work. Temperature is crucial. Because fish are cold bloodedanimals, they can be grown only when and where the climate and water supply cooperate to provide water temperatures within their growing range. Moreover, eachkind of fish favorsa specific itimperature ringe. Some flourish only in cold waters. Others wont grow and reproduce well unless the water is very warm. The water temperature you will have to work with can be closely tied to the temperature of your water source, If ym- source water flows fast from an undergrounclsupply,its temperature will bc roughly the same as that of the groundwater in your area. (See Fig. 1,) On the other hand, if your scrurctwater tricvklcs from below rat her than gushes, it will be warmed somewhat as it passesslowly through the ground below the frost line.
emend

Air temperature alsogreatly influences pond water temperatures. As a rule of thumb, water temperature in a pond tends tn approachthe averageair temperature. Ib get a good ideaof what that is, scanthe table of averagemonthly temperatures for your area. (Get this from the nearest U.S. WeatherBureau. Or look it up at the library in TheClimdic Atlas qf thi> U&&St&s or in a good almanacor encyclopedia. 1 Since pond water responds slowly to changesin air temperature, the water temperature in your pond will be slightly behind the temperature rise in spring and the drop in fall. For the samereason, pond water is usually cooler than the hottest air during the day and warmer than the coolest air at night. The deeper the pond, the less the changein water temperature between night and day. In small ponds, however,watcr temperature can changea fair amounton a summers day and will follow seasonalchanges in air temperature more closely,This meansthat to be on the safe side in choosingfish, you shouldknow both averagemonthly air temperatures and the approximatehighest temperature your pond water is apt to reach in the summer, (Fish Commission people can help you with that estimate.) As all this suggests,eachregion has a growing ?ieason fish, for Though pond size, source-water temperature, and climate affect the length of this Beason,it will correspond roughly to the frost-free period rdening in your area, Ho& close it comes youll haveto determine from e~pg.$ence,

mant in winter, algaewill grow a lit4

tie. Water tcmpcrturt~ will centt-01 t hc rate of trll activity at any t imr. A very rough rultbis that the sptaect of life proct*sstlsin fish andalgat~ doublcs \tV.i+ h each 15Frise in tt~mpt~raturc. Oxygen is bital to high yit+ls in fish culture. Unlike :lir, water has very little ability to hold oxygen. In 5 parts of air, 1 part is oxygen. Kr( i 1 I Gllion parts of water, only 11) ICoxygen. And so the availabilityof oxygen is often what puts a limit on how much life a pondcan suppert. Someof the oxygen useclup by pond life is rcplat~t~ct the air. from Cooler water will hold more oxygen than warm water. So when oxygen levels fall below the norm at a given temperature, oxygen molecules moveinto spacesin the water from the air aboveit. At 50F water will hold 11.3ppm (parts per million) of oxygen. AT 60*F the saturation point is 9.6 ppm, at 70F-9 ppm, at 80F-8 ppm. and at 9O0F 4 ppm. -7 Now its mucheasier for relatively shallowpondsof 3 to 5 feet in depth to maintainthese full oxygenlevels naturally. Thats becauseshallow pondshavea large surface areacompared to volume, so a larger portion of water is in contact with the air. Wind also can help greatly. First, by makingripples or waves,it magnifies the surface area of a pond, Second, wind steadily brings fresh air into [*ontactwith the water, thus steppingup the rate of oxygenexchangefrom rich to depletedareas. (Larger ponds take advantageof wind best, becausethey give movingair more chanceto kick up waveo.) irl addition to air, another source chargeswater with oxygen. Its the process of photosynthesis, Wheneveroxygenio used up in ihe water by bacteria breaking down organic matter-or by higher forma of animaland plant life --carbun dioxide

is produced, This abundantgas, together with sunlight and water, is used by plants to make their food via photosynthesis. And so for each moleculeof carbon dioxide plants take in, they return a moleculeof oxygen to the water. The most important plants contributing oxygen to water are algae, and under ideal conditions algaeand still or movingair will keep :I pond supplied,But the amountof oxygen a cultivated pond will need dependson how much fish you plan to grow in it. TheoreticaNyat least, your goal in fish farming ought to bc first, to find tho anwnt of fish that the oxygenin your water can support, and beyond that, to find ways to make the algatb populationhealthier so it can donate more oxygen. But all this is easier saidthan done, for many factors make it difficult to

t.outIt 0t1i1fixtbdam~~unt oxygc*t~ of from ZdgiIcB. liiktl of thts nlNly t ypc*S makesOXYK~V iit iI difftbrtbnt riltt*. li)o, its itiipo~siblt~ tc I; rot which to specieswill gthtinto your pond, or to tc4lhow to Creiltc t hc t.onttitions that dtGrablr* t ypcs will like. Moreovt*r, for POapparen reasont hc Cl0lllitlill~t specaic5 your pond may changein SlOWlj t hC! SUiISOtl progresst5. iIS Another vari;rM~is the \vtb;lt her, for the rattbof p:lotosynthesisdependsdirectly on the sun, Typically, the oxygen I~wIs in your pond wilt changeeven I)n i\ CICNday. Ijy midmorning the dj@tJ will b 1 hilt4 lit work, and there will he plenty of oxygen, By early afternoon the dissolved oxygen will be at maximumconcentration. Your pond should stay saturated with oxygen nearly to sunset. When the temperatures are right at those times, you can be sure the fish

are feeding activer.*and growing well, even though you cat t see them in the pea soup-greenthrter. I At sunset, natural oxygenproduction stops, but oxygen use by all pond life goes on. By the next morning, n levelswill be low but tolerable 1~fish, and at sunrise the aster will begin to be chargedb; the algae. On a cloudy day,of course, the algaewill generate much less oxygen, and there will be much less to tide over the pond populationat night. Cool weather alsowill slow photosynthesis slightly. The f4 chain i<s her major anot force at work in the a+rntic environment. As the term implies, all life in the water is linked together. And every plant and animalis destined to be eaten by the being on the next higher level of the chain. Interestingly, a creaturessource of food rather than its size is what fixes its position on the food chain. Because algaemake their food from gas, light, and water, they are at the first level. And becausesomevery large fish feed directly on m&i canedzoop fish are themselvesquite low on the d pond, its these plankton feeders that will grow best with the least attention to supplenatd foods in the becauselike grass in a

suppliedby nature or by you, there will be a rich bloom of algae. And the algalpop&t ion will expanduntil all free nutrients are absorbcclin balancedamounts. But there can be an excessof nutrients. For example,algalgrowth can get so thick that the surface layer keeps light from algaebelow and stat ves it. When this happens,decay organismsthrive on the deadalga, increasinguntil they exhaust the oxygen supply.Then more dieback occurs, other organismsare favored, and the cyclecan continue. Working with the food chain is a big must in raising fish in quantity. In a mature pond left on its own, life will reach a balancedstate, Ch;ulgesin dominantspeciesand in oxygenlevels will be gradual. But that is not the casein fish culture. Man-madepondsare frequently very youngecosystems, with most of their life concentrated in just a few types of organisms. Furthermore inputs like large quantities of fish and feed haveimmediateeffects on the natural food chain andon the demand for oxygen. Still, any healthy pond requires a balance. Youmight say that fostering and maintaininga manmade balanceis the scienceof fish farming. To practice this science successfully, you have to regulate all amounts of fish, feed, fertilizer, and oxygen. The ideais to keep them in right relation to each other an pond, Here are from experience that

t:

readily availablespecks mostly eat organismshigher 011 food &ain the and will quickly deplete your ponds natural foods. For all of these fish, youll need commercialfeed blends-- readily availablefrom livestock feed suppliers. Actually, to get bumper crops of llt,ay fish, supplementing natural foods is nearly always essential. The next point to remember is lhzli feeding at productive rates stimulates rapid growth and higher waste levels. Since more oxygen 8iii be neededby the fast-growing ush an to ready the Bystemto absorb their wastes, you might need to fertilize with manure. The life-giving nutrients thus provided will multiply algae, zooplankton,and bacteria, These will feed on the detritus and provide more oxygen and fee fish. To determine if you do need to add fertilizer, there is a simple test you can make. If your algaeare adequate, they shouldbe so thick that you cant see any deeper than 15to 18inches into the water, To find out if this is so, mark the inches off stick andI ail a tin can end. Then >ush the into the watr=;until from sight. Next check the high w Ifthelidisvis you shouldfertilize with manure. For eachacre of pond surface, use 500

) snd place them in the

Manuring will be most succrssful in ponds where warm water fish will grow. In large pondswith watr:r ttlmptratures between FiO*F tiOE and may havetroubto getting a thick bhom of algaeevenif you add much manure. But then the trout and othtbr cold water speciesyou would grow there prefer C r water anyway. Aerating: Youcan suppk~mt~tlt oxygen contributed by air at~!l algaeby paying attention to the ty enclosureyou choose,to and to mechanicaldevices that help oxygen exchange.For illstance, by impoundinga section of stream with a dam or netlike fence, you can ti~ak~~I a fish farm that is alwaysbeing suppliedwith freshly oxygenatedwater. (Tbmbling, rolling fast-moving water breaks into wavesCancl splashes that take more oxygenfrom the air.) If you do farm a stream or brook, however,you wont easily reap the benefits of fertilization, for the manure will be washedfar downstream. The samething can happento your fish food unlessyou devise a stationary feeder that can resist the current. Rememberthat your wasted feed or fertilizer is po1lut.i~~ your for neighbor downstream. And that adding these materials without being sure of their effects and destination is illegal as well as wasteful. A better system would be to tap a portion of the stream water via a or ditch. You might mute it thmu omal! pond b by, then back to the kiarncpotenthe BEtream, tial problems exist, this kind of setup is more easily controlled, Youcan regulate the amount of water and rate of flow. And when storms swell the stream with water, mud, and debris, you can disconnect your enctoyou W&?.

e manureif needed, be but

of the stream you n by creating a small waterfall or spillway over rocks. This way you can chargea 9

small amountof incoming water as it enters a relatively large pool. This water also will bring in some oxygen-makingalgaeand some fish foods. If the enclosureis much larger than the stream and much of the water remainswithin it for a week or so, you might encouragemore algae with tow level fertilization. To take full advantageof aeration 5y wind, make the surface area larger rather than deepen the water when you want to increaseyour ponds Also, au&t locations where trees or buildingswill keep wind or sun from the surface. The water surface shouldntlie too far below the banks either -especially in small ponds. In some parts of the country mechanicalaerators may be necessary if youre stocking and feeding a pond for higher production. The amountof supplementaryaeration you need will depend upon your pondsnatural oxygen levels- linked. of course, to wind and photosynthesis- and on the quantity of fish youvestocked per cubic foot of water, Though mechanicalaerating easily removesany doubts about adequate oxygen, youd best start small, for the cost of the aerator and the power to fun it easily can becomeone of your bi et expensesin fish culture. In very small grands bubbling try aerators - the kind (1, uwd in ten aquariumtarke, They are cheapand ulw rit tk pov&?r. a 490~Square-foot In pond, try two with four aeration tubes on each. In a larger pond, you might have: use Purfaceaerators, to which churn or spray t hr*water. Figpower of aerator for
vchme.

boost your pondsoxygenduring the dog days of summer. The reasonis that in sunny and very hot weather algaebegin to grow much more vigorously than usual. Then whtw cloudy and perhapsslightly cooler weather sets in for a few days, oxygen production drops suddenly.Since the wry high oxygendcrnx~ct t hc* of expandedpopulationcant bc met, some pond life will die. This is the time when fish kills are most common, andin someplaces they occur regularly once or twice a season.The problem is wor;~~ at night awl is hcightent~rl cte7ayof b the deadalgae. in a situ,rtion like this, a I/20 h.p. aerator may supply enoughoxygen to sIlpport several hundredpoundsof fish, usingjust

tts of power a day At 3 cents a kilowatt hour, 12cent9 a day is a smallprice to pay for tiding your fish through. Another remedy if oxyget7levelsbecome perilously low is to harvest aomc fish. This will quickly reduce the dcmano on the oxygen source,

PUTTIp;sc A kI$HPOND IN
One of the missionsof the Soil Conservation Service is to help nds that will last. SiS

en& kxal kxdkkm if your project is for vnu to do yourself. y states havelaws that regu-

late the ww of water and the design andconstruction of ponds. Somereq+e that plansfor a dam be approvedby a state agencybefore a construction permit is granted. So before you start buildinga pond, End out what laws apply locally. Prior to talking with anyoneat the Soil Conservation Service, youll want to give your situation some thought. Here are some major aspects to consider and some terhniquesyou might find useful. Selecting u dte: To fill your pond and replenish water lost by evaporation and seepage,locate it near a dependable SOWC~of good water, PO+ sible sourcesare springs, wells, streams, andthe runoff from rain. Runoff is the least dependable,and in

areasof light rainfall a pond filled by runoff must be oversizedto carry the fish through drought. The soil at your site -1ust be able to hold water, or youll haveto seal the pond artificially. Clay and silty clay are good for wnds, and sandy clay sometimes holds water adequately.But areaswith rock outcroppings,limestone, shaleledges, or gravel require sealing. For a good preliminary soil test, wet a handfulwith just enoughwater to dampen.Then squeeze.If the soil holdsits shapeafter you open your hand, its probably good for a pond. There are two basictypes of ponds. Impoundingpondsare best suited to hilly areas. They use dams or banksof earth to bloc;:off the openingbetween two banksor slopes andare usuallyeasier to build becituseless earth must be moved. Most of the reservoir created is abovethe natural ground level, though the size or depth can be increasedby excavation. Excavatedponds are pits dug below the pond surface, usually where land is fairly flat. There is no definite rule for choosingbetween the two types, But if the land surroundingyour site slopesmore than 4 percent, an impoundingpond is likely to work. To determine the slope, drive a stake into your site at the highest point you expect the water to reach. Then drive mother stake in about 10 feet downhill, Ussing carpenter$ a level, tie some strin between the two stakes. Measure

though i3naIIpondsare cheaperto 12

bu3d. Allow at Icast 10cubic fecat of spacefor every poundof fish you ex. pect to harvest. T) get 100pounds, youll need a pond with at least 35 feet of surface :wI a dcpt h of 3 feet. By the way, waters less than a yard deep do not makeefficient ustl of surface area. Ioo, weeds grow best in shallowwater. In addition to increasingoxygen demand, they provide youngfish with protect ion from predators. This increasesthe chancesfor overpopulationand stunt ing. On the other hand, water at a depth of over 15feet contains lit tic :ixygen srncealgaedont grow well over 10feet down. The most productive depth is between 3 and 10feet, and the most convenientshapefor harvesting with nets is a rectangle. Constructing the pond: After clearing the site, outline the perimeter with stakes and string. Excavate by hand, backhoe,or bulldozer, making the bottom slope from 2 to 5 percent to improvedrainage. Install a series of pipes and trenches to carry off excess water from heavy rain safelyand to drain the pond for harvest. (If your pond is small, you can use a pump or syphon.) (To connect a stream to your pond for a ready supplyof water, install a tube or dig a channel.Or use a sump pump. Filter the stream water before tt enters the pond with a good material such as Saranscreen, style MS-904 (manufacturedby National Filter Media Corporation, 1717Dixwell Ave., New Haven, Corm. 06514). If your water flow is tight, make the screen into a sock and placeit over the end of the inlet pipe. For a heavier Wow, a rigid filter or float+ use ing box. (Saranfilters, which are fine emugh to stop al! but the smallestof wild fry, must be cleanedperiodically.) 591~ next steb is to build the dikes and dams. Make them wide enough to withstand the pressure of the pond

water. A wall shouldbe shapedso that the baseis at least twice as wide as its total height. The top shouldbe at least as wide as its total height and at least 20 incheshigher than the water, And the walls shouldbe tapered gradually from top to base. Whenyou finish, plant grass on them, Bealing the pond: Before sealing, thoroughly compactthe sides and bottom with specialequipment. For ponds, you can make 8 tamping

rsmp!ets!y cover the manure with

freshly-cut grass, green leaves, and flattened cardboardcartons. Then add a layer of so11 firmly tamp and down all three I&Ayers. 3 weeks Wait before filling the pond. Youcan also sealsmall ponds with polyvinyl sheets, sold in many sizes by swimmingpool dealers. To determine the length of sheeting you need, addtwice the maximumdepth of the pool to the length. For the width, addtwice the maximumdepth to the width, Then add 14 feet all aroundto aUowplenty of overlap. Dig a shallowlO- to 124nch-wide trench around the perimeter of the pond. Put the liner in the pond, pult moderately taut, and evenly r it with 6 inchesof soil. Place s in the trench and cover them with soil to hold them down and protect them from detcrioratinp in sunlight. 13

For large ponds, bentonite is the most commonly used sealant. It is availablein W-pound bags through someceramic dealers. Mll need 8 poundsfor each squarefoot if your soil is very sandyaild 2 to 4 pounds for soil with more clay. If possib!;, consult your Extension Agent for a~ evaluationof your soil porosity and bentonite needs. Rut if you haveto establishappiication rates for yourself, a distributor oft he clay suggeststhat you punch holes in the bottom of a container, put in a couple inches of your subsoil andcompactit tightly, Then add a small, measured of bentonite and work it lightly into the surface. Add water to see if this amountseals. If it doesnt, continue addingmeasured amountsof clay until seepagq stops. Then estimate your pondsreqllirements by using the sameratio of Turfacearea to qiWtity of bentonite that worked in the s~:),,:l container. (To be on the safe sk i , aticl15percent more bentonite.1
iVlloUllt

SPOCKING Yom SYSTEM The best tim- 5 to stock fish are early spring and late f;lU.Then coohzr temperatures reduce the rate of metabolismso the fish movemo:e &wly and need less oxygen. They are easier to handleand there is less chancethat any will die. Consult mur states Fish Commissinn for lists of local commercial hatcheries. ItL even possiblethat the Gonor Suil Cnn~rvae in yuwr utatr will provide tattah~tc~ric~.

If a speciesis readily availablelocally, it may Ixnwell adaptedto your growing conditions. Certainly it will be thcscheapestto buy. If t;y chance you cant find the fish you want nearby, youll find many sources for all the speciesdcscribcd here listed in the Cn~rr~~icrl FL& F~~I~~Kx &ym Guide (availablefor $2.50 from Subscription Service, E? Box 0. 4922, Manchester NH 03105). Ynn may order Wl frotn these dealers via air express. Be sure to learn the exact time the fish will leave the hatchery and make arrangementsto meet thettt at the airport no matter what time they arrive. Keep in mind that thcl fish you choosemust be suited to your c-Iimate. In selecting from the catalog that follows, you should(lj estimate the highest water temperature in your pond in the summer,(2) identify the speciesthat cantolerate that temperature, (3) estimate the average water temperature that will prrvail over most of your growing season, (4) narrow your list to fish that do well at that temperature, and (5) determine the length of your growing seasons the fish youvechosenso n* you can decide what size to stock. Yearlingfish, which are 3 to 8 incheslong, havea Letter chance than smaller fingerlingstn survive and reach edible size in Oneseason. Though growing time and stocking rates vary with eachspeciesand the climate, a good rule of thumb is that at Ieast 10cubic feet of water i$ eachpmcl of fish nere ry to *villtake at least 6 and t jCiP1 mrntho tf9 mature, yl)u canslama+ Qume that 40 percent of each pound you harvest will be iost when you clrm the fish.

15

A CAIRLOGOF Fl

Common Carp (Lj@hs catpio). A specialvariety developedfor hardiness and productivity is called Israeli (or Mirror) Carp.

Oxygen: C;uttolerate as few as 0.5 ppm, Grow best with 4 ppm and mare,

Ammonia: Cantolerate as much as 1.2ppm. pH: Slightly alkaline(7.5)is best, but standas much as 9. Hardneee: Usually takes care of itself. At least 50 ppm of calciumand magnesiumions is recommended, Turbidity: Can tolerate high level of suspendedsolids. Hardinees: W very hardy, Strongest cultivated fish w resisting disease,adjusting to low oxygen levele.

Feede: All eat low on food chainand forage well, Comma-Jn eat pond carp ismgand part ially didetritus, including ai matter of other ti%h,Gras% feed on aqua& phtg, inolud scum formed by Namentousa They wib readily eat garden vcgetk

Stacking: Canbe combinedwith othrr fish to use more of pondsnatural food supply and increasetotal harvest, Wontcompete much with other sprecies food, Canhelp for make pond mare productive by ccmtrolling pianktorl growth. Combining bur kinds of carp makesone of most productive tow energy systems yet tested, yielcimgup to 3ooOpounds

Channel Catfish (Ictulum~ pui~~!U~) Brown Bullhead Catfish (1.

THECATFISH FA

Hardness: At least 50 ppnr of calcium and magnesiumions recommended. Turbidity: E:!xatc high level of suspendedsolids from natural and rartificial sources. Like common carp, spendmuch time in muddy water on pond bottom. Hardiness: Cancontract bacterial infections, viruses. or parasitic diseaser if oxygen, ammonia,and temperature Iev& not maintained,Have normal mortality rate of 7-13 percent when conditiong ideal.

n: Grow well at more than 4 pp.m.At less than that, may not eat, thus weakeningresistance to diseaser and parasites. turn:: Grow mogt effilow 1 ppm. 2

Stocking: Will compete for limited

food supply with other speciesthat eat inwcts, amphibians,of stlr;lll fish. Somecatfish speciestend to be hottom feeders so might compete lit tie with srpeck~that feed nearer the surface. When prolific fish like bluea are grown with catfish, young will provide extra food for catfish. For edible fish in one season,stock about 2090 6-inch fish per surface acre, For

percent and f&t levels

uffacr acre. They mu

North.

19

M-I Orrygen: can tolerate fewer than 2.5-3 ppm, Best growth at 5-g ppm. Temperature: Optimum is between 73e??% Abow MJ*Fand below @PFgrowth declines significantly

Turbidity: Shouldhaveclear water. Especiallyimportant becausethey eat Livefood andmust be able to see it. They also reproduce only when water is relatively clear Hardinees: Fairly hardy within limits of good water quality. But require relatively high levelsof cxygen for active feeding and prefer narrow temperature range. Feedlo: Chiefly feed on invertebrates like insect larvae, water fleas, adult insects, algae, freshwater shrimp, mali crayfish, and snails. Also eat youngamphibiansand small fish. In summer may turn to plants because of lack of animalfoods. Bluegills also eat pelleted chows and food scraps. Bassmust he trained to eat pelleted feeds. lUoinformation availableon feed uttiation.

Growth rate: May reacheating size of 1 poundin 6-9 months if supplemental feed given. Otherwise can take up to 6 years. Stocking: Bluegills reproduce so rapidly that often growers get weight of fish plannedfor, but all the fish are too tiny to cleanand cook. One solution: stock hybrid sunfish, which do not reproduce well. Or stock bluegills with larger fish that will feed on extra fw The bass-with-bluegillcombination is popular,But be sure the pond will maintaintemperatures at which the bassfeed, or the bluegills will over-

populateand the basswill be too sluggishto chasedown the fry. Also, dont harvest too many bass, lest you interrupt reproduction and reduce the number of predators neededto keep bluegills in check. Do harvest the bluegills fairly heavily. Recommendedstocking rates are 100bassto 8004000 bluegills per surface acre. (These rates may be low since they are basedon untended pond culture,) As you harvest both speciesby fishing, maintainthis 8 or 10to 1 weight ratio. If stocking only hybrid sunfish, put in 1000~2000 5-inch fish per surface acre when feeding to harvest in one season,For longer time to harvest, stock same number of l-inch fish, Availability: Hatcheries in almost all states raise some kind of sunfish.

21

Turbidity: Oxygen: At bet 5 ppm for good growth. Growth declines Tempereture: !W-H.PF is OK, but S%tYF is best. Severely stressed above70E Ammonia: Over .7ppm is harmful. pH: Can live in water from 6 to 8. II: Hard wrtcr C50450 ppm calciummd urn bnr) produces trout more economkally than soft water.

Must haveclear water to

age than moet warm water specirio. If idealconditions provided, death from 2-13 percent. rate
still

: Eat high on the chain. Mostly dgs, Noturd feeds include in-

smakr fish). Wii eat 1-12 perGentof body weigM dependingon their size and water temperature.

Feed utilimtion: Need about 2 poundsof feed to produce 1 poundof meat. About l/3 of total feed must be protein, te: Yearlingsgiven extra ch l-pound eating size in 6 months. Without supplemental feed, will take 3-4 years. Stocking Usually not compatible with other speciesbecauseof extremely high demandfor oxygen and

of mature trout, To harveet in one % Avallebility: Crown by moot in northern half of U.S.

me of the most important food fishes thrrNtghoutthe world. At least 14different species been raised in both small and ponds. Their popular-it stems y hey rre hardy, d growers, and gmd tasting. Sincethey are tropical fish, in all but the warmest regions of the U.S., ~ilapii haveto be brought in for the winter and perhapskept in a heated pond. Becausethey reproduce prolifically, it is quite possibleto stock a few and end up with a pondful of tiny fish, If they survive the winter and reproduce, their wid spreadingCM ten other fish populatisn~. tstea haveoutlawed them becan surviw a5 fbwas causeof unique srbiloxygenfrom the air. Temperature: Thrive in water from 64WPE From 6lQGWF can survive but are lethargic. I3&w so0

35 percent coffee pulp, 24 percent corn, 20 percent molasses,10percent bran, 10percent cottonseed meal, and 1 percent urea. They also take pelleted feeds. Javatilapia feed mainly on plankton but do eat all kinds of plants and vegetable feeds such as soybeanor grain meal. If there is no plant food, they will acceptanimalfood. Nile tilapia reportedly feed on plankton, higher plan& and animal food, Feed ut Ilht ion: Blue tilapia cnnsum@ t hm their weight in pelless leted feeds in grow The rest of that we natural feeds. No information is avail;~ble other two species. on Crswth cats: Varieo production, iwd itvtilable food, Dshould reilch eating size of at lea5t I/3 pound in 1 year of growing time if axes raised together, but cartgrow to this t3izein as tit tie as 4

mmths. Under ideal conditionsjava tiiapti rr~y reach nearly 1 poundin one yea In salt water, may grow to 1 poundin 8 months. Try to obtain all

successfullywith channelcatfish and largemouth bass. Since some carp havedifferent feed requirements than tilspia, includingthem means better use of the pond$foodstuffs. Wereare mme stocking rates and combinationsof fingerlings per surface acre for polyculturesyielding edible fish in one season:loo0 tilapia, 500 channelcatfish, and 100 largemouthbassOR loo0 Javatilapia, loo0 Nile tilapir, and 200 largemouth

26

After painting both framt5 for durability, stapk a 34x44 piece of screeningonto the outer frame so it forms a concavecatch basin. Next, hinge the inner frame to t hc inside of a narrow end of the outer frame. Tying a s-foot length of heavy nylon string to the opposite end of the insideframe, attach a small float to the other end of the string so you can removethe feeder from the pond kly. Finally,place a stone in the end of the catch basinwhich has the float. The rock shouldbe just heavy enoughto sink the catch basinso its at a 45* angleto the surface. Sinking feeds pbced in the floating inner frame will drop onto the catch basin. Floating feeds will stay in the upper frame. Sincefish are sold by numbersof sizedindividualsand not by weight, you will alsoneed some sort of bathroom scaleor heavy-duty hanging meat scaleto figure out feeding rates ar.dmonitor growth. A dip net and

large buckets also would be usttfui. Mfrlu might also want to make provisions for a supplementaryat5~tion system. Ii) locate suppliers for such fish care musts, chrck with t ht* Fish Commission.Or consult the very completeConr~~til Fisk Fwnw~
Btiyrs Gttidp.

About 6 weeks or so before you get your fish, you also will want to order some simple water testing materials. Use them and an outdoor thermometer to start checking watrnr quality at least 2 week s before you stock the pond. To take tetnperature readings, f icf the thermometer to a woodenflo:rf so it hangsabout a foot below t hc float in 3 feet of water. For a got)(i reading, keep it in the water fcT era1minutes, then retrieve :+g~ . it rapidly. Record all readirli: &,il My in a notebook along WV rher observationson the hr;lIr i *ht pond. If your pond has suppc~tcdfish successfullybefore, the pH is proba-

bly all right, for 50 ~rc~nt of the

The tests for oxygen and ammonia youll need to do yourself, both lofore andafter stocking* Complete kits cost under $25 andare easy to MW,but 4rlU caJ9 put tc ~9~11 and savesome m tion to a t hermom tc$sts youll tteed 0, lows, I), #2 powdc powder pillowsVan 0, collection bot e tlr, a plastic measure, a mixing bottle, clippers (optional). and PA0 titrant. For ammoniatesting, buy the colored disc for amnt\ nia, a disc holder, two test tubes, and Nesslrr reagent. All these materials can be ordered from Hach ChemicalCompany,PO. Box 907,Antes, Iowa
WOlO,

If your initial oxygen level readings are too towfor the fish youll be stocking, fertilize the pond at the rate su sted earlier. And keep testing. moniais most likely to be a problem after fertilizing and stocking. A readingof over 3 ppm is approachingtoxicity. But as the algae multiply, they shouldadjust to ammonialevelsand absorb steadily what the figh produce. In caseyour water quality doesnt reach acceptablelevels as stocking time nears, remember inform the
tc9

quence you sb9ould follow to help them adjust arnoothly to a new aquatic envimrtn9eJ9t. First, transport them from the hatchery or airport in a tank or plastic bag containingcool

Yournest naveshouldbe to fill :I S-gallonbucket partly with pond water and weigh it. Lhen add tish md take another reading. The clifference ISthe weight of your fish. Youllneed to know the tlrtal weight of the fish youre stocking to calculatehow muchto feed thetn initially and how wdt t hryve grown at harvest time. Youllalso want to disinfect your fish to remove any external parasites thtbymight carry from the hatchery. Fill a container with pond water and mix in 2M poundsof salt for each 10 galloils tJf water. Transfer the fish to this -.\!.*tionand leavethem in it for two or r!uce minutes--less if theyre stressed. This treatment removes the mucouscoating and with it the parasites. (The fish will quickly secrete a new coatitig. ) While the fish are still in the salt solution, drain off someof it and dilute what remains with more pond water, Do this a few times so salt wont be entering the pond with the fish. Then slowly casu the fish into the pond. : Try feedingjust a little after stocking, and when the fish start eating actively,begin your rebq-

IN feeding rate, putting in food at the time time every day. As a gmeral rule, fish shouldhave 3 percent of their total weight in feed every day, Weighingthe fish on arrival will tell you only the init ial feeding rate. From then on you must estimate how muchthey have grown and how much more you need to feed them. Do this andchangethe ration accordinglyonce a week. As a rule of thumb, assumethat fish grow a poundof flesh for each2 poundsof feed. So to get the ration for each second-weekfeeding, take half the weight of the first weeks total feed (half because2 poundsfeed becomes1 poundof fish), andcalculate 3 percent of that, Adding that number to the first weeksdaily ration will give the new daily ration. For the third week, begin with the total for the secondweek. For example,if you stock 10 poundsof fingerlings, they shouldget .3 poundsof pellets each day for the first week, or a total of 2.1 pounds. So at the beginningof the second week, you can assumethe fish have gained1.05pounds,Roundthat down to 1 poundfor convenience.Since3 percent of 1 is .O3,add that to the .3 pound daily ration for the fitst week, and youll see that the fish get .33 poundof feed daily for the second week. For the third week, begin with 2.3 pounds(the previous weekly total), aesume the fish gained 1.1 pounds, and so on. AIwsys remember its better to underfeed slightly than overfeed, since uneatenfood is consumedby other organisms,especially bacteria, and will raise the oxygen demandof the pond. Besides, you want the fish to forage. So when you see unconsumedfeed, cut back on the feeding rate. And cleanexctss out of the fee&r regularly. Its possible, by the way, to raise common carp and catfish on a feed

fornlulated from ;I careful blend of tablcscraps. In Rodaletrials, the growth rates of fish fed this way were about the sameas those of same-species given commc~rcial fish feeds. The homemadeblend was madeby putting high-protein food scraps(50 percent of total scraps). high-carbohydratefood scraps(25 percent of total scraps), and veg&ible trimmings #and wastes high in moisture, vitamins, and fiber (25 percent of total) through a food grinder. Fatty foods were carefully avoided. Restaumntsare a likely source for ampleamountsof such kitchen scraps, which can be gathered, ground, and refrigerated oneweek&worth at a time. If you do blend your own feeds, try to use fresh material so the vitamins are adequate.It would also be good to add a balancedvitamin feed supplement, availableat farm supply stores. Feed your fish daily until a day or so before harvest. Then withhold food to let their digestive tracts empty. Fish can go without supplemental feeding for a week or more with no ill effects if you shouldneed to be away,The only problem is that they wont grow without feeding and may lose some weight. Making observations and changing the routine: Regular water quality checks are the only way to prevent problems for your fish and to learn about pond dynamics. For the fust 2 weeks after stocking, you shouldrecord temperature and oxygenlevelsin the water and air temperature and amountof sunlight once eachday. Youllfind oxygenand temperature readingsat the end of the day to be higher than those taken soonafter dawn, Ammoniaalso shouldbe checked daily after stocking or fertilization until levels drop to the tolerable range. After that, a week!y check will do. 29

: It
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and harvtlst them nil at on~c, (If ~ourst~,this rt:quirt9 that you h;lvt* t mtms tc, dtm ml frCYS?tB t hLVl1 promptly sinctw sp91ls fay;;t, fist-r
Ideally, yt9u h,uld takt! fish wtwtl

t hty reach the minimum sizerfor harvesting. As they gt8tlarger* t trtnirraft: of growth slows and they rtlqiiirts more flw)djust to be kept alivtb.Harvesting a ftxwat n time is more like fishing-its fun, but time consuming, ttwL If it suits your nt4s best, you c*an t~~~~i~~t~inin a deep pond over t ht> fish winter quite snft4ysIhthy wont ntbtd my feed after watt.2ttmperaturtl drops below their ideal range, and thry wont grow. The only danger is that the water may become depleted of osygen if the surface freezes over i;lr *:ery long. And of course very small pondscan freeze solid, which is lethal. Youcan harvest most easily with large nets. There are two types. Gill nets allow you to take only fish of edib!esize. The mesh size shouldbe large enoughto allow undersizedfish to swim through and to catch the others by the gills. Seines,on the other hand, take out all the fish. They are madeof stronger fibers and have smaller mesh sizes. Most pondscan be harvested with nets no longer than twice the width of the pond. The width of the net shouldbe 33 to 50 percent larger than the depth of the water. A net dealer will be able to tell you the right size for your pond. When youre ready to harvest, its most convenientto let most of the vfater out of the pond. But remember to leaveenoughso that the fish can breathe, They will bc concentrated in a smallarea and will become very active, Begin netting when the water is about waist high. The trick is to posi31

tion the netting when you start so that it COWPS pond frm bank to the Ik andcros24t*s very bottom so the fhh can get around it. When its in position, bogin to draw the ends alongthe perimeter of the pond so y wig meet opposite the point. At the ~mc time, people standing at the meeting point shouldbegin drawing in the bottom ropes. Slowly the net will become a large bag holding all the fish, They can then be scoopedup with large buckets and transferred to holdingcontainers to await deansing and freeting, Pot high quality meat, keep y0ur catch in the holding tank for about a day after harvest. The fresh clean water will cleansethe Ashoi mud and alme, which can give them a *pond water taste. Put the tank in a cool or shadyplace, then flush it with spring or well water until its fiUedwith new water, Youshould alsoaerate the water enoughto maintainthe fish in good condition. Treating troubles that may arise despite your best efforts is part of the challengeof aquaculture. Here are a few common problemsand some solutions. Muddy water can be causedby run-off or by wave action againstthe bank. Erosion can be stoppedonly by good soil conservation practices on and you may haveno ch matters, However, if wavesare eroding your banksin windy weather, protect them with a layer of gravel or rock (riprappin clay particles are suspendedin t water, you may be able to get them to ttle by addinggypsum at the rate of 1% poundsto every l&M) cubic feet of water. Dirreeoe or psralllitss may be the culprit if a fish die stop eating even thou (temperature, oxygen, ammonia 32

fcv&) has been fine. If this is t ht! COW and dead fish that i\ppears utm~utilatedby an animal, wrap it in plastic, rcfrigeratc it, and notify the Fish Commissionpeople. Iht.~y will determine the causeof dt*iith and recommend treatment if any is passibtc. Leilkca Cclbi grow into a very serious problem. Youshoulddc~tcrtnine the causeimmediately,callingon the Soil Conservation Service for help if necessary.Somesmall It&s can be stopped with extra sealingin the form of plastic sheets or bent&c clay granules. Severeleakagem;ry require partial draining of the pond for repairs. Muskrats can causeleaks if they begin to burrow into the darn sides. Burrows usuallybegin 6 to 18 inches below the water line. When you see them in the area, protect the banks by laying wire mesh severalfeet aboveand below the water tine. Or you can do riprapping with very large stones. Also remove cattails and other aquatic plants that muskrats feed on. Wild firih will compete with your fish for food and oxygenand may carry disease, If they are in a stocked pond, harvest all the fish, discard the undesirables,then drain the pond dry to make sure that all the wild fry are destroyed. Another method is to kill all fish with rotenone, then wait 6 weeks before restocking to make sure the rotenone has biodegraded completely. To protect your pond from wild fish, be sure to use very fine mesh screensor netting (as described earlier) to filter any water entering from a stream. Raccoons and mink may prey on your fish. The only solution is to shoot or trap them.
)TNl have R

Fish you grow yourself can cost as lit tte as $25 a pound or as much as a pound. Obviously,knowing the economicsbefore you get under way is a good idpa. It will help you to keep your input and outcome in balance and prevent you from underrstimating expensesand later finding it impossibleor very costly to continue what youvestarted Calculatingwhat your fish will cost in advanceis easy.First, estimate the lrngt h of the active growing season, the volumeof productive water you have, and how much fish will grow there. When haveprojected the total we of the fish you cxpewtto harvest, reduce it by 40 percent to allow for Ioss~5in clcaning. Next, figure how much you will spendto produce that quantity of dressed fish. Samethings yc~u pay for only will once. Theseinitial costs include the pond, water testing 6u ~~ra~~)r{~~, hold and such. Thou will add up to a lot of money,only a portion of what you pay for eachone

canbe figured fairly into the cost of your f&t crop of fish. That amount is basedon how long the item will be used. So estimate the liftbof each item and divide its total cost by the number of harvests you will make in that time. Other inputs liktafeed, fingerlings, and power and transportation costs arc purchasedevery time you begin a new season.So you must charge the entire expenseof suchitems against the one crop they produce. Once you havean annualchargefor eachlong-life item, addthem (and add that total to thtbtotal for your spasonalinputs. Next divide the planned-forweight of dwssed fish into that total. The result is the approximate pric*cyoull be paying Ixr poundof ready-to-cat fish.

33

Cl Aqumul t ute --The tid Ponda Lrmlon: PergamonPrtrss. Ltd., nd Cultivrtian

Spottc,

of

Stephen. Ftah and Iilvert&rate Culture?-Water Mrnagemkwt in , New York: JohnWiley d Sons, Inc., i970c F d

~~~~~e~t 7%~ Cammercial Flrrh Farmer and Aquaculture Nww. Subscription Section, PO, Box 4$X%?, Manchester,NH 03105.The yearly buyers guide iasuewhich lists suppliersof equipmentand tih ia &MI availablehsepnrntely $2.50. for lture Bulletin. Fishery Rewurces and Environment Division of the tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. sionalSportsmansPublishingCompany,RR 2, Momence, IL 60954. Pisrheti(alo.American Fiiherks Society, 5410GrosvenorLane, BcthPsda, MD 20014. urlrl. United States Covrrnment Printing Office,

The f&wing are availablefrom the U&d States GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington,DC 20402. 2260. $4. h Panning. Farmers Bulletin NC?, Trout Ponds for Recrerrtfonl RWTIWTB BIllletin NO.2214% charge. NO wwm Water Pirh Pondu. Falmer Bulletin No, 225Q.No chalge. dated Publlerrtione elf tha School of Forestry and

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nine months of the year. . . al1 from your greenhouse, And its so ecologically sound: the sun provides the heat that grows the wegetables;the fish tank stem heat and releasesit to keep t right for the fish; temperatu the fish enrich the water with their nd the water irrigates and the vegetables. r perhaps youd prefer raising fish in a barrel? Its inexpensive. You need little space. And you can feed the fish almost entirely

4xwet how to harvest crops from puddles, pouls and ponds. Whats more, youll learn how to adapt the same techniques you use in your organic garden, to md-s~ak aquaculture. Send for a free, &day inspectisn copy and discover yet another way to beat soaring food costs.

f I I send me a copy of GETTING I FOOD FROM WATER For my 15&y FREE home trial. If I decide to keep I Be.95 (plus postage and handling). it,If Ill pay not, I return it within 15 days and owe nothing.Ill [I now well I peySAVE! En~loee paymentcharBes+andyoure po&aga and handling If I not mtirfied, return tha book within 15 days I for your full money bark.

the waters on or near their property, Youll learn about them, and mom in Gene Log8dons new ING FOC?B FRQM buuk, 6

bsut farm
pring water, water and run off water, As well as ~&awns and springy. Ysull disc

I I Name I Addrsss I City -.- I ZipI State PA residents add 6% sales tax.) (NOTE: I I lm

I enclose b of CETTINC

forcopyties) FOOD FROM WATER. ~151s

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mo

more s
Because WCat Ho&k Raac~~rceshave itevekqed oxygcn$cneratint: mxhine that now makes it posaibk for you to ratse a bigger crop of fish in a sml1 space.

Fnchofyoutownfoodas

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Our new LSS-1OOC Aerator turns your pool or pond into a growing medium that 1s Ittided with life-giving oxygen. The energy rfhcient l/20 horsepower motor pumps over 60 gallons per atmospheric oxygen minute -trwnsfarrlnpenl,uyh to help satisfy the requirements of ow?r one

t protein -delicious, highn protein -in a backyard

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Nzs, fish=-fresh fish. Come and get it! Low in fat, highly digestible. rich in protein -. the almost perfect food. Not from the mercury-tainted oceans or marked-up markets, but from your own backyard. And for just pennies-as little as 25 cents per pound in direct costs for fingerlings and feed. Whether you live in the city, suburbs, or out in the country, now you can grow enough tish to supply )aur hunily for a full year in a backyard tank or pond the dee of a small 5wimming pool. How? The secret isueraltin.

Fish do not Ifve by feed alone

Fiih need oxygen to live and grow. But water is iiited in the amount of oxygen it can hold. So you would be limited in the number of fish you could

The LSS-1ooC helps your fish grow faster. And larger. Tests show that fish production may be increased up to nine-fold with the addition of aeration -and with much better food conversion percentages when raised in aerated waters as opposed to no aeration at all.

An iaveetment that pays

So a Rodale LSS-1oOC Aerator it; a dollar-wise investment that can quickly pay for itself by increasing production. And by making it possible to grow more fish in an area which nught normally be too small.

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