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Produced BY; JOHN MWENGWE REV;1
TUTOR LOCOMOTION
CELL;0970048463/0764500979 AND SKELETON
a) Ball-and-socket joint consist of one bone with a ball – shaped surface that fit into another
bone with a cut-like socket while hinge joint bones are joined like a hinge on the door. Ball and-socket joint enable bones
to move in all directions while hinge joint enable bones to
move in one direction.
b) During straightening of the arm the triceps contract and shortens at the same time the
biceps relaxes.
During bending of the arm the biceps contract and shortens pulling the radius at the same time
the triceps relaxes and returns to its normal length.
c) Thoracic vertebrae its spinous process is long and fairly thick while lumbar vertebrae its
spinous process is short and bunt. Thoracic vertebrae its transverse process is fairly large
while lumbar vertebrae its transverse process is large and bunt. Thoraci c vertebrae its spinal
canal is large while lumbar vertebrae its spinal canal is comparatively small. Thoracic
vertebrae provide attachment sites for ribs while lumbar vertebrae help in maintaining the
vertical posture above the pelvis. Thoracic vertebrae contain articular facets for ribs while
lumbar vertebrae do not contain articular facets for ribs. Thoracic vertebrae its intervertebral
disk is thin while lumbar vertebrae its intervertebral disk is massive.
(a) The synovial joint has the following parts; Ligament which joins bone to bone and keeps the joint
stable by preventing dislocation. Tendons which joins muscle to bone; translate muscle contraction into
movement of bone. Joint Capsule that encloses the joint membrane. Synovial fluid which
supplies
nutrients and acts as a lubricant that reduces friction. Synovial membrane they secretes synovial fluid and
Cartilage it reduces friction at ends of bones, absorbs mechanical shocks and spreads forces.
(b) (i) Tendons joins muscle to bone while Ligament joins bone to bone. Ligament is Elastic fibrous
tissue
made of an elastic protein while Tendons is tough and inelastic fibrous protein
largely made of a collagen. Ligament keeps the joint stable by preventing dislocation while
tendon
translate muscle contraction into movement of bone.
(ii) Ball-and-socket joint consist of one bone with a ball – shaped surface that fit into another
bone with a cut-like socket while hinge joint bones are joined like a hinge on the door. Ball and-socket
joint enable bones to move in all direc tions while hinge joint enable bones to move
in one direction. Ball-and-socket joint are located on hips and shoulder while hinge joint elbow,
knee, knuckle and phalanges
a) Hydrostatic Skeleton;This is a type of skeleton made of watery fluids found inside the body. These watery fluids offer
mechanical support and help in movement. This type of skeleton occurs in soft-bodied invertebrates such as
earthworms,
hydra, snails, slugs and sea anemones
. Exoskeleton;This is a type of skeleton located outside the muscles of the body and occurs in all arthropods
(crustaceans,
insects, myriapods and arachnids). In insects, this skeleton is also known as the cuticle and is largely made of a
polysaccharide called chitin covered with small amounts of wax outside. The cuticle is made of a waxy thin outer
layer called the epicuticle and an inner layer of chitin called the procuticle. The procuticle is made of two layers
called exocuticle and endocuticle.
Endoskeleton;An endoskeleton is located inside the body and is made of bones and cartilage. This type of skeleton is found
in all vertebrates i.e. fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The endoskeleton of a vertebrate foetus is
largely made up of cartilage while that of an adult is made of bones with small amounts of cartilage in areas
b) The functions of vertebral column are: Protecting the spinal cord from mechanical damage,Providing attachment for
ribs and girdles, Supporting the body trunk
And Imparting flexibility to the body trunk due presence of cartilaginous joints
The functions of the different parts of a vertebra are discussed
below:
Neural spine: This is a projection on top of the neural arch that provides a surface
for attachment of muscles and
ligaments.
Neural arch: This is a curved bony structure arising from the centrum and has an
opening in the centre called the
neural canal. The neural arch protects the spinal cord while the neural canal is the
passage for the spinal cord.
Transverse process: These are projections on the sides of the centrum that provide
surfaces for attachment of
muscles and ligaments.
Centrum: This is the solid central part of the vertebra whose function is to bind to
the intervertebral disc and form
a cartilaginous joint with the next vertebra.
Joints
A joint is defined as a point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints, namely fibrous,
cartilaginous and synovial joints. The names of these types of joints are based on their structures and the type of
movement they permit
Fibrous Joints: These are joints where the bones are tightly held together by short and tough fibres. They permit
no movement and are therefore called immovable joints e.g. the sutures between the bones of the skull
(cranium).
Cartilaginous Joints: These are joints in which bones are held together by cartilage. They only permit slight
movements and are therefore said to be slightly movable joints e.g. the intervertebral discs that hold the
vertebrae together in the spine.
Synovial Joints: These are joints made of cavities containing a fluid called synovial fluid and they allow
movement in one or more planes. They are said to be movable joints. There are several types of synovial joints.
Two examples are ball-and-socket joints and hinge joints.

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