Chapter 5 Landforms Made by Running Water

The DeveIOpment of a River System

When rain falls, part of it sinks into the ground,
some is evaporated back into the atmosphere and
the rest runs off as rivulets, brooks, streams and
tributaries of rivers that flow down to the sea.
This running water forms a potent agent for denuding
the earth’s surface. Denudation is the general lowering
of the earth’s surface. This takes place because such
agents of erosion as rivers, ice. wind and waves wear
away the rocks and transport the eroded debris to
lower land or right down to the sea. But erosion
cannot take place unless the rocks are first weakened
or shattered by exposure to the elements. Rain.
frost and wind weather the rocks so that they can be
eroded more easily. Unlike glaciers and snow, which
are confined to the cold and temperate latitudes;
waves which act only on coastlines; winds. which Fig. 34 Dendritic
are or tree-like drainage pattern
only ‘efficient’ in deserts: the effect of running water developed on homogeneous rock or beds of
is felt all over the globe wherever wafer is present. equal resistance
Running water is thus the most important single agent
of denudation.
The source of a river may be a spring, a lake or
a marsh, but it is generally in an upland region.
where precipitation is heaviest and where there is a
slope down which the run-off can flow. The up-
lands therefore form the catchment areas of rivers.
The crest of the mountains is the divide or watershed
from which streams flow down the slopes on both
sides to begin their journey to the oceans. The
initial stream that exists as a consequence of the
slope is called the consequent stream. As the con-
sequent stream wears down the surface by deepening _ Fig. 35 Trellised or rectangular drainage pattern
its channel downwards, it is joined by several tri- developed on alternating outcrops of harder
butaries either obliqilelv or at rig/It angles depending and softer rocks
on the alignment and the degree of resistance of the The drainage pattern so devel
rocks. oped will be rectarlgl’lar
1n shape and is called tre
llised drainage (Fig. 35)-
If the rocks are composed of homogeneous beds
of uniform resistance to erosion, the tributaries will The Mechanism of Hum
join the main valley obliquely as insequent streams. id Erosion
Humid erosion covers the entire scope of
The drainage pattern so evolved will be tree-like in sculpturing
effects of running water from the action of
appearance, and is therefore described as dendritic rainwater
drainage, after a Greek word (lendron meaning to that Of the l‘iVCFS. Mass movements of earth and
weathered materials on hill—slopes dow
‘trce’ (Fig. 34). On the other hand, if the rocks n to valleys
are made up of alternate layers of hard and soft are mainly due to the lubricating action of water
which allows a mass of materials
rocks, the tributaries tend to follow the pattern of to move llnder
gravity. This is particularly acute where the slopes
the rock structure. If the outcrops of the rocks
are steep. The slow movement
occur at right angles to the main valley, the tributarie of soil down a hill’
s slope is call soil~creep_ A more sudden moveme
will join it at right angles as subsequent
streams. due to the lubricating effect or
nt
rain-water may Cause
38
widespread landslides. ln mountainous districts during a heavy rain. The ability of a river to move
where the roads and railway tracks are cut through the various grades of materials depends greatly
Steep-sided valleys landslides may obstruct railway upon the volume of the water. the velocity of the flow
lines. cut olT road communications and even bury and lastly the size. shape and weight of the load.
villages and people- It is said that by doubling the velocity of a river. its
transporting power is increased by more than 10
The Processes of River Action times! It is therefore not surprising to find huge
When a river flows it carries with it eroded materials. boulders that are ‘strandcd’ in normal times. but
These comprise the river‘s load. and may be divided may be moved during seasonal floods. The move-
into three distinct types. ment of rivers is thus intermittent. acting vigorously
1, Materials in solution. These are minerals which in certain parts of the year and remaining less active
are dissolved in the water. at other times.
2. Materials in suspension. Sand, silt and mud are
carried along suspended in the water as the stream River Erosion and Transportation
flows. In rivers. erosion and transportation go on simul-
3. The traction load. This includes coarser materials taneously, comprising the following inter-acting
such as pebbles, stones, rocks and boulders, which processes.
are rolled along the river bed. 1. Corrasion or abrasion. This is the mechanical
It has been estimated that for every square mile grinding of the river’s traction load against the
of the earth’s surface, more than 200 tons of solid ban/rs and bed of the river. The rock fragments are
materials in suspension and more than 50 tons of hurled against the sides of the river and also roll
materials in solution are being carried off by running along the bottom of the river. Corrasion takes place.
water every year. The Mississippi River which in two distinct ways.
drains an area almost half the size of the United States (3) Lateral corrasion. This is the sideways erosion
itself, removes more than two million tons of eroded which widens the V—shaped valley.
material into the Gulf of Mexico daily. Consequent- (b) Vertical corrasion. This is the downward
ly the river basins are being lowered. and in the case action which deepens the river channel.
of swift-flowing rivers like the Irrawaddy. its drainage 2. Corrosion or solution. This is the chemical or
basin is being lowered by about a foot in every 400 solvent action of water on soluble or partly-soluble
years! During floods the amount of rock debris rocks with which the river comes into contact. For
swept off by rivers is very much greater. We can example calcium carbonate in limestones is easily
see this from the mud that colours the river-water dissolved and removed in solution.
1. Upper course 2. Middle course 3. Lower course
!

gorge | interlocking spurs

| flood plains
l l ox-bow lakes
rapids and waterfalls meanders
l l
river capture deltas
l river clilis l
| l
| l
l l
l l
l l
{predominantly . erosion l transportation l deposition

l |
l
|
l l
vertical corrasion : valley widening l ’alluvium deposition W

(some deposition)
l

Sleep g0rge-like or V-shaped valley

Fig- 36 The graded long profile and typical cross section of a river from source to mouth
39
 3. Hydraulic action. This is the mechanical loosen-
ing and sweeping away of materials by the river water
itself. Some of the water splashes against the river
banks and surges into cracks and crevices. This
helps to disintegrate the rocks. The water also
undermines the softer rocks with which it comes
into contact. It picks up the loose fragments from
its banks and bed and transports them away.
4. Attrition. This is the wear and tear of the
transported materials themselves when they roll and
collide into one another. The coarser boulders are
broken down into smaller stones; the angular edges
are smoothed and rounded to form pebbles. The
finer materials are carried further down-stream to
be deposited.

The Course of a River

The course of a river may be divided into three distinct
parts (Fig. 36). 1. The upper or mountain course
(in the stage of youth), 2. The middle or valley course
(in the stage of maturity), 3. The lower or plain course
(in the stage of old age).
1. The Upper or Mountain Course
This begins at the source of the river near the water-
shed, which is probably the crest of a mountain
range. The river is very swift as it descends the
steep slopes, and the predominant action of the river A deep gorge in the Cuzco Department of Peru Paul Popper
is vertical corrasion. The valley developed is thus
deep, narrow and distinctively V—shaped. Down-
cutting takes place so rapidly that lateral corrasz'on the piracy occured is termed as the elbow of capture.
cannot keep pace. In some cases where the rocks The beheaded stream (Z) is called the misfit. The
are very resistant, the valley is so narrow and the valley below the elbow is the wind gap. and may
sides are so steep that gorges are formed e.g. the be valuable as a road and rail route. Examples of
Indus Gorge in Kashmir. In arid regions, where river capture abound. In Burma, the Upper Sittang
there is little rainfall to widen the valley sides, and hasbeencapturedbytheIrrawaddy;inNorthumberland,
the river cuts deep into the Valley—floor, precipitous England, the Blyth and the Wansbeck are beheaded
valleys called canyons are formed, e.g. the Bryce by the North Tyne.
Canyon, Utah, USA.
Some of the more outstanding features that are
otten best developed in the upper course of a river
include the following.
(a) River capture. This is also known as river
piracy or river beheading. Its development is depen-
dant on the different rate of back-cutting (headward
erosion) into a divide. For instance, if one side of
the divide is of greater gradient or receives more A—Pirating stream
B—pirated stream
precipitation than the other, stream A in Fig. 37 X—elbow of capture
will cut back more rapidly than stream B. Its Y—wind gap
A Z—beheaded B
greater erosive power will succeed in enlarging its stream or misfit
basin at the expense of the weaker stream. Stream (a) (b)
A may eventually break through the divide and
capture or pirate stream B. The bend at which Fig. 37 River catre
‘_ 40 (a) before capture (b) after capture
 (b) Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls. These are plateau like the River Congo which leaps for 900
liable to occur at any part of the river course. but they feet through a series of more than 30 rapids as
are most numerous in the mountain course where Livingstone Falls.
changes of gradient are more abrupt and also more iv. Glaciation produces hanging valleys where
frequent. Due to the unequal resistance of hard and tributary streams reach the main U-shaped valley
soft rocks traversed by a river. the outcrop of a band below as waterfalls, e.g. the Yosemite Falls of
of hard rock may cause a river to ‘jump’ or ‘fall’ down- California with a total descent of 2,560 feet.
stream. Rapids are formed (Fig. 38). Similar falls of 2. The Middle 0r Valley Course
In the middle course, lateral corrasion tends to
replace vertical corrasion. Active erosion of the
banks widens the V-shaped valley. The volume of
bands of hard rocks
water increases with the confl uence of many tributaries

Fig. 38 Rapids, cataracts

greater dimensions are also referred to as cataracts. of

which there are five along the Nile that interrupt
smooth navigation. When rivers plunge down in a
sudden fall of some height. they are called ‘-\';tl’l‘tiii:\'
(Fig. 39). Their great force usually wears out a
plunge-pool beneath. Waterfalls are formed in
several ways.

stream
Fig. 40 Interlocking spurs
hard rocks
and this increases the river’s load. The work of
Waterfall

the river is predominantly transportation with some

deposition. Downstream, the interlocking spurs
. #73

(Fig. 40) that project from both sides of the valley

are cut back into a line of bluffs. Rain-wash. soil
creep. landslides and gullying gradually widen the
valley, cutting back the sides. The rivers treble task
of valley—cutting. bed-smoothing and debris-removal
are being carried out in a more tranquil manner
than in the mountain course though the velocity
eroded debris plunge pool does not decrease. Some of the load is dropped or
deposited. Again this depends on the volume of
Fig. 39 A waterfall with plunge pool
flow, for in the event of flood, the river’s erosive
When a bar of resistant rock lies transversely
power and its capability for load-carrying is greatly
i.
across a river valley, e.g. the Niagara Falls, U.S.A., increased. The more outstanding features associated
which is 167 feet high and the Kaieteur Falls in with the valley course are these.
(a) Meanders. As water flowing under gravity
GUyana, 825 feet high. ting seldom flows straight for any long distance, a winding
ii- When a fault—line scarp caused by faul
lies across river, e.g. Victoria Falls on the River Zam- course soon develops. The irregularities of the
ground force the river to swing in loops. forming
bezi, Plunging 360 feet. meanders. a term derived from the winding River
iii. When water plunges down the edge of a
41
 Meanderez in Asia Minor. The mechanism of at S. where the slip-off slope iS very gentle. The Outer
meander formation is illustrated in Fig. 41. bank is therefore the bank of continuous Erosion
sition.
(h) River cliffs and slip-off slopes. When the and the inner bank is the bank of continual depo
flow of water P0 (in Fig. 41) enters the bend of the (c) Interlocking spurs. As the stream flows 0“,
river. it dashes straight into Q, eroding the outer the meanders migrate progressrvely' outwards With
the .qErcm
bank into a steep river-clilt' at Q. The water piles the interlocking spurs alternating With
up on the outside of the bend because of the centri- slopes as shown in Fig. 40.. It must'be pomted Out
fugal force. A bottom current RS is set up in a cork- at this stage that meanders in the middle course are
screw motion and is hurled back into mid-stream only the beginning of the downstream sw1ng, f0r
Spurs In
and the inner bank. Shingle is thus deposited here bends are restricted by the interlocking
the lower course, the loops are enlarged across the
(a) The development 0! meanders
GIOSI'On
level plain and meanders are fully developed.
’——‘

3. The Lower or Plain Course

The river moving downstream across a broad, level
plain is heavy with debris brought down from the
A upper course. Vertical corrasron has almost ceased
sition
though lateral corrasion still goes on to erode its
banks further. The work of the river is mainly
deposition. building up its bed and forming extensive
:‘>
PO:tlou 01 water
RS:bottom current -—*
flood plains. The volume of water is greatly swelled
by the additional tributaries thatjoin the main stream.
(b) Cross-section ot ameander
Coarse materials are dropped and the finer silt is
carried down towards the mouth of the river. Large
river clitt sheets of materials are deposited on the level plain
and may split the river into several complicated
(comet bank, shallow)
rosion
concave bank, deep
channels. so that it can be described as a braided
stream. Some of the major plain course features are.
Fig. 41 Meanders
(a) The development of meanders the following.
(b) Cross-section of a meander

The $9. Muara in Negri Sembll?“

.‘1
. s .-
The river swings from side to 5t
-1,»
. . _; \ in tight meanders. Note the 53"
1!} - fir-14.1» ' deposited on the slip-off slope
G.C. Morgan
 (a) Flood plain. Rivers in their low
er course
carry large quantities of sediments. During annual
or sporadic floods, these materials are spread over EROSION
~-:.--~~?( .
the low-lying adjacent areas. A layer of sediment . \ .

is thus deposited during each flood, gradually building

up a fertile “00d plain (Fig. 42). When
the river
flows normally its bed is raised through the accumu-
1ation of deposits and material is also dropped on
the sides forming raised banks called l'--‘\"~-‘L‘-‘6- It will
not be long before the water level llows dangerously
." I

X}._ meander ‘_.--'1v~‘orosion

' ,
oroslon “'\------L'r‘
close to the top of the levees. In an attempt to

artillctal river Fig. 43 The formation of an ox-bow lake

embankment /
(lClliL a word which originated from the Greek letter
A which closely resembled the triangular delta of the
Nile (Fig. 44). This alluvial tract is, in fact, a seaward
extension of the flood-plain. Due to the obstruction
caused by the deposited alluvium, the river may
discharge its water through several Channels called
artificial embankment) Lllfill‘ihlllilt‘lCS- Some deltas are extremely large. For
minimise the risk of floods, artilicial cm‘mrdimeats instance, the Ganges delta is almost as big as the whole
are erected on the natural levees, but this allows the of West Malaysia. Deltas extend sideways and sea—
river to rise further. When they can no longer with- wards at an amazing rate. The River Po extends its
stand the pressure of the flood water, the banks delta by over forty feet a year. The town of Adria,
burst, damaging property and drowning thousands. located nearly fifteen miles inland was a seaport in
Disastrous floods of this nature frequently occur in the time 01‘ Christ!
the Yang-tze Kiang, Mississippi. Po and Ganges Deltas differ much in their size, shape, growth
plains. But the best known river for floods is the and importance. A number of factors such as the
l‘Iwang—I-lo, ‘China’s Sorrow’, where millions have rate of sedimentation, the depth of the river and the
perished. For example, in 1852 the Hwang-Ho sea—bed, and the character of the tides. currents and
breached its bank, killing a million people and did waves greatly influence the eventual formation of
untold damage to farms and properties. The river’s l.nver reaches coast and ti. river is. obstructed by sedi- in delta lakes a characteristic lan-
course was diverted over 300 miles away, draining dapos-ts sediments merits and branches into dis-
“Madame; to discharge more
shape extending sideways and
seawards.
into the Gulf of Pohai instead of the Yellow Sea. sediments brought down

Nowadays, huge dredgers help to deepen the channels

to avoid excessive sedimentation. . alluvrum
5‘,5

(b) Ox-bow lakes. These are also known as

Cm‘OH‘S or bi‘ym'fi in the Mississippi basin. In the lower course ol ' -
lower course of a river, a meander becomes very much river

more pronounced. The outside bend or concave alluvium

bank is so rapidly eroded that the river becomes
Fig. 44 The formation of deltas
almost a complete circle. There will come a time (a) Stages in the formation of a delta
When the river cuts through the narrow neck of the
loop, abandoning an ox-bow lake or ‘mortlakc
(meaning dead lake). The river then flows straight.
The ox-bow lake will later degenerate into a swamp
thrOllgh subsequent floods that may silt up the lake.
It becomes marshy, and eventually dries up (Fig. 43).
‘ (0) Delta. When a river reaches the sea, the fine (b) Section through the lower course of a
materials it has not yet dropped are deposited at 1ts river, showing flood plain and delta
mouth, forming a fan-shaped alluvial area called a
43
deltas For this reason. several types of delta are
reeognisible. The Mississippi has a bird's-foot (It'll!!-
with several main branches like the foot of a bird Sea le‘lel

extending into the Gulf of Mexico. The Nile. Ganges

and Mekong have the fan-shaped areuate deltas
with numerous distributaries. Some other rivers
such as the Amazon. Ob and Vistula have their deltas
partly submerged in coastal waters to form estuarine
deltas. A few rivers like the Ebro of Spain have
tooth-like projections at their mouths. These are
known as cuspate deltas
The following summarises the conditions favour- . k ,
able for the formation of deltas. former sea level aC pomt
i. Active vertical and lateral erosion in the upper
level
course of the river to provide extensive sediments to new sea
/
be eventually deposited as deltas. __________
__ _ — fi:_ - __—
X_

ii. The coast

\

should be sheltered preferably

tideless
iii. The sea adjoining the delta should be shallow
or else the load will disappear in the deep waters.
iv. There should be no large lakes in the river old flood plain
course to ‘filter off’ the sediments.
knickpoint
v. There should be no strong current running
at right angles to the river mouth, washing away the /
sediments. terrace

River Rejuvenation
The earth’s crust is far from stable and it is not
surprising that, in the course of a river‘s development,
parts may be uplifted or depressed. giving rise to
certain characteristic features associated with re-
juvenation. i.e. being young again. new flood plain
alluvium
bedrock
A negative movement occurs when there is an
uplift of [and or a fall in sea level. This will steepen Fig. 45 River terraces and knickpoint due to
the slope so that active down—cutting is renewed. rejuvenation
A fall in sea level leaves the flood-plain at an increased The reju
venated river cuts down into
altitude above the sea level. The river with its re- previously deposited sediments to form a new
newed vigour cuts into the former flood-plain, leaving
valley leaving terraces at either side. At the
head of rejuvenation the river falls to its new
behind terraces on both sides of the river. There is valley at a knickpoint
also a break in the graded profile of the river, often
marked by a series of rapids. This point where the period renewed down—cutting
old and rejuvenated profile meet is called the kniek to a fantastic depth-
In some parts of the Gran
point or rejuvenated head (Fig. 45). d Canyon, the depth 15
almost a mile. It is 10 miles
If rejuvenation occurs in the upper-course, the wide at the t0P and
:300 miles long. Other examples
river valleys are deepened and steep-sided gorges are the River MOSCHC
in Ge rmany, the River Wear
are formed. In the middle and lower course vertical at Durham, England
and the Wye Valley, Monm
corrasion replaces lateral corrasion and the existing outhshire.
bositive movement occurs when
meanders are vertically eroded by the rejuvenated there is -a
depression of land or a rise in
, stream. A distinct new inner trench is cut in the submerge the lands along sea level- This Ml
old valley, and the river develops a deep valley with the coast, ‘drown, the
valleys and weaken the ero
entrenched or incised meanders. The best developed sive power of the river.
The flow is checked and large
incised meanders are those of the River Colorado, quantities of Sediment
U.S.A., where the uplift of 7,000 feet in the Tertiary W1“ be dropped. The lower course
of the river may
be partly in the sea and fea
44 tures of dEIPOSitiOn are
 shifted upwards to the middle course. The uppe
r downstream unchecked may cause widespread dis-
course is little affected when there is a rise in sea level. astrous floods in the lower course, e.g. in the
In many areas where the sea has risen this was
Indus and Ganges plains. In regions of insufficient
probably caused by the release of water locked up
rainfall such as Egypt and the Chao Phraya basin
in the ice masses during the Quaternary Ice Ages. in Thailand irrigation canals fed by the main stream
The Human Aspects of Rivers enable many crops to be successfully cultivated.
In many countries, rivers form the chief highway of The upper streams develop river captures and the
commerce and transport. The Yang-tze Kiang is resultant wind gaps may facilitate construction of
navigable up to a thousand miles from its mouth. upland roads and railways. The river valleys provide
The Amazon, the world’s greatest river is navigable a convenient means of land communication.
2,300 miles up-stream to the foot of the Andes, The flood plains of large rivers with their thick
though it is less extensively used. Even the Nile mantles of fine silt are some of the richest agricultural
with its cataracts is navigable for its first 960 miles areas of the world. They may support very dense
up to the First Cataract at Aswan. Other major populations and a chain of large cities may be strung
rivers such as the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Rhine, along their banks. Many deltas are equally fertile,
Danube, Congo, Murray, Darling, Mekong and Irra- e.g. the Ganges delta accounts for almost all the
waddy all serve as important waterways for their jute grown for world consumption; the Nile delta
respective countries. Some of them are useful for produces superior quality cotton and several crops
transporting logs to the saw mills, others are used to of rice a year. The productive hinterlands are able
export bulky goods and import foodstuffs and raw
to support ports such as New Orleans for the Missis-
sippi basin, Rotterdam for the Rhineland and
materials.
But all rivers undertake three closely interrelated Calcutta for the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Fresh-water ll‘4lllllg is important along many rivers
activities erosion, transportation and deposition. Their
and lakes. The organic matter brought down by
work has therefore both advantages and disadvant—
the river waters provides valuable food for fish and
ages from a human point of View. Rapids and water-
for spawning purposes. Rivers supply water for
falls, interrupt the navigability of a river. By deposit-
domestic consumption, sewerage and other industrial
ing large quantities of sediments in the lower course,
purposes. In Lancashire, the soft—water from the
the river silts up ports preventing large steamers
Millstone Grit is used for washing, dyeing and
V'from anchoring close to the shores. Deltas are thus
bleaching textiles. Rivers form the political boun-
less satisfactory sites than estuaries for the siting of
duties between many countries. The Mekong se—
large ports. Though this can be overcome by the
parates Laos from Thailand; and the Yalu forms a
construction of artificial harbours or by dredging:
well defined border between North Korea and the
this is expensive and, in some instances, impracti- eastern U.S.S.R.
cable. Some rivers change their courses from time
to time, others are made difficult for navigation by
their seasonal variations in the amount of water
discharged, and others may suffer from ill-drained
marshes and stagnant waters, leading to ill health QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
and water-borne disease. Many rivers flood, bursting
levees and causing untold damage to crops. The 1. What are the characteristic features you
floods may add a layer of fertile silt to the flood plain, would expect to find in a river valley at the
but excessive flooding as in the Orinoco may dis- stage of youth, maturity and old age? Illustrate
courage people from cultivating crops at all. some of the more outstanding features with
On the other hand, the advantages of rivers diagrams and examples.
often outweigh the destruction that they cause.
In the upper course, rivers with steep gorges and 2. By reference to specific examples, describe
Waterfalls, provide natural sites for the generation the major constructive and destructive pro-
of hydro-electric power. leading to the establishment cesses at work along the course of a river from
0f metallurgical industries, engineering and aluminum its source to its mouth.
smelting, which can be profitably run on cheap,
abuadant power. Dams constructed across rivers 3. With the aid of annotated diagrams, explain
hold back flood-water which if allowed to flow the constrasting features of any three of the
45
 er.
upper course of airiv e
following pairs of features of a river: the rlver 1n the lower Conrs
(C) The work of l.
(a) dendritic and trellised drainage pattern is mainly depositiona than
(b) rapids and waterfalls Po rts are be tter sited on €Sluaries
(c) estuary and delta
(d)
on deltas.
features of rim
(e) Incised meanders are
(d) tributaries and distributarics
(e) river capture and river cliff
rejuvenation.
4. Explain any three of the following statements ant
briefly: 5 Either: Describe and explain with relev
I‘lver
(a) Mass movement of earth is mainly due
sketches the various types of
. _ '
to the lubricating action of rain-water deltas
and gravitional forces. 0r: Explain the ways 1n Wth river erosion
OCCUI‘S.
(b) Vertical corrasion is dominant in the

46