EM 470 TUTORIAL SHEET 1

1. What are the differences between primary, secondary, and tertiary industries? Give two
examples of each category.
Answer. A primary industry is one that cultivates and exploits natural resources, such as
agriculture or mining. A secondary industry takes the outputs of primary industries and
converts them to consumer and capital goods. Examples of secondary industries are textiles
and electronics.
A tertiary industry is in the service sector of the economy. Examples of tertiary industries are
banking and education.
2. Define the difference between elastic and plastic deformation in terms of the effect on the
crystal lattice structure.
Answer. Elastic deformation involves a temporary distortion of the lattice structure that is
proportional to the applied stress. Plastic deformation involves a stress of sufficient magnitude
to cause a permanent shift in the relative positions of adjacent atoms in the lattice. Plastic
deformation generally involves the mechanism of slip - relative movement of atoms on
opposite sides of a plane in the lattice.
3. Define yield strength of a material.
Answer. The yield strength is the stress at which the material begins to plastically deform. It is
usually measured as the 0.2% offset value, which is the point where the stress-strain curve for
the material intersects a line that is parallel to the straight-line portion of the curve but offset
from it by 0.2%.
4. A tensile test uses a test specimen that has a gage length of 50 mm and an area = 200 mm2.
During the test the specimen yields under a load of 98,000 N. The corresponding gage length =
50.23 mm. This is the 0.2 percent yield point. The maximum load of 168,000 N is reached at a
gage length = 64.2 mm. Determine (a) yield strength, (b) modulus of elasticity, and (c) tensile
strength. (d) If fracture occurs at a gage length of 67.3 mm, determine the percent elongation.
(e) If the specimen necked to an area = 92 mm2, determine the percent reduction in area.
Solution: (a) Y = 98,000/200 = 490 MPa.
(b) s = E e
Subtracting the 0.2% offset, e = (50.23 - 50.0)/50.0 - 0.002 = 0.0026
E = s/e = 490/0.0026 = 188.5 x 103 MPa.
(c) TS = 168,000/200 = 840 MPa.
(d) EL = (67.3 - 50)/50 = 17.3/50 = 0.346 = 34.6%
(e) AR = (200 - 92)/200 = 0.54 = 54%
5. A bend test is used for a certain hard material. If the transverse rupture strength of the
material is known to be 1000 MPa, what is the anticipated load at which the specimen is likely
to fail, given that its width = 15 mm, thickness = 10 mm, and length = 60 mm?
Solution: F = (TRS)(bt2)/1.5L
= 1000(15 x 102)/(1.5 x 60)= 16,667 N.
6. Two flat plates, separated by a space of 4 mm, are moving relative to each other at a velocity
of 5 m/sec. The space between them is occupied by a fluid of unknown viscosity. The motion of
the plates is resisted by a shear stress of 10 Pa due to the viscosity of the fluid. Assuming that
the velocity gradient of the fluid is constant, determine the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
Solution: Shear rate = (5 m/s x 1000 mm/m)/(4 mm) = 1250 s-1
η = (10N/m2)/(1250 s-1) = 0.008 N-s/m2 = 0.008 Pa-s
7. What is the difference in melting characteristics between a pure metal element and an alloy
metal?
Answer. A pure metal element melts at one temperature (the melting point), while an alloy
begins melting at a certain temperature called the solidus and finally completes the
transformation to the molten state at a higher temperature called the liquidus. Between the
solidus and liquidus, the metal is a mixture of solid and liquid.
8. A bridge built with steel girders is 500 m in length and 12 m in width. Expansion joints are
provided to compensate for the change in length in the support girders as the temperature
fluctuates. Each expansion joint can compensate for a maximum of 40 mm of change in length.
From historical records it is estimated that the minimum and maximum temperatures in the
region will be -35°C and 38°C, respectively. What is the minimum number of expansion joints
required?
Solution: Assume L1 =500 m at -35 C, α=12x10-6/C
L2 – L1 = αL1(T2 – T1)
L2 – L1 = 12x10-6(500)(38 – (-35))
L2 – L1 = 0.42 m
Each expansion joint will control 40 mm = 0.04 m of expansion. 10 joints will provide 0.40 m of
expansion. 11 joints will provide 0.45 m of expansion. Therefore, a minimum of 11 joints are
needed for coverage of the total length. Each bridge section will be 500/11
= 45.5 m long
9. What is the difference between a bilateral tolerance and a unilateral tolerance?
Answer. A bilateral tolerance allows variation in both positive and negative directions from the
nominal dimension, whereas a unilateral tolerance allows the variation from the nominal
dimension to be either positive or negative, but not both.
10. Design the nominal sizes of a GO/NO-GO plug gage to inspect a 30.00 ± 0.18 mm diameter
hole. There is a wear allowance applied only to the GO side of the gage. The wear allowance is
3% of the entire tolerance band for the inspected feature. Determine (a) the nominal size of the
GO gage including the wear allowance and (b) the nominal size of the NO-GO gage.
Solution: (a) The tolerance band is 0.36 mm. Wear allowance = 0.03(0.36) = 0.0108 mm
GO gage will inspect the minimum hole diameter = 30.00 – 0.18 = 29.82 mm
As the gage wears, the dimension will decrease and allow unacceptable parts, so the wear
allowance is added to it
Nominal GO Size = 29.82 + 0.0108 = 29.8308 mm
(b) NO-GO gage will inspect the maximum hole diameter = 30.00 + 0.18 = 30.18 mm.
No wear allowance is added because this gage should not fit in the hole and wear away.
11. Why should turbulent flow of molten metal into the mold be avoided?
Answer. Turbulence causes the following problems: (1) it accelerates formation of oxides in the
solidified metal, and (2) it causes mold erosion or gradual wearing away of the mold due to
impact of molten metal.
12. A disk 40 cm in diameter and 5 cm thick is to be cast of pure aluminum in an open mold
casting operation. The melting temperature of aluminum = 660°C, and the pouring temperature
will be 800°C. Assume that the amount of aluminum heated will be 5% more than what is
needed to fill the mold cavity. Compute the amount of heat that must be added to the metal to
heat it to the pouring temperature, starting from a room temperature of 25°C. The heat of
fusion of aluminum = 389.3 J/g. Other properties can be obtained from Tables 4.1 and 4.2 in the
textbook. Assume the specific heat has the same value for solid and molten aluminum.

Solution: Volume V= πD2h/4= π(40)2(5)/4 = 6283.2 cm3

Volume of aluminum to be heated = 6283.2(1.05) = 6597.3 cm3
From Table 4.1 and 4.2, density ρ= 2.70 g/cm3 and specific heat C = 0.21 Cal/g-°C = 0.88 J/g-°C
Heat required = 2.70(6597.3){0.88(660-25) + 389.3 + 0.88(800-660)}
= 17,812.71{558.8 + 389.3 + 123.2}
= 19,082,756 J
13. Molten metal can be poured into the pouring cup of a sand mold at a steady rate of 1000
cm3 /s. The molten metal overflows the pouring cup and flows into the downsprue. The cross
section of the sprue is round, with a diameter at the top = 3.4 cm. If the sprue is 25 cm long,
determine the proper diameter at its base so as to maintain the same volume flow rate.
Solution: Velocity at base v = (2gh)0.5 = (2 x 981 x 25)0.5 = 221.5 cm/s
Assuming volumetric continuity, area at base A = (1000 cm/s)/(221.5 cm/s) = 4.51 cm2
Area of sprue A = πD2/4; rearranging, D2 = 4A/π = 4(4.51)/π = 5.74 cm2
D = 2.39 cm
14. A disk-shaped part is to be cast out of aluminum. The diameter of the disk = 500 mm and its
thickness = 20 mm. If the mold constant = 2.0 sec/mm2 in Chvorinov's rule, how long will it take
the casting to solidify?

Solution: Volume V= πD2t/4 = π(500)2(20)/4 = 3,926,991 mm3

Area A = 2πD2/4 + πDt = π(500)2/2 + π(500)(20) = 424,115 mm2
Chvorinov’s rule: TTS = Cm (V/A)2 = 2.0(3,926,991/424,115)2
= 171.5 s = 2.86 min
15. What properties determine the quality of a sand mold for sand casting?
Answer. The usual properties are
(1) strength - ability to maintain shape in the face of the flowing metal.
(2) permeability - ability of the mold to allow hot air and gases to escape from the cavity.
(3) thermal stability - ability to resist cracking and buckling when in contact with the molten
metal.
(4)collapsibility - ability of the mold to give way during shrinkage of the solidified casting, and
(5) reusability - can the sand be reused to make other molds?
16. An 92% aluminum-8% copper alloy casting is made in a sand mold using a sand core that
weighs 20 kg. Determine the buoyancy force in Newtons tending to lift the core during pouring.
: (Sand density = 1.6 g/cm3 , Density of aluminum-copper alloy ρ = 2.81 g/cm3 =
0.00281 kg/cm3 )
Solution: Sand density = 1.6 g/cm3 = 0.0016 kg/cm3
Core volume V= 20/0.0016 = 12,500 cm3
Density of aluminum-copper alloy ρ = 2.81 g/cm3 = 0.00281 kg/cm3 (Table 11.1).
Weight of displaced Al-Cu W = 12,500(0.00281) = 35.125 kg
Fb = Wm - Wc
Difference = (35.125 - 20) x 9.815 = 148.5 N
17. A sand core used to form the internal surfaces of a steel casting experiences a buoyancy
force of 23 kg. The volume of the mold cavity forming the outside surface of the casting = 5000
cm3. What is the weight of the final casting? Ignore considerations of shrinkage. : (Sand density
= 1.6 g/cm3 , steel casting density ρ = 7.82 g/cm3)
Solution: Sand density = 1.6 g/cm3, steel casting density ρ = 7.82 g/cm3
Fb = Wm - Wc = 7.82V - 1.6V = 6.22V = 23 kg = 23,000 g V = 3698 cm3.
Cavity volume V= 5000 cm3
Volume of casting V = 5000 - 3698 = 1302 cm3.
Weight of the final casting W = 1302(7.82) = 10,184 g = 10.184 kg
18. A horizontal true centrifugal casting operation will be used to make copper tubing. The
lengths will be 1.5 m with outside diameter = 15.0 cm, and inside diameter = 12.5 cm. If the
rotational speed of the pipe = 1000 rev/min, determine the G-factor.
Solution: GF = R(πN/30)2/g
= 7.5(π(1000)/30)2/981 = 83.8
19. A vertical true centrifugal casting process is used to produce bushings that are 200 mm long
and 200 mm in outside diameter. If the rotational speed during solidification is 500 rev/min,
determine the inside diameter at the top of the bushing if the inside diameter at the bottom is
150 mm.
Solution: L = 200 mm = 0.2 m. Rb = 150/2 = 75 mm = 0.075 m.
N = (30/π)(2gL/(Rt2-Rb2).5 = (30/π)(2 x 9.8 x 0.2/(Rt2 - 0.0752)).5
N = (30/π)(3.92/(Rt2 - 0.005625)).5 = 500 rev/min
(3.92/(Rt2- 0.005625)).5 = 500π/30 = 52.36
3.92/(Rt2-.005625) = (52.36)2 = 2741.56
Rt2-.005625 = 3.92/2741.56 = 0.00143
Rt2 = .005625 + 0.001430 = 0.007055
Rt = (0.007055).5 = .08399 m = 83.99 mm.
Dt = 2(83.99) = 167.98 mm.
20. There are several ways of shaping plate or sheet glass. Name and briefly describe one of
them.
Answer. The methods described in this text are (1) rolling, in which the hot glass is squeezed
between opposing cylindrical rolls; and (2) the float process, in which the melted glass flows
onto a molten tin surface to achieve uniform thickness and smoothness.
21. Describe the type of material that is commonly used to make windshields for automobiles.
Answer. Laminated glass, in which two sheets of glass are laminated on either side of a polymer
sheet. This has good impact resistance and does not splinter when broken.
22. The barrel and screw of an extruder are generally divided into three sections; identify the
sections. Answer. The sections are (1) the feed section, in which the feed stock is fed from the
hopper and heated;
(2) the compression section, in which the polymer changes to a viscous fluid.
(3) the metering section, in which pressure is developed to pump the plastic through the die
orifice.
23. Discuss some of the defects that can occur in plastic injection molding.
Answer. The defects include (1) short shots, in which the polymer melt solidifies before filling
the cavity.
(2) flashing, in which the polymer melt is squeezed into the parting surfaces between the
mold halves and around ejection pins.
(3) sink marks, in which the surface is drawn into the molding by contraction of internal
material.
(4) weld lines where the melt has flowed around a core or other convex detail in the mold
cavity and met from opposite directions, thus resulting in mechanical properties that are
inferior to those in the rest of the part.
24. The diameter of an extruder barrel is 65 mm and its length = 1.75 m. The screw rotates at
55 rev/min. The screw channel depth = 5.0 mm, and the flight angle = 18°. The head pressure at
the die end of the barrel is 5.0 x 106 Pa. The viscosity of the polymer melt is given as 100 Pa-s.
Find the volume flow rate of the plastic in the barrel.
Solution: Qd = 0.5π2(65x10-3)2(55/60)(5x10-3)sin 18 cos 18
= 95,560x10-9(0.3090)(0.9510)
= 28.081 x 10-6 m3/s
p = 5 MPa = 5x106 n/m2
Qb = π(5x106)(65x10-3)(5x10-3)3(sin 18)2/12(100)(1.75) = 5.804(10-6) m3/s
Qx = 28.081 - 5.804 = 22.277 x 10-6 m3/s.
25. The foreman in the injection molding department says that a polyethylene part produced in
one of the operations has greater shrinkage than the calculations indicate it should have. The
important dimension of the part is specified as 112.5 ±0.25 mm. However, the actual molded
part measures 112.02 mm. (a) As a first step, the corresponding mold cavity dimension should
be checked. Compute the correct value of the mold dimension, given that the shrinkage value
for polyethylene is 0.025. (b) What adjustments in process parameters could be made to reduce
the amount of shrinkage?
Solution: (a) Given: S = 0.025, Dc = 112.5 + 112.5(.025) + 112.5(.025)2 = 115.383 mm
(b) Adjustments to reduce shrinkage include:
(1) increase injection pressure,
(2) increase compaction time, and
(3) increase molding temperatures.
26. The extrusion die for a polyethylene parison used in blow molding has a mean diameter of
18.0 mm. The size of the ring opening in the die is 2.0 mm. The mean diameter of the parison is
observed to swell to a size of 21.5 mm after exiting the die orifice. If the diameter of the blow
molded container is to be 150 mm, determine (a) the corresponding wall thickness of the
container and (b) the wall thickness of the parison
Solution: (a) rs = Dp/Dd
= 21.5/18.0 = 1.194
tm= t
p Dp/Dm = rs td Dp/Dm
= (1.194)(2.0)(21.5)/150.0 = 0.342 mm
(b) tp = rs td = (1.194)(2.0) = 2.388 mm
27. How is raw rubber recovered from the latex that is tapped from a rubber tree?
Answer. The rubber is usually recovered as follows:
(1) the latex is collected into tanks and diluted to half natural concentration;
(2) formic or acetic or other acid is added to the solution which causes the rubber to coagulate;
(3) the coagulum is then squeezed through rolls to drive off water; and
(4) the resulting sheets are dried in smokehouses for several days. The resulting raw rubber is
called
ribbed smoked sheet.
28. Name the three basic tire constructions and briefly identify the differences in their
construction.
Answer. The three basic tire constructions are
(a) diagonal ply,
(b) belted bias, and
(c) radial ply.
Diagonal ply and belted bias both have their carcass plys running in a diagonal direction relative
to the tire circumference. Radial ply has its carcass plies running in a radial direction. Belted
bias and radial ply tires use belts, which are additional plies around the outside circumference
of the tire; whereas diagonal ply tires do not have these belts.
29. Many of the design guidelines that are applicable to plastics are also applicable to rubber.
However, the extreme flexibility of rubber results in certain differences. What are some
examples of these differences?
Answer. Examples include the following: (1) No draft is needed on a molded rubber part for
removal from the mold. (2) Holes should be molded into rubber parts rather than machined,
whereas holes can be machined or molded in a plastic part. (3) Screw threads are quite
uncommon on rubber parts, whereas they are not uncommon on plastic parts.
30. What is the difference between the wet lay-up approach and the prepreg approach in hand
lay-up?
Answer. In wet lay-up, the layer of fiber reinforcement is placed into the mold dry, and the
uncured resin is then applied to it to form the composite laminate. In the prepreg approach,
layers of fiber preimpregnated with resin are laid into the mold.
31. Describe the pultrusion process.
Answer. Pultrusion is a process in which continuous fibers are dipped into a resin and pulled
through a shaping die (somewhat like an extrusion die) where the resin cures. The resulting
sections are similar to extruded parts except that they are reinforced with continuous fibers
32. What are some of the disadvantages of PM methods?
Answer. Disadvantages include (1) high tooling costs, (2) metal powders are expensive, (3)
difficulties in storing and handling metallic powders, (4) certain limitations on part geometry
imposed by the uniaxial press methods, and (5) variations in density in a PM component can be
troublesome.
33. What are the principal methods used to produce metallic powders?
Answer. The powder production methods are
(1) atomization - the conversion of molten metal into
droplets which solidify into powders;
(2) chemical reduction - reducing metallic oxides by use of reducing agents which combine with
the oxygen to free the metals in the form of powders; and
(3)electrolysis - use of an electrolytic cell to deposit particles of the metal onto the cathode in
the cell.
34. A solid cube of aluminum with each side = 1.0 m is converted into metallic powders of
spherical shape by gas atomization. How much total surface area is added by the process if the
diameter of each particle is 100 microns (assume that all particles are the same size)?
Solution: Area of starting cube A = 6(1 m)2 = 6 m2
Volume of starting cube V= (1 m)3 = 1 m3
D = 100 µm = 0.1 mm = 0.1 x 10-3 m
Surface area of a sphere of D = 0.1 x 10-3 m is A = πD2 = π(0.1 x 10-3)2
= 3.142 x 10-8 m3/particle
Volume of a sphere of D = 0.1 x 10-3 m is V= πD3/6 = π(0.1 x 10-3)3/6
= 0.5236 x 10-12 m3/particle
Number of particles in 1 m3 = 1.0/0.5236 x 10-12 = 1.91 x 1012
Total surface area = (1.91 x 1012)( 0.5236 x 10-12 m3)= 5.9958 x 104 = 59,958 m2
Added surface area = 59,958 - 6 = 59,952 m2
35. A bearing of simple geometry is to be pressed out of bronze powders, using a compacting
pressure of 207 MPa. The outside diameter = 44 mm, the inside diameter = 22 mm, and the
length of the bearing = 25 mm. What is the required press tonnage to perform this operation?
Solution: Projected area of part Ap = 0.25π(Do2 - Di2) = 0.25π(442 - 222) = 1140.4 mm2
F=A
ppc = 1140.4(207) = 236,062 N
36. List and briefly describe some of the plastic forming methods used to shape traditional
ceramic products.
Answer. The plastic forming methods include;
(1) hand modeling, molding, and throwing;
(2) jiggering, which is a mechanized extension of hand throwing used to manufacture bowls and
plates;
(3) plastic pressing, in which a clay slug is pressed in a mold; and (4) extrusion, in which the clay
is compressed through a die opening to make long pieces of uniform cross section.
37. What is the freeze-drying process used to make certain new ceramic powders?
Answer. In freeze drying, salts are dissolved in water and sprayed into small droplets that are
immediately frozen; the water is then removed from the droplets in a vacuum chamber, and
the freeze-dried salt is decomposed by heating to form the ceramic powders.
38. Indicate some of the advantages of cold working relative to warm and hot working.
Answer. Advantages of cold working are;
(1) better accuracy,
(2) better surface finish,
(3) increased strength due to work hardening,
(4) possible directional properties due to grain flow, and
(5) no heating of work required.
39. The strength coefficient = 550 MPa and strain-hardening exponent = 0.22 for a certain
metal. During a forming operation, the final true strain that the metal experiences = 0.85.
Determine the flow stress at this strain and the average flow stress that the metal experienced
during the operation.
Solution: Flow stress Yf= 550(0.85)0.22
= 531 MPa.
Average flow stress Y f = 550(0.85)0.22/1.22
= 435 MPa.
40. A workpart with starting height h = 100 mm is compressed to a final height of 50 mm.
During the deformation, the relative speed of the plattens compressing the part = 200 mm/s.
Determine the strain rate at (a) h = 100 mm, (b) h = 75 mm, and (c) h = 51 mm.

Solution: (a) strain rate ε = 200/100 = 2.0 s-1

(b) strain rate ε = 200/75 = 2.667 s-1
(c) strain rate ε = 200/51 = 3.922 s-1
41. What is sticking in a hot rolling operation?
Answer. Sticking is a condition in hot rolling in which the surface of the workpiece adheres to
the rolls as the piece passes between the rolls, causing severe deformation of the metal below
the surface in order to allow passage through the roll gap.
42. Distinguish between direct and indirect extrusion.
Answer. In direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, a metal billet is loaded into a
container, and a ram compresses the material, forcing it to flow through a die opening at the
opposite end of the container. In indirect extrusion, also known as backward extrusion, the die
is incorporated into the ram, and as the ram compresses into the metal billet, the metal is
forced to flow through the die opening in a direction that is opposite (backwards) of the ram
motion.
43. A 42.0-mm-thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to 34.0 mm in one pass in
a rolling operation. As the thickness is reduced, the plate widens by 4%. The yield strength of
the steel plate is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa. The entrance speed of the plate
is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the rotational speed is 49.0 rev/min. Determine (a)
the minimum required coefficient of friction that would make this rolling operation possible, (b)
exit velocity of the plate, and (c) forward slip.

Solution: (a) Maximum draft dmax = µ2 R

Given that d = to - tf= 42 - 34 = 8.0 mm,
µ2= 8/325 = 0.0246
µ= (0.0246)0.5 = 0.157
(b) Plate widens by 4%.
towovo = tfwfvf
wf = 1.04 wo
42(wo)(15) = 34(1.04wo)vf
vf= 42(wo)(15)/ 34(1.04wo) = 630/35.4 = 17.8 m/min
(c) vr = πr2N= π(0.325)2(49.0) = 16.26 m/min
s = (vf- vr)/vr = (17.8 – 16.26)/16.26 = 0.0947
44. A cold heading operation is performed to produce the head on a steel nail. The strength
coefficient for this steel is 600 MPa, and the strain hardening exponent is 0.22. Coefficient of
friction at the die-work interface is 0.14. The wire stock out of which the nail is made is 5.00
mm in diameter. The head is to have a diameter of 9.5 mm and a thickness of 1.6 mm. The final
length of the nail is 120 mm. (a) What length of stock must project out of the die in order to
provide sufficient volume of material for this upsetting operation? (b) Compute the maximum
force that the punch must apply to form the head in this open-die operation.
Solution: (a) Volume of nail head V= πDf2hf/4 = π(9.5)2(1.6)/4 = 113.4 mm3.
Ao = πDo2/4 = π(4.75)2/4 = 19.6 mm2
ho = V/Ao = 113.4/19.6 = 5.78 mm
(b) ε= ln(5.78/1.6) = ln 3.61= 1.2837
Yf= 600(1.2837)0.22 = 634 MPa
Af= π(9.5)2/4 = 70.9 mm2
Kf= 1 + 0.4(0.14)(9.5/1.6) = 1.33
F = 1.33(634)(70.9) = 59,886 N
45. A hot upset forging operation is performed in an open die. The initial size of the workpart is:
Do = 25 mm, and ho = 50 mm. The part is upset to a diameter = 50 mm. The work metal at this
elevated temperature yields at 85 MPa (n = 0). Coefficient of friction at the die-work interface =
0.40. Determine (a) final height of the part, and (b) maximum force in the operation.
Solution: (a) V= πDo2ho/4 = π(25)2(50)/4 = 24,544 mm3.
Af= πDf2/4 = π(50)2/4 = 1963.5 mm2.
hf= V/Af= 24,544/1963.5 = 12.5 mm.
(b) ε= ln(50/12.5) = ln 4 = 1.3863
Yf= 85(1.3863)0 = 85 MPa
Force is maximum at largest area value, Af= 1963.5 mm2
D = (4 x 1963.5/π)0.5 = 50 mm
Kf= 1 + 0.4(0.4)(50/12.5) = 1.64
F = 1.64(85)(1963.5) = 273,712 N
46. A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 50 mm in diameter is reduced by indirect
(backward) extrusion to a 20 mm diameter. The die angle is 90°. The Johnson equation has a =
0.8 and b = 1.4, and the flow curve for the work metal has a strength coefficient of 800 MPa
and strain hardening exponent of 0.13. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain
(homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure, and (e) ram force.
Solution: (a) rx = Ao/Af= Do2/Df2
= (50)2/(20)2 = 6.25
(b) ε= ln rx = ln 6.25 = 1.833
(c) εx = a + b ln rx = 0.8 + 1.4(1.833) = 3.366
(d) Y f = 800(1.833)0.13/1.13 = 766.0 MPa
p = 766.0(3.366) = 2578 MPa
(e) Ao = πDo2/4 = π(50)2/4 = 1963.5 mm2
F = 2578(1963.5) = 5,062,000 N
47. An L-shaped structural section is direct extruded from an aluminum billet in which Lo = 500
mm and Do = 100 mm. Dimensions of the cross section are given in Figure below. Die angle =
90°. Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) shape factor, and (c) length of the extruded section if the
butt remaining in the container at the end of the ram stroke is 25 mm.

Solution: (a) rx = Ao/Af

Ao = π(100)2/4 = 7854 mm2
Af= 2(12 x 50) = 1200 mm2
rx= 7854/1200= 6.545
(b) To determine the die shape factor we need to determine the perimeter of a circle whose
area is equal to that of the extruded cross section, A = 1200 mm2. The radius of the circle is
R = (1200/π)0.5= 19.54 mm, Cc = 2π(19.54) = 122.8 mm.
The perimeter of the extruded cross section Cx = 62 + 50 + 12 + 38 + 50 + 12 = 224 mm
Kx= 0.98 + 0.02(224/122.8)2.25 = 1.057
(c) Total original volume V = 0.25π(100)2(500)
= 3,926,991 mm3
The final volume consists of two sections: (1) butt, and (2) extrudate. The butt volume V1 =
0.25π(100)2(25) = 196,350 mm3. The extrudate has a cross-sectional area Af= 1200 mm2. Its
volume
V2 = LAf= 3,926,991 - 196,350 = 3,730,641 mm3.
Thus, length L = 3,730,641/1200 = 3108.9 mm = 3.109 m
48. A spool of wire has a starting diameter of 2.5 mm. It is drawn through a die with an opening
that is to 2.1 mm. The entrance angel of the die is 18° degrees. Coefficient of friction at the
work-die interface is 0.08. The work metal has a strength coefficient of 450 MPa and a strain
hardening coefficient of 0.26. The drawing is performed at room temperature. Determine (a)
area reduction, (b) draw stress, and (c) draw force required for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = (Ao - Af)/Ao
Ao = 0.25π(2.50)2 = 4.91 mm2
Af= 0.25π(2.1)2 = 3.46 mm2
r = (4.91 – 3.46)/4.91 = 0.294
(b) Draw stress σd:
ε= ln(4.91/3.46) = ln 1.417 = 0.349
Y f = 450(0.349)0.26/1.26 = 271.6 MPa
φ= 0.88 + 0.12(D/Lc)
D = 0.5(2.5 + 2.1) = 2.30
Lc = 0.5(2.5 - 2.1)/sin 18 = 0.647
φ= 0.88 + 0.12(2.30/0.647) = 1.31
σd = Y f (1 + µ/tan α)φ(ln Ao/Af) = 271.6(1 + 0.08/tan 18)(1.31)(0.349) = 154.2 MPa
(c) Draw force F:
F = Afσd = 3.46(154.2) = 534.0 N
49. For what is the bend allowance intended to compensate?
Answer. The bend allowance is intended to compensate for stretching of the sheet metal that
occurs in a bending operation when the bend radius is small relative to the stock thickness. In
principle the bend allowance equals the length of the bent metal along its neutral axis.
50. What is an embossing operation?
Answer. Embossing is a sheet metalworking operation used to create indentations in the sheet,
such as raised lettering or strengthening ribs.
51. What is the Guerin process?
Answer. The Guerin process is a sheet-metal forming process that uses a rubber die that flexes
to force the sheet metal to take the shape of a form block (punch).
52. A power shears is used to cut soft cold-rolled steel that is 4.75 mm thick. At what clearance
should the shears be set to yield an optimum cut? (Ac = 0.060)
Solution: c = Act = 0.060(4.75) = 0.285 mm
53. A sheet-metal part 3.0 mm thick and 20.0 mm long is bent to an included angle = 60° and a
bend radius = 7.5 mm in a V-die. The metal has a yield strength = 220 MPa and a tensile
strength = 340 MPa. Compute the required force to bend the part, given that the die opening
dimension = 15 mm.
Solution: For V-bending, Kbf= 1.33.
F=K
bf(TS)wt2/D = 1.33(340)(20)(3)2/15 = 5426 N
54. A cup is to be drawn in a deep drawing operation. The height of the cup is 75 mm and its
inside diameter = 100 mm. The sheet-metal thickness = 2 mm. If the blank diameter = 225 mm,
determine (a) drawing ratio, (b) reduction, and (c) thickness-to-diameter ratio. (d) Does the
operation seem feasible?
Solution: (a) DR = Db/Dp = 225/100 = 2.25
(b) r = (Db - Dp)/Db = (225 - 100)/225 = 0.555 = 55.5%
(c) t/Db = 2/225 = 0.0089 = 0.89%
(d) Feasibility? No! DR is too large (greater than 2.0), r is too large (greater than 50%), and t/D is
too small (less than 1%).
55. A cup-drawing operation is performed in which the inside diameter = 80 mm and the height
= 50 mm. The stock thickness = 3.0 mm, and the starting blank diameter = 150 mm. Punch and
die radii = 4 mm. Tensile strength = 400 MPa and yield strength = 180 MPa for this sheet metal.
Determine (a) drawing ratio, (b) reduction, (c) drawing force, and (d) blankholder force.
Solution: (a) DR = 150/80 = 1.875
(b) r = (Db - Dp)/Db = (150 – 80)/150 = 70/150 = 0.46
(c) F = πDpt(TS)(Db/Dp - 0.7) = π(80)(3)(400)(150/80 - 0.7) = 354,418 N.
(d) Fh = 0.015Yπ(Db2 - (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2)
Fh = 0.015(180)π(1502 - (80 + 2.2 x 3 + 2 x 4)2) = 0.015(180)π(1502 - 94.62)
Fh = 114,942 N