MODULE 1: IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION, DIFFERENT MODES OF

TRANSPORTATION, CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT, SCOPE

OF HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

I. Introduction of Transportation
Engineers design and maintain systems that allow people, vehicles, and goods to
travel in the safest and most efficient ways possible. Think of a way to travel, and it’s
likely that an engineer has had a hand in it, from roadways, highways, or bridges, to mass
transit systems and railways, to airports and seaports.
Like all engineers, transportation designers are problem-solvers. When trying to
find the best solution for any transportation problem, engineers must take into account
community concerns, project costs, client needs, construction materials, sustainability
issues, state and federal mandates, and a host of other variables. No matter the tradeoffs,
public safety is the top priority.
So, what is transportation? According to logisticbureau.com, Transportation is
moving whatever comes out of one location to the next location. That might mean
transporting something from a manufacturer to a distributor, or from a distributor to a
customer. Also, the difference between “transport” and “transportation” is being defined
as for transport, for a supply chain, it’s the movement of goods from one location to
another. While in transportation, it is defined as one location might be the place where
you source raw materials or where you source goods from a manufacturing facility. We
call such a location a node in the supply chain. There is then a series of such nodes or
locations to finally get to the end customer.

Transportation is essential in every aspect for medical assistance, business,

conveying messages etc. But generally, it is for movement of goods, human and animals.
As one goes to a different place, various types of transportation exist. These are road
transport, water transport, air transport, rail transport and many more.
 II. Importance of Transportation

Quoted from impoff.com/importance-of-transportation/

Transportation has lot significance in human life. Things need to move from one place to
another. Transportation has evolved over the course of time. It has become much faster
than ever before. Resources can be flown to their destinations through airplanes, if the
distance is large. Ground vehicles can be employed for shorter distances. For travel
overseas, ships can be used. Resources can be people or goods which can be moved using
different modes. Like a human body needs to transport blood to function, similarly
society also needs transportation to work properly.

Though, in case of society many different things must be transported. People

need to get work in time. Every day they need to go a certain distance and do their
work after they also must get back home. While working, many different resources are
required at work, they also need to be provided to the people working there. The
resources required to move both materials and people also come at a cost. So economy is
also involved in the process. Transportation can be called the heart of the society as it
makes it possible for to deliver things where they are needed at appropriate times.

Transportation provides a vital part in our daily life as people walk, ride and fly
to get to their destination. It is required so people can reach work in time. Several roles of
transportation are being classified such as economic, social, political, and environmental
(Mathew, 2009).

For the economic role of transportation:

 Transport extends the range of sources of supply of goods to be consumed in an area,

making it possible for user to get resources at cheap price and high quality
 The use of more efficient systems of supply results in an increase in the total amount of
goods available for consumption
 Since the supply of goods is no longer dependent on the type of mode, items can be
supplied by some alternative resources if usual source cannot supply what is needed

For the social role of transportation:

 A person settles from one place to another where the availability of resources is present
 The size and pattern of settlements is also considered as the increased speed of transport
and reductions in the cost of transport have resulted in variety of spatial patterns
 For the growth of urban centers, the development of automobiles, and other factors like
increase in personal income, and construction of paved road network, the settlements
were transformed into urban centers of intense travel activity.

For the political role of transportation:

 The government of an area must be able to send/get information to/about its people. It
may include laws to be followed, security and other needful information needed to
generate awareness
 For political choices in transport, these choices may be classified as communication,
military movement, travel of persons and movement of freight. The primary function of
transportation is the transfer of messages and information. It is also needed for rapid
movement of troops in case of emergency and finally movement of persons and goods.

For the environmental role of transportation:

 The negative effects of transportation are more dominating than its useful aspects as far
as transportation is concerned
 The transportation can have an unfortunate on the society in terms of accidents
 All transport modes consume energy and the most common source of energy is from the
burning of fossil fuels like coal, petrol, diesel, etc. The relation between air pollution and
respiratory disease has been demonstrated by various studies and the detrimental effects
on the planet earth are widely recognized recently
 Sound is acoustical energy released into atmosphere by vibrating or moving bodies
whereas noise is unwanted sound produced. Transportation is a major contributor of
noise pollution, especially in urban areas
 The spectacular growth in industrial and economic growth during the past century has
been closely related to an abundant supply of inexpensive energy from fossil fuels.
Transportation sector is unbelieved to consume more than half of the petroleum products.
The compact of the shortage of fuel was experienced during major wars when strict
rationing was imposed in many countries.

According to BrandedCivil (2020), the importance of a transportation of a country is

comparable to the veins in the human body. Just a veins helps to the health of human,
similarly the transportation keep the health of a nation in good condition by keeping the
people and materials moving from one place to another place.

The following are the importance of transportation:

A. They play an important role in the economic, social and commercial development of the
country.
B. They help in cultural development of the country.
C. They help in political development of the country.
D. It plays a vital role in development of rural areas of the country.
E. They improve the employment opportunities
F. Improves the contact between two countries
G. Improves the living standard of the country.
H. It helps to improve science and technology.
I. It helps in industrial development throughout the country.
J. Enhances the import and export of the country.
III. Different Modes of Transportation

Quoted from brandedcivil.com

There are three basic modes of transportation; these are land, water and air. So the
modes of transportation also depend upon these three mediums. Road and railway
transport are developed on the land, similarly waterways and airways are developed on
water and air respectively. Thus there are four major modes of transportation as given
below:

A. Roadways or highways - Roadways are the means of transportation on land. Roadways

are also known by highways. It consists the modern highway as well as city streets,
feeder roads and village roads, catering for a big range of vehicles and the pedestrians.
This is the only mode which is giving maximum service to one and all. It is possible to
provide door to door service only by road transport.
B. Railways - The steel tracks laid on the ground, over which the trains move is known as
railways. Railways have been used for long as well as for short distances and also for
urban travels. For longer distances, railways transportation is more effective and
advantageous than highways.
C. Airways - In the airways, air crafts and helicopters are used. Air system of transportation
is one of the fastest systems. Air system of transportation provides comfort and also save
time to the passengers. But this system is more costly compared to all other modes of
transportation.
D. Waterways - The transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes. This
mode of transportation uses oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for the movement of boats
and ships. By waterways human beings and materials are used to transport from one
place to another with the help of ships and boats etc. Transportation by this system is
possible between the ports on the sea routes or along the rivers or canals where inland
transportation facilities are available.
 However, there are other modes of transportation namely: Pipeline, Cable and Rope,
Unmanned Aircraft and Space.

Quoted from knowledge4civil.wordpress.com

A. Pipelines

Primarily, pipeline is used for the transport of crude petroleum, refined petroleum
and natural gas. Pipelines are also used for the transportation of certain types of
chemicals, Pulverized dry bulk materials such as cement and flour via hydraulic
suspension system, and sewage and water in cities. A significant fixed cost is incurred
while setting up the pipeline and related infrastructures. Thus, given the nature of costs,
pipelines are the best suited when relatively large and stable flows of materials are
required. E.g.: pipeline may be best suited to transport crude petroleum from the port to
the refinery. But, to transport refined petrol to a gas station does not justify the use of a
pipeline and this is better done by a truck. There is a talk going on between India, Iran
and Pakistan regarding the transportation of crude oil from Iran to India with the help of
a pipeline which will pass through Pakistan. This will reduce the cost of transporting
crude oil from Iran to India.
In comparison with the other modes of transport, pipelines operate on a 24 hour
basis, seven days a week. They stop functioning due to change in the commodity to be
transported, or due to maintenance. Unlike other modes of transport, pipeline does not
have any ’empty containers’ or vehicles’ which are to be returned to the origins.
A high fixed cost for pipelines normally results from the right of way construction
and requirements at the control stations and pumping capacity. Another disadvantage of
‘pipeline is that they are not flexible. Once the route of a pipeline is fixed, it is not
changeable. Again pipelines are restricted with respect to the types of commodities which
can be transported through them. Only products in the form of gas, liquid slurry can be
handled by the pipelines:’
One advantage of pipelines is that, once they have been constructed, they are not
labor intensive for operational purposes as other modes of transport so their variable
 operating cost is low.

B. Cable and Ropes ways

A ropeway is a form of naval lifting device used to transport light stores and
equipment across rivers or ravines. It comprises a jackstay, slung between two sheers or
gyps, one at either end, from which is suspended a block and tackle, that is free to travel
along the rope and hauled back and forth by inhauls (ropes attached to the pulley from
which the block and tackle are suspended).

Quoted from na.panasonic.com

C. Unmanned Aircraft

Drones are seemingly everywhere and they are being used for new and different
tasks every day. The consumer oriented drones that have become so popular are only a
small segment of the market and offer only some of the controls and functions available
by their commercial counterparts. Enhanced functions that include precise controls, GPS
mapping and flight planning, geofencing, and larger carrying capacities make
industrialized drones suitable for many commercial purposes.

Companies engaged in supply chain operations are deploying drones, otherwise

known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to serve in a wide variety of roles that make
some tasks that were previously either very time-consuming and labor intensive, highly
efficient, less expensive, and significantly improving worker safety when deployed
properly.

Quoted from britannica.com

D. Space Flight Transportation

 Transportation System, partially reusable rocket-launched vehicle designed to go
into orbit around Earth, to transport people and cargo to and from orbiting spacecraft,
and to glide to a runway landing on its return to Earth’s surface that was developed by the
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Formally called the Space
Transportation System (STS), it lifted off into space for the first time on April 12, 1981,
and made 135 flights until the program ended in 2011.

IV. Characteristics of Road Transport

It is well-know that of all the modes the transportation, road transport is the
most convenient one. All passengers and the goods have to be first transported by road
before reaching a railway station or a port or an airport. The road network alone could
serve the remotest villages and rural places.

Quoted from www.civil.iitb.ac.in

The success of transportation engineering depends upon the co-ordination

between the three primary elements, namely the vehicles, the roadways, and the road
users. Their characteristics affect the performance of the transportation system and the
transportation engineer should have fairly good understanding about them. This chapter
elaborated salient human, vehicle, and road factors affecting transportation.

Human factors affecting transportation

Road users can be defined as drivers, passengers, pedestrians etc. who use the
streets and highways. Together, they form the most complex element of the traffic system
- the human element - which differentiates Transportation Engineering from all other
engineering fields. It is said to be the most complex factor as the human performances
varies from individual to individual. Thus, the transportation engineer should deal with a
variety of road user characteristics. For example, a traffic signal timed to permit an
average pedestrian to cross the street safely may cause a severe hazard to an elderly
person. Thus, the design considerations should safely and efficiently accommodate the
elderly persons, the children, the handicapped, the slow and speedy, and the good and
bad drivers.

Variability

The most complex problem while dealing human characteristics is its

variability. The human characteristics like ability to react to a situation, vision and
hearing, and other physical and psychological factors vary from person to person and
depends on age, fatigue, nature of stimuli, presence of drugs/alcohol etc. The influence
of all these factors and the corresponding variability cannot be accounted when a facility
is designed. So a standardized value is often used as the design value. The ${85}^{th}$
percentile value of different characteristics is taken as a standard. It represents a
characteristic that 85 per percent of the population can meet or exceed. For example. if
we say that the ${85}^{th}$ percentile value of walking speed is about 2 m/s, it
means that 85 per cent of people has walking speed faster than 2 m/s. The
variability is thus fixed by selecting proper 85th percentile values of the characteristics.

Critical characteristics

The road user characteristics can be of two main types, some of them are
quantifiable like reaction time, visual acuity etc. while some others are less quantifiable
like the psychological factors, physical strength, fatigue, and dexterity.

Reaction time

The road user is subjected to a series of stimuli both expected and unexpected.
The time taken to perform an action according to the stimulus involves a series of stages
like:
Perception: Perception is the process of perceiving the sensations received through the
sense organs, nerves and brains. It is actually the recognitions that a stimulus on which
a reaction is to happen exists.
Intellection: Intellection involves the identification and understanding of stimuli.
Emotion: This stage involves the judgment of the appropriate response to be made on the
stimuli like to stop, pass, move laterally etc.
Volition: Volition is the execution of the decision which is the result of a physical actions
of the driver.
For example., if a driver approaches an intersection where the signal is red, the
driver first sees the signal (perception), he recognizes that is is a red/STOP signal, he
decides to stop and finally applies the brake(volition). This sequence is called the PIEV
time or perception-reaction time. But apart from the above time, the vehicle itself
traveling at initial speed would require some more time to stop. That is, the vehicle
traveling with initial speed $u$ will travel for a distance, $d = vt$ where, $t$ is the above
said PIEV time. Again, the vehicle would travel some distance after the brake is applied.

Visual acuity and driving

The perception-reaction time depends greatly on the effectiveness of driver’s

vision in perceiving the objects and traffic control measures. The PIEV time will be
decreased if the vision is clear and accurate. Visual acuity relates to the field of clearest
vision. The most acute vision is within a cone of 3 to 5 degrees, fairly clear vision within
10 to 12 degrees and the peripheral vision will be within 120 to 180 degrees. This is
important when traffic signs and signals are placed, but other factors like dynamic visual
acuity, depth perception etc. should also be considered for accurate design. Glare vision
and color vision are also equally important. Glare vision is greatly affected by age. Glare
recovery time is the time required to recover from the effect of glare after the light source
is passed, and will be higher for elderly persons. Color vision is important as it can come
into picture in case of sign and signal recognition.

Walking

Transportation planning and design will not be complete if the discussion is

 limited to drivers and vehicular passengers. The most prevalent of the road users are the
pedestrians. Pedestrian traffic along footpaths, sidewalks, crosswalks, safety zones,
islands, and over and under passes should be considered. On an average, the pedestrian
walking speed can be taken between 1.5 m/sec to 2 m/sec. But the influence of physical,
mental, and emotional factors need to be considered. Parking spaces and facilities like
signals, bus stops, and over and under passes are to be located and designed according to
the maximum distance to which a user will be willing to walk. It was seen that in small
towns 90 per cent park within 185 m of their destinations while only 66 per cent park so
close in large city.

Vehicle factors

It is important to know about the vehicle characteristics because we can design

road for any vehicle but not for an indefinite one. The road should be such that it should
cater to the needs of existing and anticipated vehicles. Some of the vehicle factors that
affect transportation is discussed below.

Design vehicles

Highway systems accommodate a wide variety of sizes and types of vehicles, from
smallest compact passenger cars to the largest double and triple tractor-trailer
combinations. According to the different geometric features of highways like the lane
width, lane widening on curves, minimum curb and corner radius, clearance heights etc
some standard physical dimensions for the vehicles has been recommended. Road
authorities are forced to impose limits on vehicular characteristics mainly:
 to provide practical limits for road designers to work to,
 to see that the road space and geometry is available to normal vehicles,
 to implement traffic control effectively and efficiently,
 take care of other road users also.
Taking the above points into consideration, in general, the vehicles can be grouped
into motorized two wheeler's, motorized three wheeler's, passenger car, bus, single axle
 trucks, multi axle trucks, truck trailer combinations, and slow non-motorized vehicles.
The vehicular dimensions which can affect the road and traffic design are mainly:
width, height, length, rear overhang, and ground clearance. The width of vehicle affects
the width of lanes, shoulders and parking facility. The capacity of the road will also
decrease if the width exceeds the design values. The height of the vehicle affects the
clearance height of structures like over-bridges, under-bridges and electric and other
service lines and also placing of signs and signals. Another important factor is the length
of the vehicle which affects the extra width of pavement, minimum turning radius, safe
overtaking distance, capacity and the parking facility. The rear overhang control is
mainly important when the vehicle takes a right/left turn from a stationary point. The
ground clearance of vehicle comes into picture while designing ramps and property
access and as bottoming out on a crest can stop a vehicle from moving under its own
pulling power.

Turning radius and turning path

The minimum turning radius is dependent on the design and class of the vehicle. The
effective width of the vehicle is increased on a turning. This is also important at an
intersection, round about, terminals, and parking areas.

Visibility

The visibility of the driver is influenced by the vehicular dimensions. As far as

forward visibility is concerned, the dimension of the vehicle and the slope and curvature
of wind screens, windscreen wipers, door pillars, etc should be such that:
 visibility is clear even in bad weather conditions like fog, ice, and rain;
 it should not mask the pedestrians, cyclists or other vehicles;
 during intersection maneuvers.
Equally important is the side and rear visibility when maneuvering especially at
intersections when the driver adjusts his speed in order to merge or cross a traffic stream.
Rear vision efficiency can be achieved by properly positioning the internal or external
mirrors.

Braking performance

As far as highway safety is concerned, the braking performance and deceleration

characteristics of vehicles are of prime importance. The time and distance taken to stop
the vehicle is very important as far as the design of various traffic facilities are
concerned. The factors on which the braking distance depend are the type of the road and
its condition, the type and condition of tire and type of the braking system. The distance
to decelerate from one speed to another is given by:

where d is the braking distance, v and u are the initial and final speed of the vehicle, f is
the coefficient of forward rolling and skidding friction and g is the grade in decimals. The
main characteristics of a traffic system influenced by braking and deceleration
performance are:
Safe stopping sight distance: The minimum stopping sight distance includes both the
reaction time and the distance covered in stopping. Thus, the driver should see the
obstruction in time to react to the situation and stop the vehicle.
Clearance and change interval: The Clearance and change intervals are again related to
safe stopping distance. All vehicles at a distance further away than one stopping sight
distance from the signal when the Yellow is flashed is assumed to be able to stop safely.
Such a vehicle which is at a distance equal or greater than the stopping sight distance will
have to travel a distance equal to the stopping sight distance plus the width of the street,
plus the length of the vehicle. Thus the yellow and all red times should be calculated to
accommodate the safe clearance of those vehicles.
Sign placement: The placement of signs again depends upon the stopping sight distance
and reaction time of drivers. The driver should see the sign board from a distance at
least equal to or greater than the stopping sight distance.

Road factors

Road surface

The type of pavement is determined by the volume and composition of traffic, the
availability of materials, and available funds. Some of the factors relating to road surface
like road roughness, tire wear, tractive resistance, noise, light reflection, electrostatic
properties etc. should be given special attention in the design, construction and
maintenance of highways for their safe and economical operation. Unfortunately, it is
impossible to build road surface which will provide the best possible performance for all
these conditions. For heavy traffic volumes, a smooth riding surface with good all-
weather anti skid properties is desirable. The surface should be chosen to retain these
qualities so that maintenance cost and interference to traffic operations are kept to a
minimum.

Lighting

Illumination is used to illuminate the physical features of the road way and to aid in the
driving task. A luminaire is a complete lighting device that distributes light into patterns
much as a garden hose nozzle distributes water. Proper distribution of the light flux from
luminaires is one of the essential factors in efficient roadway lighting. It is important that
roadway lighting be planned on the basis of many traffic information such as night
vehicular traffic, pedestrian volumes and accident experience.

Roughness

This is one of the main factors that an engineer should give importance during the
design, construction, and maintenance of a highway system. Drivers tend to seek
smoother surface when given a choice. On four-lane highways where the texture of the
surface of the inner-lane is rougher than that of the outside lane, passing vehicles tend to
return to the outside lane after execution of the passing maneuver. Shoulders or even
speed-change lanes may be deliberately roughened as a means of delineation.
Pavement colors

When the pavements are light colored(for example, cement concrete pavements) there is
better visibility during day time whereas during night dark colored pavements like
bituminous pavements provide more visibility.
Contrasting pavements may be used to indicate preferential use of traffic lanes. A driver
tends to follow the same pavement color having driven some distance on a light or dark
surface, he expects to remain on a surface of that same color until he arrives a major
junction point.

Night visibility

Since most accidents occur at night because of reduced visibility, the traffic designer
must strive to improve nighttime visibility in every way he can. An important factor is
the amount of light which is reflected by the road surface to the drivers' eyes. Glare
caused by the reflection of oncoming vehicles is negligible on a dry pavement but is an
important factor when the pavement is wet.

Geometric aspects

The roadway elements such as pavement slope, gradient, right of way etc affect
transportation in various ways. Central portion of the pavement is slightly raised and is
sloped to either sides so as to prevent the ponding of water on the road surface. This will
deteriorate the riding quality since the pavement will be subjected to many failures like
potholes etc. Minimum lane width should be provided to reduce the chances of accidents.
Also the speed of the vehicles will be reduced and time consumed to reach the destination
 will also be more. Right of way width should be properly provided. If the right of way
width becomes less, future expansion will become difficult and the development of that
area will be adversely affected. One important other road element is the gradient. It
reduces the tractive effort of large vehicles. Again the fuel consumption of the vehicles
climbing a gradient is more. The other road element that cannot be avoided are curves.
Near curves, chances of accidents are more. Speed of the vehicles is also affected.

V. Scope of Highway Engineering

Quoted from thecivilengg.com

Highway engineering is an engineering discipline which involves the design,

construction and maintenance of Highway Roads & Systems, urban streets as well as
parking facilities. Important aspects of highway engineering include overall planning of
routes, financing, environmental impact evaluation, and value engineering to compare
alternatives. Traffic engineering involves planning for the volumes of traffic to be
handled, the methods to accommodate these flows, the lighting and signing of highways,
and general layout. Older techniques include signs, signals, markings, and tolling. Newer
technologies involve intelligent transportation systems, including advanced traveler
information systems (such as variable message signs), advanced traffic control systems
(such as ramp meters), and vehicle infrastructure integration. Similarly, pavement and
roadway engineering involves setting of alignments, planning the cuts and fills to
construct the roadway, designing the base course and pavement, and selecting the
drainage system. Whereas, bridge engineering involves the design of highway bridges,
retaining walls, tunnels, and other structures. Engineers in this specialization:

Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads, and
other vehicular facilities as well as their related pedestrian realms.
 Estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the funding for the
project.
 Analyze locations of high traffic volumes and high collisions for safety and
 capacity.
 Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system.
 Utilizes the three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and the roadways
themselves.

VI. Scope of Traffic Engineering

Quoted from wsp.com

The ultimate goal of multimodal transportation networks is to ensure the safe and
efficient movement of people and goods on roads and highways. Traffic engineering
helps resolve the issues that obstruct that process. Beyond the design and construction of
transportation infrastructure, traffic engineering focuses on the functional aspects of road
geometry that make traffic flow, including traffic signs, signals, intersection management
and road surface markings.
Traffic engineering teams are experienced in research, modeling, planning,
auditing and implementing improvements on urban, inter-urban and rural roads. Using
engineering and behavioral techniques such as speed management, urban regeneration,
streetscaping, multimodal streets and shared space, we assist our clients with:
 Traffic calming
 Traffic signage and markings
 Traffic signals
 Roundabouts
 Variable message signing
 Pedestrian facilities, management and accommodations in construction areas
 Bus priority measures
 Bicycle facilities
 Traffic signal design and coordination
 Transportation and traffic counts/surveys

VII. Conclusion
 The transportation is vital in every aspect of life. It gives so much importance to
every human being by doing their business with ease. Transportation can be classified
into different modes. With the technological advancement, various modes like unique and
intermodal ones begin to emerge. As the road transport is most accessible and common
one, several things are established to have proper and safe roadways for humans and their
vehicles. Roadway and road users are the main element of road transport. Road users can
be classified as drivers, passengers, pedestrians, etc. who utilize the streets, pavements
and highways. For roadways, it is concerned with some characteristics of traffic systems
such as safe stopping sight distance, vertical and horizontal clearance and change
interval, and sign placement. This will lead to the study of highway engineering and
traffic engineering. Both fields are under the transportation engineering.

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MODULE 2: HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING: IMPORTANCE,
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS, ROAD PATTERNS, PLANNING SURVEYS;
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

I. Highway Development and Planning

Quoted from Highway Planning PDF

Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from Civil

Engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance
of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and
goods.
Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes on a
road network. The Highway planning is also a basic need for the Highway
development. Highway engineers strive to predict and analyze all possible civil impacts
of highway systems. Some considerations are the adverse effects on the environment,
such as noise pollution, air pollution, water pollution, and other ecological impacts

According to Mugdha, planning is a prerequisite for any engineering activity or

project; this is particularly true for the development of a highway network or system in a
country.
According to Sirisha (2014), transportation involves movement of persons and goods
from one place (origin) to another (destination).
The principles of science and mathematics such that various properties of matter and
sources of energy in nature (diesel, petrol, electricity produced from coal, water etc.) are
 utilized to move persons and goods in a manner useful to mankind and at minimum cost.
Moreover, we shall study about salient characteristics of various transportation systems
with respect to land (highways and railways, water ways and also airways).

A. Importance
The objectives of highway planning are (a) Planning a highway network for safe,
efficient and fast movement of people and goods, (b) Keeping the overall cost of
construction and maintenance of the roads in the network to a minimum, (c) Planning for
future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design period, (d) Phasing
road development programs from considerations of utility and importance as also of
financial resource, and (e) Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and
benefits.
In order to fulfill these objectives, first, the proposed road links should be a part of
the planned road network for the state/nation. The suggested road links must consider and
dependent on the current state of the area’s road plan. Second, the importance of the road
shall be based on the traffic demand, and hence its type should fall under the standard
classification. Third, the maintenance needs of the roads should receive prompt attention
by setting aside funds for this purpose. And last principle that highway Engineers must
have to borne in mind is that the statutory provisions for traffic regulation should be in
place.

The importance of highway planning are briefly given below:

 To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but a minimum coast. Here
the costs of construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers and the vehicle
operation costs are to be given due construction.
 To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of road which could
provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resource
during the plan period under construction.
 To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the
main criterion for phasing the road development program.
 To plan for future requirements and improvement of roads in view of anticipated
 developments.

 To work out financing system

B. Classification of Roads

Quoted from engineeringnotes.com

The classification of roads depends on the criterion considered.

An All-Weather Road is a road that is trafficable in all weather conditions.
Typically this means a road that is constructed in such a way that excessive rain does not
cause it to be flooded or sodden to such an extent that vehicles travelling over it are likely
become bogged.
Fair weather roads, if traffic is interrupted during monsoon at course ways where
water overflows for a few hours.
Based on the type of carriage-way or the road pavement, it may be a paved road
with at least a water-bound macadam layer; or it may be an unpaved road. Earth roads
and gravel roads fall in this category.
Superior paved roads have bituminous surface or concrete surface for the carriage-
way. A bituminous road is also known as a black-top road.
Traffic volume, load transported per day, and the location and function are
important criteria for classification of roads.
The classification of roads depends on the criterion considered.

They may be all-weather roads if they can be used during all seasons of a year; fair-
weather roads, if traffic is interrupted during monsoon at course ways where water
overflows for a few hours. Based on the type of carriage-way or the road pavement, it
may be a paved road with at least a water-bound macadam layer; or it may be an unpaved
road. Earth roads and gravel roads fall in this category.
Superior paved roads have bituminous surface or concrete surface for the carriage-
way. A bituminous road is also known as a black-top road.
 Traffic volume, load transported per day, and the location and function are
important criteria for classification of roads. These criteria have been taken into
account in the classification recommended by the Nagpur Plan—NH, SH, MDR, ODR
and VR, as also in the one modified by the Lucknow Plan—with categories of Primary,
Secondary and Tertiary roads.
Urban roads are classified based on their function and location:

1. Expressways— for movement of heavy volume of traffic.

2. (ii) Arterial streets—for connecting the central area to expressways.

3. (iii) Sub-arterial streets—similar to arterial roads but with less spacing.
4. (iv) Collector streets—for collection and distribution of traffic through local streets in
residential areas.
5. (v) Local streets—to access private property like residences, shops and industries. Traffic
originates here or ends here.

In this context, certain definitions are relevant:

1. (i) Road – A convenient way over which vehicles may lawfully pass for going from one
place to another.
2. (ii) Service road – Used for servicing and as a means of access to adjacent property;
constructed parallel to the main road adjacent to roadside buildings.
3. (iii) Street – A road within a town or a residential locality with buildings on one or both
sides.
4. (iv) Country road – Road connecting one place to another on the country-side.
5. (v) Urban road – A road within a town or a city.
6. (vi) Bypass road – A road constructed skirting a village or a small town, taking off
through a highway and joining it after bypassing the inhabited area; this helps through
traffic to move fast without having to enter the village or town.
7. (vii) Highway – Any public road or a street may be called a highway.
8. (viii) Arterial road – Road passing within a city and linking the state or national highway,
with limited access.
9. (ix) Freeway – An arterial highway with controlled access crossing other roads at
different levels.
10. (x) Boulevard – Very wide road with avenue on its either side; generally used for
ceremonial processions or considered as prestigious roads in a city.

C. Road Patterns and Planning Surveys

Quoted from Highway Planning PDF

Urban Road Patterns:

Although road patterns in a country are historically inherited, later additions can be
planned bearing in mind the requirements of the day.
Road patterns are of great use in urban highway planning. The choice of a road
pattern depends upon the extent of land use or the distribution of residential, industrial
and business areas in a city, the nature of the terrain, and the planner’s preferences.
The main patterns in use in urban areas are:
1. Grid Iron Pattern:
This is also known as rectangular or block pattern and is perhaps the simplest (Fig.
1.5). The Romans preferred it, as have the Americans who adopted it in many of their
cities. This is easy to set out in straight lines and rectangular co-ordinates, and is suitable
for flat terrain.
 The disadvantages of this pattern are monotonously long streets and the
inconvenience in traffic operation. There are also certain advantages such as
bypassing any road with traffic congestion and the convenience of imposing one-way
traffic, if necessary, making alternate streets with one- way traffic in opposite directions.
Chandigarh city is an excellent example of this pattern. Recently developed
localities in most major cities such as Bangalore City have been built on this pattern.
2. Radial Pattern:
In this pattern, roads emanate from a central focal area, which may be a business
centre or an important public building. In order to ease the congestion in the focal area,
ring roads are provided; there can be several such roads—inner, intermediate and outer—
depending on the requirements of the traffic.
The shape of a ring road may be round, square, or elongated. Based on this, the
pattern may be star and grid, or star and circular. The star and grid pattern, or the radial
and block pattern has been the basis of the Nagpur Road Plan, and it has been adopted in
a number of Indian cities (Fig. 1.6).

The star and circular pattern, also known as the radial and circular pattern, has been
adopted in certain cases, although in a limited way. A classic example is the Connaught
Place area of New Delhi. (Fig. 1.7)
3. Hexagonal Pattern:
The basic figure of the road network in this case is a hexagon; each hexagon has at
least one side common with an adjacent pattern, as shown in Fig. 1.8.

The hexagonal pattern can be modified by dividing the hexagon into six triangle
units by link roads; this facilitates travel from one place to any other place in the area in
the minimum possible time, compared to any other pattern. This, in fact, is known as a
‘minimum travel pattern’ and was used in certain cities to great advantage.

Quoted from EduRev

Planning Surveys
For assessing the road length requirements, following studies are made:
1. Economic Studies - Details of the existing facilities, their utility, distribution of the
existing population in the area, population growth trends, existing products in the
agricultural and industrial sectors, future trends of development in these sectors, existing
communication and education facilities, and the per capita income are to be collected.
2. Financial Studies – source of income; Various financial aspects such as the sources of
funding, estimated revenue from taxes on vehicles, toll tax, and indirect benefits of
raising the living standards of the people due to the proposed road network are
considered.
3. Traffic or road use studies - Details of the existing road facilities, traffic volume in
vehicles per day, traffic flow patterns, classes of traffic such as passenger cars, busses
and trucks, loads carried, average speeds, anticipated future trends of traffic growth, and
other traffic-related studies are to be conducted.
4. Engineering studies - These include study of the topography, soil, road life and
special problems, if any, relating to construction, drainage and maintenance.
A systematic study of all these data will help the planner in the preparation of a Master
Plan to serve the needs of the area for a specified design period of say, 20 to 25 years.
Saturation system for calculating optimum road length

In this the option road length us calculated for area, based on the concept of
obtaining maximum utility per unit length of road. Hence, this system is called saturation
system of maximum utility system.
Factors for obtaining the utility per length of road are:

1. Population served by the road

2. Productivity served bt the road network
a. Agricultural product
b. Industrial products
 After deciding the optimum road length for plan period., the final step is the
phasing of the road development plan by fixing up the priorities fot eh construction of
different road links.
Quoted from fao.org

Route Planning

Planning with respect to road construction takes into account present and future
uses of the transportation system to assure maximum service with a minimum of
financial and environmental cost. The main objective of this initial phase of road
development is to establish specific goals and prescriptions for road network
development along with the more general location needs. These goals must result from a
coordinated effort between the road engineer and the land manager, forester, geologist,
soil scientist, hydrologist, biologist and others who would have knowledge or
recommendations regarding alternatives or solutions to specific problems. The pattern of
the road network will govern the total area disturbed by road construction.

The road pattern which will give the least density of roads per unit area while
maintaining minimum hauling distance is the ideal to be sought. Keeping the density of
roads to an economical minimum has initial cost advantages and future advantages in
road maintenance costs and the acreage of land taken out of production.

Sediment control design criteria may be the same as, or parallel to, other design
criteria which will result in an efficient, economical road system. Examples of overlap or
parallel criteria are:

1. Relating road location and design to total forest resource,

including short and long term harvest patterns, reforestation, fire prevention, fish and
wildlife propagation, rural homestead development, and rangeland management.
2. Relating road location and design to current and future timber
harvesting methods.
 3. Preparing road plans and specifications to the level of detail
appropriate and necessary to convey to the road builder, whether timber purchaser or
independent contractor, the scope of the project, and thus allow for proper preparation of
construction plans and procedures, time schedules, and cost estimates.
4. Writing instructions and completing companion design decisions
so as to minimize the opportunity for "changed conditions" during construction with
consequent costs in money and time.
5. Analyzing specific road elements for "up-front" cost versus
annual maintenance cost (for instance, culvert and embankment repair versus bridge
installation, ditch pavement or lining versus ditches in natural soil, paved or lined
culverts versus unlined culverts, sediment trapping devices ("trash racks", catch basins, or
sumps) versus culvert cleaning costs, retaining walls or endhauling sidecast versus
placing and maintaining large embankments and fill slopes, roadway ballast or surfacing
versus maintenance of dirt surfaces, and balanced earthwork quantities versus waste and
borrow).

The route planning phase is the time to evaluate environmental and economic
tradeoffs and should set the stage for the remainder of the road development process.
Although inclusion of design criteria for sediment control may increase initial capital
outlay, it does not necessarily increase total annual cost over the life of the road which
might come from reductions in annual maintenance, reconstruction, and repair costs (see
Section 2.2). If an objective analysis by qualified individuals indicates serious erosional
problems, then reduction of erosional impacts should be a primary concern. In some
areas, this may dictate the location of control points or may in fact eliminate certain areas
from consideration for road construction as a result of unfavorable social or
environmental costs associated with developing the area for economic purposes.

D. Highway Alignment and Surveys

Quoted from engineeringnotes.com

Highway Alignment:
The laying out of the centre line of a proposed highway on the ground is called its
‘alignment’. A new road should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may
not be possible or may be expensive at a later stage, owing to increased land acquisition
costs and roadside structures constructed after the road has taken shape. Requirements
of an Ideal Alignment:
1. Directness:
The aligned route between end points should be as direct as possible and result in the
minimum possible length under the circumstances.
2. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation:
The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct, maintain and operate the
highway. The curves and gradients should be easy.
3. Safety:
Safety for the road-users should be the primary consideration; the stability of natural
slopes and man-made slopes for embankments and cuttings should be ensured to prevent
possible accidents.
4. Economy:
The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, as also the operation cost of
the vehicles should be as low as possible.
5. Special Considerations:
Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special
considerations may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.

Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Quoted from engineeringnotes.com

This is the alignment of the roadway in the horizontal plane; although it is ideal to
have a straight route between end points, it is practically impossible owing to several
 constraints. A change in direction necessitates the use of horizontal curves for smooth
flow of traffic.
Quoted from fao.org

For low volume roads with design speeds of 24 kph (15 mph) or less, a horizontal
alignment that approximates the geometric requirements of circular curves and tangents
may be used. Alignment should be checked so that other design elements, such as curve
widening and stopping sight distance can be considered. A minimum centerline radius of
curvature for roads should be 15 meters (50 ft) except for some recreation and
administrative roads. Superelevation should not be used for design speeds less than 32
kph (20 mph). If snow and ice are factors, the superelevation rate should not exceed 6
percent and should be further reduced on grades to accommodate slow truck traffic.
Transition segments into and out of superelevated sections should be provided to avoid
abrupt changes in the roadway template.

Quoted from engineeringnotes.com

Although it is ideal to have a roadway at the same elevation throughout, this is
almost impractical and gradients or slopes along the length become mandatory. A change
in gradient calls for curves in the vertical plane; vertical curves should be designed and
constructed for smooth flow of traffic based on several criteria.

The alignment may be smoothened as shown in Fig. 2.1:

Quoted from fao.org

Vertical alignment, or grade; is of critical concern because of its potential for

environmental damage and becomes increasingly important for grades exceeding 10
percent. Erosion potential increases as a function of the square of the slope and the cube
of water velocity. The Most desirable combination of grade and other design elements
should be determined early in the road location phase with additional caution exercised
when grades exceed 8 percent. Vertical alignment normally governs the speed of light
vehicles for grades exceeding 15 percent favorable and 11 percent adverse and of loaded
trucks for grades exceeding 8 percent favorable and 3 percent adverse. The ability of a
vehicle to traverse a particular grade is dependent on vehicle weight and horsepower and
on the traction coefficient of the driving surface.

Travel time and cost are affected by horizontal alignment, such as curve radius and road
width. Figure 9 shows the relationship between average truck speed and curve radius for
several road widths. For example, there is a 15 percent difference in average truck speed
on a 30.5 m (100 ft) radius curve for a 3.7 m wide road when compared to a 4.3 m wide
road. Horizontal alignment has been classified on the basis of curve radius and number
of curves. The U. S. Forest Service, for example, uses the following classification system:

[Average radius (m)] / [# of curves / km]

10
<
- 20 Poor = Good =

> 20 4
4
Fair = - Excellent =
10
The effect of grade on truck speed (loaded and unloaded) is shown in Figure 10. The
speed of a loaded truck is most sensitive to grade changes from 0 to 7 percent in the
direction of haul. For grades steeper than 7 percent other considerations are more
important than impact on speed.
Figure 9. Relationship between curve radius and truck speed when speed is not
controlled by grade.
 1

Figure 10. Relationship between grade and truck speed on gravel roads.

Quoted from EduRev

Engineering Surveys for Highway Location

Before highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys
are to be carried out.
The stages of engineering surveys are:
1. Map Study. Topographic maps are available with 15 to 30 meters contour intervals.
Valleys, ponds or lakes etc. can be avoided and approximate position of bridges etc. can
be planned.
2. Preliminary Survey. This is carried out to collect all the physical information which are
necessary in connection with the proposed highway alignment.
This works consist of:
a. Primary transverse
b. Topographical features
c. Leveling work
d. Drainage studies & hydrological data
e. Soil survey
f. Determinations of final centre line
g. Traffic Survey
 2

3. Final location and detailed survey. The center line of road finalized is translated on the
ground during location survey. Detailed survey is done to fix temporary bench mark and
leveling work is used for drainage and earthwork calculations

II. Conclusion

A planning model is a tool which is designed to assist administrators in making

decisions. As such it augments professional judgment in the establishment of policy, but
never replaces it.
A highway model can simulate real world relationships between highway
construction and maintenance standards, vehicle user costs and the condition of a given
designed highway in a known environment. Alternate policies for design standards and
maintenance quality can be examined and blended to minimize 1 Digitized by the
University of Pretoria, Library Services, 2012 total transportation cost for a specific
project. A model can also be used to examine a variety of maintenance strategies for a
fixed design standard or the implications of different designs holding maintenance
constant or even eliminating it. In general, a planning model predicts construction,
maintenance and user costs. Ideally, it should quantify user impact in terms of safety,
comfort and convenience. However, these latter indexes are difficult to quantify in cost
terms.
 3

III. References

Aleman, G. (2019). Highway Planning PDF. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/

document/425880391/Highway-Planning-PDF
Aziz, M.A. "Environmental Impact Assessment of Highway Development." The
Handbook of Highway Engineering. Ed. T.W. Fwa. CRC
Press, 2005.http://www.engineeringenotes.com/transportation-
engineering/highway-planning-intro- objectives-principle-process-necessity-and-
importance/48327. 2019
EduRev. (n.d). Highway Development Planning.
Retrieved from https://edurev.in/studytube/Chapter-1-Highway-
Development-and-Planning- Highway/c78f14cb-8d79-40ed-a3cf-7f091112c4ba_t
Highway engineering." McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and
Technology.”

Sperling, D.; Bissonette, J.A.; Clevenger, A.P.; Cutshall, C.D.; Dale, V.H.; Fahrig, L.;
France, R.L.; Goldman, C.R.; Heanue, K. (2002). Road Ecology: Science and
Solutions. Island Press.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006. Credo Reference. Web. 13 February 2013.

United States. National Research Council. Washington, DC. "Urban Stormwater

Management in the United States." October 15, 2008. pp. 5, 110.
http://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/content/about-dpwh. 2019

https://julkaisut.vayla.fi/pdf3/esite_2010_road_planning_process.pdf

https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/19360/002_Chapter1_p001- 009.pdf?
sequence=2&isAllowed=y/002_Chapter1_p001-009.pdf
http://www.fao.org/3/t0099e/T0099e02.htm
 4

https://www.engineeringenotes.com/transportation-engineering/highway-planning-intro-
objectives-principle-process-necessity-and-importance/48327
https://www.scribd.com/document/354226610/Highway-Development-and-Planning
 5

MODULE 3: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS

The goal in Highway Design is to provide safe roads for all road users, and not just
those in motor vehicles. The principle that ‘man is the reference standard’ implies that
roads must be adapted to the limitations of human capacity. This leads to what is called
the ‘safe systems approach’ which encourages:
● Simpler, self-explaining roads (with less reliance on traffic signs).
● Designing roads that encourage / enforce safe speeds (the safe speed being the
one that guarantees the safety of the most vulnerable road user).
● Forgiving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ idea about unobstructed, traversable
space beyond the edge of the travelled way for recovery of errant vehicles).
● The World Bank’s Sustainable safe Road Design Manual also discusses.
● Functionality – developing a hierarchy of mono-functional roads
(e.g. truck, distributor and access).
● Homogeneity – avoiding differences in speed, direction of travel,
and mass of vehicles (with segregation of incompatible road users).
● Predictability – ensuring that roads are easy to understand and there are
not nasty
surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ roads).

The characteristics listed below are controls in optimizing or improving the design of
the various highway and street functional classes.

1. Human Factors and Driver Performance

The suitability of a design rests as much on how effectively drivers are able to use the
highway as on any other criteria. Considerations include;
● Driver tasks that include vehicle control (such as simultaneous multiple tasks
and reaction time), guidance (such as road following, lane placement, car
following, passing maneuvers and response to traffic control devices) and
navigation.
● Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians.
 6

● Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands.

● Speed.

Properly designed highways that provide positive guidance to drivers can operate at a
high level of efficiency and with relatively few crashes.

The World Health Organization recorded 1.35 million people died due to road traffic
crashes. More than 90% of this recorded fatal road crashes occur in low-and middle-
income countries. More so, 2019 statistics showed that the leading cause of death for
children and young-adults aged 5 to 29 years is road traffic injuries (WHO). The
organization tackles road safety through Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020.

In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total of 116,906 incidents of road traffic
crashes in Metro Manila alone. On average there were 334 reported accidents per day
with one resulting in fatality, 56 being non-fatal and 276 leading to damages to
property (topgear.com). This leads to the Philippine Road Safety Action Plan 2017-
2022, a program developed by the Department of Transportation adopting a vision of
zero road traffic death, with an interim target to reduce road death rate by at least 20%
by 2022. The interventions are organized according to the Action Plan of the Decade of
Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the following: (1) road safety
management, (2) safe roads and mobility; (3) safe vehicles; (4) safe road users; and (5)
post-crash care.
1. Vehicles
Four general classes of design vehicles are (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and
(4) recreational vehicles. In the design of any highway facility, the designer should
consider the largest design vehicle that is likely to use that facility with considerable
frequency or a design vehicle with special characteristics appropriate to a particular
location in determining the design of such critical features as radii at intersections and
radii of turning roadways (refer to Table 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2). As a general rule;
● A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a parking lot.
● A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design of residential
 7

streets and park roads.

 8

● A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of

collector streets and other facilities where larger single-unit trucks
are likely.
● A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that are
designated bus routes and that have relatively few large trucks
using them.
Table 2.3.1. Design Vehicle Dimension
 9

Table 2.3.2. Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles

2. Traffic Characteristics
The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover traffic volumes and
traffic characteristics. Traffic volumes obtained from field studies (such as hourly and
daily traffic volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic trends) can indicate the
need for improvement and directly influence the selection of geometric design features,
such as number of lanes, widths, alignments and grades. Relevant studies include
average daily traffic (ADT), peak hour traffic, directional distribution, composition of
traffic, projection of future traffic demands, speed and traffic flow relationships
characterized by the volume flow rate in vehicles per hour, the average speed in
kilometers per hour, and the traffic density in vehicles per kilometer.

3. Physical Elements
These elements include highway capacity, access control and management,
pedestrians, bicycle facilities, safety and environment.
Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to properly fit a planned highway to traffic
 10

demands. Access control to manage interference with through traffic is achieved

through the regulation of public access rights to and from properties abutting the
highway facilities, and can comprise full control, partial control, access management or
driveway/entrance regulations.
Pedestrian facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features, curb cuts,
ramps, bus stops, loading areas, stairs, escalators and elevators warrant due attention in
both rural and urban areas.
Existing streets and highways provide most of the network used by bicycle travel,
making bicycle traffic an important element for consideration in highway design.
Because the number of crashes increases with the number of decisions that need to be
made by the driver, it is in the interest of safety that roadways should be designed to
reduce the need for driver decisions and to reduce unexpected situations.
4. Economic Factors
Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and the
benefits resulting from it.

The following are the design controls of highway construction

1. Anticipated Traffic Volume

The design of a highway or any part thereof should consider jointly all data relating to
traffic such as traffic volume, character of traffic and axle loading. Financing, quality
of foundations, availability of materials, cost of right-of-way, and other factors have
important bearing on the design. However, traffic volume indicates the service for
which the improvement is being made and directly affects the geometric features of
design such as width, alignment, grades, etc. It is no more rational to design a highway
without traffic information than it is to design a bridge without the knowledge of
weights and numbers of vehicles it is intended to support. Traffic information serves to
establish the ‘loads’ for geometric highway design.

A road should be designed so that it will accommodate or can be readily changed to

 11

accommodate the number of vehicles which is estimated to pass it towards the end of
its life. This number is called the design volume. In estimating the design volume, the
minimum life is commonly assumed to be 10 to 15 years for a flexible pavement, and
20 years for a rigid pavement. Traffic volumes are usually the annual average daily
traffic (AADT), though at critical points on a road, such as intersections, peak traffic
figures are also taken into account. The number of vehicles using a road in a given time
determines the number of traffic lanes required and indicates whether there is a need
for auxiliary lanes for slow speed traffic and or whether speed change lanes are
required at intersections.
The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the future year chosen
for design. It should be predicated on current traffic (existing and attracted) plus all
traffic increases (normal traffic growth, generated traffic and development traffic) that
would occur during the period between the current and the future year chosen for
design. A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design, for which the usual
traffic increase on a highway improvement is in the range of 50 to 150%. Where the
highway is to be an expressway, traffic increase is likely to be higher, in the range of
80 to 200%.

On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally is sufficient. On
most highways a DHV equal to the 30th highest hourly volume (abbreviated as ‘30
HV’) is usually used for design. On highways with unusual or highly seasonal
fluctuation in traffic flow, it may be necessary to use a design hourly volume other than
the 30 HV.

The design traffic data should include the following elements:

● ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified.
● ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.
● DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified (DHV
usually equals 30 HV).
● K – Ratio of DHV to ADT; generally 12% to 18% for Rural and 8 to 12% for
Urban.
 12

● D – Directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant direction

of travel expressed as percentage of total. D normally varies from about 50 to 80% of
two-way DHV, with an average of 67%.
● T – Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of
DHV. As an average on main rural highways, T is 7 to 9% of DHV and 13% of
ADT; where weekend peaks govern, the average may be 5% to 8% of DHV.

For important intersections, data should be obtained to show simultaneous traffic

movement during both the morning and evening peak hours.

1. Character of Traffic
All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses, passenger vehicles,
handcarts, cyclists and pedestrians with safety and convenience. A thorough
knowledge of the design vehicle’s weight, dimensions, mobility and other
characteristics is essential for good design.
The vehicle which should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one
which represents a significant percentage of the traffic for the design year. For design
of most highways accommodating truck traffic, one of the design semitrailer
combinations should be used – refer to Table 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2. A design check
should be made for the largest vehicle expected to ensure that such a vehicle can
negotiate the designated turns, particularly if pavements are curbed. This is done using
a swept path analysis using either turning circle templates or software.
Knowing the predominant character of traffic to use the highway, the required width of
lane could be determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the widths of
traffic lanes required, dividing islands, curbs and gutter, shoulders and/or walkways,
ditches or gutters, drains and other special features.

2. Design Speed
The design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical
features of a highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed
that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when conditions are so
 13

favorable that the design features of the highway govern. The choice of design is
influenced principally by the character of terrain, the extent of man-made features and
economic considerations. Once selected, it sets the limits for curvature, sight distance
and other geometric features. In the design of a substantial length of highway it is
desirable, although it may not be feasible, to assume a constant design speed on certain
sections. Changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate a change in design
speed on certain sections. If so, the introduction of a lower or higher design speed
should not be affected abruptly but over a sufficient distance to permit drivers to
change speed gradually before reaching the section of highway with the different
design speed.
When available funds are limited, it is impractical to reduce design speed just to save
construction cost; rather the savings should be on other features.

3. Design Traffic (vehicles)

The operating characteristics of motor vehicles should be considered in analyzing a
facility. The major considerations are vehicle types and dimensions, turning radii and
off-tracking, resistance to motion, power requirements, acceleration performance, and
deceleration performance. Motor vehicles include passenger cars, trucks, vans, buses,
recreational vehicles, and motorcycles. These vehicles have unique weight, length,
size, and operational characteristics. The forces that must be overcome by motor
vehicles if they are to move are rolling, air, grade, curve, and inertial resistance. The
weight/power ratios are useful for indicating the overall performance in overcoming
these forces.

1. Highway Capacity
Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In some cases, these
influence the capacity of a road; in others, they can affect a performance measure such
as speed, but not the capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility.

Roadway factors include the following:

● Number of lanes
 14

● The type of facility and its development environment

● Lane widths
● Shoulder widths and lateral clearances
● Design speed
● Horizontal and vertical alignments
● Axle loads
● Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections

The horizontal and vertical alignment of a highway depends on the design speed
and the topography of the land on which it is constructed.

In general, the severity of the terrain reduces capacity and service flow rates. This is
significant for two-lane rural highways, where the severity of terrain not only can affect
the operating capabilities of individual vehicles in the traffic stream, but also can
restrict opportunities for passing slow-moving vehicles.

2. Classification of Highway
Certain characteristics distinguish multilane suburban and rural highways from
expressways. For example, vehicles may enter or leave multilane highways at
intersections and driveways, and they can encounter traffic signals.
Design standards for multilane highways tend to be lower than those for expressways,
although a multilane highway approaches expressway conditions as its access points
and turning volumes approach zero. Moreover, the visual setting and the developed
frontage along multilane highways have a greater impact on drivers than they do along
expressways.
The multilane highway is similar to urban streets in many respects, although it lacks
the regularity of traffic signals and tends to have greater control on the number of
access points per kilometer. Also, its design standards are generally higher than those
for urban streets. The speed limits on multilane highways are often 10 to 20 kph higher
than speed limits on urban streets. Pedestrian activity, as well as parking, is minimal,
unlike on urban streets.
 15

Multilane highways differ substantially from two-lane highways, principally because a

driver on a multilane highway is able to pass slower-moving vehicles without using
lanes designated for oncoming traffic. Multilane highways also tend to be located near
urban areas and often connect urban areas; they usually have better design features than
two-lane highways, including horizontal and vertical curvature.
1. Accident information
On all proposed projects, the accident history should be analyzed and potentially
hazardous features and locations identified to determine appropriate safety enhancement.
A study of accidents by location, type, severity, contributing circumstances,
environmental conditions, and time periods may suggest possible safety deficiencies.

Table 2.3.3 and Table 2.3.4 contain the minimum design standards for Philippine
highways and for tourism roads respectively.

Table 2.3.3. Minimum Design Standards for Highways except

Tourism Roads
 16

Table 2.3.4. Minimum Design Standards for Tourism Roads

 17

MODULE 4: GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS,

INCLUDING CROSS SECTIONS, HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL
ALIGNMENTS, SUPER-ELEVATION AND EARTHWORKS

Introduction

Geometric design of highways talks about the design of its visible dimensions of
components like horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections, junctions or
intersections, super elevations, and earthworks. These basic elements are common to all
linear facilities, such as roadways, railways. The primary goal of geometric design is to
create a roadway that is safe, efficient, and cost-effective to operate while maintaining a
high level of aesthetic and environmental quality. Vehicle, driver, and traffic factors all
have an impact on geometric design. The geometric design is a dynamic discipline where
design rules are changed on a regular basis to produce better results for a reason that
these characteristics changes over time.
Geometric design of Railways refers to the importance of tracks to have a proper
geometric design in order to maximize the safety and smooth running of trains at
maximum allowable speed carrying the heaviest load of the axle. The speed and axle load
of the train is important and sometimes included as parameters to be considered while
arriving at the geometric design of railway. This chapter focuses on the fundamentals of
geometric design of highways and railways, and presents standards and examples from
different modes. The order of presentation of material in this chapter is to consider
geometric design of highway first, then geometric design of railway, cross-sections,
vertical alignment, horizontal alignment, super elevation, earthworks, and other design
details. Design guidelines take into account speed, vehicle type, road grade (slope), view
obstructions, and stopping distance. With proper application of guidelines, along with
good engineering judgement, an engineer can design a roadway that is comfortable, safe,
and appealing to the eye.
 18

1. Geometric Design
1.1 Highway Geometric Design
The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned
with the positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and
constraints. The basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and
safety while minimizing cost and environmental damage. Geometric design also affects
an emerging fifth objective called "liveability," which is defined as designing roads to
foster broader community goals, including providing access to employment, schools,
businesses and residences, accommodate a range of travel modes such as walking,
bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions and
environmental damage. Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts:
alignment, profile, and cross-section. Combined, they provide a three- dimensional layout
for a roadway.
 The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves.
 The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the
straight grade lines connecting them.
 The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and
sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage
features, pavement structure and other items outside the category of geometric design.

1.1.1 Design Considerations

To meet the objective of fitting the highway to site topography and yet satisfy the
safety, service and performance standards, the following considerations have to be
properly addressed in the design process.
 Design speed
 Design traffic volume
 Number of lanes
 Level of service (LOS)
 19

 Sight distance
 Alignment, super-elevation and grades
 Cross section
 Lane width
 Horizontal and vertical clearance
1.1.1 Design Elements Design Speed
The design speed is defined as a selected rate of travel used to determine the
various geometric features of the roadway. The basic purpose in using the design speed
concept is to achieve consistency in the various design elements that influence vehicle
operations. Since many critical design features are predicated upon design speed, the
selection of the proper value is essential to allow for the safe design of a safe street or
highway. The selection of an appropriate design speed is dependent on the predicted
driver behavior and is, therefore, rather complex. This selection of design speed should
receive considerable preliminary investigation and thought so safety will be realized from
the design. The primary basis for selecting the design speed should be a rational
prediction of the probable maximum operating speed (by approximately 90 percent of the
vehicles) on the street or highway. The "average running speed" is not acceptable as a
design speed.
In selecting design speeds, consideration should also be given to pedestrians and

bicycle usage and to the present and future adjacent land use. Recommended minimum
values for design speed are given in the table below. These values should be considered
as general guidelines only.
 20

The maximum normal operating speed is dependent on many variables including

topography, general roadway geometry, frequency of traffic signals or other traffic
control devices, posted speed limit and the degree of enforcement and others.

Design Vehicles

A "design vehicle" is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions, and

operating characteristics are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate
vehicles of a designated type. For the purpose of geometric design, the design vehicle
should be one with dimensions and minimum turning radii larger than those of almost all
vehicles in its class. The decision as to which of the design vehicles (or other special
vehicles) should be used as a control is complex and requires careful study. Each
situation Each situation must be evaluated individually to arrive at a reasonable estimate
of the type and volume of expected traffic. Design criteria significantly affected by the
type of vehicle include:
 Horizontal and vertical clearances
 Alignment
 Lane widening on curves
 Shoulder width requirements
 Turning roadway and intersection radii
 21

 Intersection sight distance

 Acceleration criteria

Sight Distance

Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight
distance criteria exist in highway geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient
warning of potential obstacle or conflict ahead. Future obstruction to sight distance that
may develop or be constructed should be taken into consideration in the initial design.
Areas outside of the highway right of way that are not under the highway agency's
jurisdiction should be considered as points of obstruction.

Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is the distance ahead that a motorist should be able to see
so that the vehicle can be brought safely to a stop short of an obstruction or foreign object
on the road. This distance will include the driver’s reaction or perception distance and the
distance traveled while the brakes are being applied. The total distance traveled varies
with the initial speed, the brake reaction time, and the coefficient of friction for wet
pavements and average tires. Safe stopping sight distances shall be provided continuously
on all streets and highways. The factors, which determine the minimum distance required
to stop, include:
 Vehicle speed
 Driver's total reaction time
 Characteristics and conditions of the vehicle
 Friction capabilities between the tires and the roadway surface
 Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway

1.2 Railway Geometric Design

 22

Geometric Design of Railway Track should be such as to provide maximum

efficiency in the traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
1.2.1 Gradient
Any departure of track from the level is known as grade or gradient. The purpose
of providing gradient is provide uniform rate of rise or fall, to reduce cost of earth work,
to reach different stations at different level.

Types of gradients
1. Ruling gradient
The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the max load that
the locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs more powerful
locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly hauling.

–In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200

–In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

2. Momentum Gradient
The gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient acquire
sufficient momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum gradient.

3. Pusher gradient
As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of a train which can
be hauled over the section by a locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so severe on a section
that it needs the help of extra engine to pull the same load than this gradient is known as
pusher of helper gradient. In Darjeeling Railways 1 in 37 pusher gradient is used on
Western Ghats BG Track.
4. Gradient at stations
At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following reason:
 To prevent movement of standing vehicle
 23

 To prevent additional resistance due to grade.

 On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards.
Grade compensation on curves
If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track
will be increased this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond the allowable limits, the
gradients are reduced on curves. The reduction in gradient is known as grade
compensation for curves.

 BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve

 MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
 NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve

1. Cross Sections
The AASHTO “Green Book” defines a roadway cross-section as “a vertical
section of the ground and roadway at right angles to the centreline of the roadway,
including all elements of a highway or street from right-of-way line”. Along with the
vertical alignment (grades and vertical curves) and horizontal alignment (tangents and
curves), the roadway cross-section helps to present a three-dimensional roadway
model. The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel
lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some multilane highways). Marginal elements
include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, cross slope
and side slopes. The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross sections for
highways, runways, and taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on the type of
facility and agency.
Travel Lanes or Traffic Lanes
Travel lane is “the portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive
of shoulders and bicycle lanes”. This area usually contains two or more lanes for roadway
traffic. Travel lanes have a great influence on driving comfort, operational characteristics,
crash probability and level of service. The predominant travel lane on freeways and land
service highways is 12 feet. Drivers typically increase their speeds with wider travel
lanes. Therefore, it may be appropriate to use narrower lane widths that are compatible
 24

with the alignment and intended speed at locations with low design speeds and restricted
alignments. Using a typical lane width of 12 feet reduces maintenance costs and provides
adequate clearance between heavy vehicles on two-lane, two-way rural highways with
high commercial vehicle traffic.

Facility Type: Typical Lane Widths

Range: 9 to 12 feet
High-speed, high-volume highways: 12 feet (predominant)
Urban areas with lane width controls: 11 feet
Low-speed facilities: 10 feet (acceptable) Rural
low-volume roads & residential areas: 9 feet (acceptable)

Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the travelled way for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, for emergency use, and for lateral support of sub
base, base and surface courses. Some of the more important advantages of providing
shoulders are:

 Space for the motorist to pull completely off the roadway for emergencies.
 An escape zone to allow motorists to avoid potential accidents or reduce accident
severity.
 An aid to driver comforts by creating a sense of openness; improves highway capacity.
 An improvement in sight distance in cut sections.\
 A provision to enhance lateral clearance for the placement of signs, guide rails, or
other roadside appurtenances.
 Space for pedestrians where there is no sidewalk and for bicycle usage
Shoulder surfaces range in width from 2 ft. on minor roads to 12 ft. on major
arterials. Shoulders are also used to laterally support the pavement structure. The
shoulder width is known as either graded or usable, depending on the section of the
shoulder being considered. The graded shoulder width is the whole width of the shoulder
measured from the edge of the travel lane to the intersection of the shoulder slope and the
 25

plane of the side slope. The usable shoulder width is that part of the graded shoulder that
can be used to accommodate parked vehicles. The usable width is the same as the graded
width when the side slope is equal to or flatter than 4:1 (horizontal: vertical), as the
shoulder break is usually rounded to a width between 4 ft. and 6 ft., thereby increasing
the usable width.

Medians
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing
directions. This area is located between the edges of opposing travel lanes (including any
left shoulders). Median width and design characteristics are among the most important
safety features of high-speed highways in both urban and rural areas. The principal
functions of a median are to:

 Provide the desired freedom from the interference of opposing traffic.

 Provide a refuge area for pedestrians and bicyclists.
 Provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.
 Provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
 Provide for speed changes and storage of left turning and U turning vehicles.
 Minimize headlight glare.
 Provide width for future lanes.
 Add open green space in an urban area.
 Serve as traffic calming devices on low-speed roadways.

Median widths are dependent on the roadway type and location. Any proposed median
widths should be evaluated for potential barrier needs. Ideally, median widths (typically 4
to 80 feet) should be sufficient so that no barrier is needed, when practical. The wider
medians are safer but more costly, requiring more right-of-way, construction and
maintenance. Medians can either be raised, flush, or depressed. Raised medians are
frequently used in urban arterial streets because they facilitate the control of left-turn
traffic at intersections by using part of the median width for left-turn-only lanes. Flush
 26

medians are commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be used on freeways, but
with a median barrier. Depressed medians are generally used on freeways and are more
effective in draining surface water.

Roadside and Median Barriers

A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant
vehicle from crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the travelled ways for
traffic in opposite directions. Roadside barriers, on the other hand, protect vehicles from
obstacles or slopes on the roadside. They also may be used to shield pedestrians and
property from the traffic stream. The provision of median barriers must be considered
when traffic volumes are high and when access to multilane highways and other
highways is only partially controlled. However, when the median of a divided highway
has physical characteristics that may create unsafe conditions, such as a sudden lateral
drop-off or obstacles, the provision of a median barrier should be considered regardless
of the traffic volume or the median width.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous
concrete (rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate
pavement edges and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to control drainage,
improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way. Curbs can be generally classified as either
vertical or sloping. Vertical curbs, range in height from 6 to 8 with steep sides, and are
designed to prevent vehicles from leaving the highway. Sloping curbs are designed so
that vehicles can cross them if necessary. Both vertical and sloping curbs may be
designed separately or as integral parts of the pavement. In general, vertical curbs should
not be used in conjunction with traffic barriers, such as bridge railings or median and
roadside barriers, because they could contribute to vehicles rolling over the traffic
barriers. Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways with design speeds greater
than 40 mi/h, because at such speeds it is usually difficult for drivers to retain control of
the vehicle after an impact with the curb.
 27

Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on the pavement side of a curb to
provide the principal drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any
hazard to traffic, and they usually have cross slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6 ft.
wide. Gutters can be designed as V-type sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections.

Guard Rails
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at
sections with high fills. Their main function is to restrain and redirect errant vehicles and
prevent them from leaving the roadway. They are installed at embankments higher than 8
ft. and when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes commonly used include the W
beam and the box beam. The weak post system provides for the post to collapse on
impact, with the rail deflecting and absorbing the energy due to impact.

Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in
rural areas. Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated
during the planning process to determine sections of the road where they are required.
Generally, sidewalks should be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main or
high-speed roads in either rural or urban areas. When shoulders are not provided on
arterials, sidewalks are necessary even when pedestrian traffic is low. In urban areas,
sidewalks should also be provided along both sides of collector streets that serve as
pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit stops, and along
collector streets in commercial areas. Sidewalks should have a minimum clear width of
4 ft. in residential areas and a range of 4 to 8 ft. in commercial areas. To encourage
pedestrians to use sidewalks, they should have all- weather surfaces since pedestrians will
tend to use traffic lanes rather than unpaved sidewalks.

Cross Slope
Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without
medians are sloped from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in
a transverse or cross slope, with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or a
 28

combination of the two.

Plane: Slope break at crown line, Uniform slope on each side

Rounded: Parabolic cross-section, Rounded surface at crown line Increasing slope toward edges

The rounded section is beneficial for roadway drainage due to its steepening cross
slope toward the edge of travelled way. However, disadvantages include: difficult
construction; excessive outer lane cross slopes; and pavement transitions at intersection
areas.

Side slopes
Side slopes adjoin the roadway shoulder and are located between the edge of the
shoulder and the right-of-way boundary. Any side slope design needs to improve road
stability and provide adequate recovery space for errant vehicles. Side slopes are also
provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. When being
considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope are the hinge
point, the fore slope, and the toe of the slope. The hinge point should be rounded since it
is potentially hazardous and may cause vehicles to become airborne while crossing it,
resulting in loss of control of the vehicle. The fore slope serves principally as a recovery
area, where vehicle speeds can be reduced and other recovery manoeuvres taken to
regain control of the vehicle. The Toe of Slope is the intersection of fore slope with level
ground or back slope and usually within clear zone and impacted by vehicle.

Figure 2.1 - Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches

 29

Figure 2.2 - Two-lane highway cross section, curbeds

Figure 2.3 - Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.
 30

Figure 2.4 - Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed

Figure 2.5 - Railroad track geometric cross section

2. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

2.1 Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment of a roadway should be designed to provide motorists
with a facility for driving in a safe and comfortable manner. Adequate stopping sight
distance should be furnished. Also, changes in direction should be accompanied by the
use of curves and superelevation when appropriate in accordance with established
guidelines.Some changes in alignment are slight and may not require curvature.

The standard of alignment selected for a particular section of highway should

extend throughout the section with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature.
 31

Where sharper curvature is unavoidable, a sequence of curves of increasing degree

should be utilized. Winding alignment consisting of sharp curves is hazardous, reduces
capacity, and should be avoided. The use of as flat a curve as possible is recommended.
Flatter curves are not only less hazardous, but also frequently less costly due to the
shortened roadway. Maximum curvature should not be used in the following locations:

 High fills or elevated structures. The lack of surrounding objects reduces the driver's
perception of the roadway alignment.
 At or near a crest in grade
 At or near a low point in a sag or grade
 At the end of long tangents
 At or near intersections, transit stops, or points of ingress or egress
 At or near other decision points

The "broken back" arrangement of curves (short tangent between two curves in
the same direction) should be avoided. This is acceptable only at design speeds of 30 mph
or less. This arrangement produces an unexpected and hazardous situation.

2.1.1 Design of Horizontal alignment

Various design elements to be considered in the horizontal elements are

Design Speed
The design speed is the main factor in which geometric design elements depends.
The design speed of roads depends upon the class of the road and the terrain.

Horizontal Curve
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to
the central line of a road.The centrifugal frorce on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal
 32

curve has two factors:

1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels

2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

On horizontal curves, especially when they are Less than 300m radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. Widening is needed
for the following reasons:

a. An automobile has a rigis wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned, when this
vehicle takes turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do not follow the same
path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon is called off tracking.

b. While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is psychological tendency
to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.

c. For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the central path of
the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.

d. At higher speed superelevation and lateral friction cannot counteract centrifugal force
and skidding may occur.

2.2 Vertical Alignment

The selection of vertical alignment should be predicated to a large extent
upon the following criteria:

 Obtaining maximum sight distances

 Limiting speed differences (particularly for trucks and buses) by reducing magnitude and
length of grades
 33

 A "hidden dip" which would not be apparent to the driver must be avoided.
 Steep grades and sharp crest vertical curves should be avoided at or near intersections.
 Flat grades and long gentle vertical curves should be used whenever possible.

The vertical alignment of a highway influences:

1. Vehicle speed
2. Acceleration and deceleration
3. Sight distance
4. vehicle operation cost
5. Comfort while travelling at hight speed
Tangent Grades
Tangent grades are designated according to their slopes or grades. Maximum
grades vary, depending on the type of facility, and usually do not constitute an absolute
standard. The effect of a steep grade is to slow down the heavier vehicles and increase
operating costs. Furthermore, the extent to which any vehicle is slowed depends on both
the steepness and length of the grade. The effect of the slowing of the heavier vehicles
depends on the situation, and is often more a matter of traffic analysis than simple
geometric design. Chapter 10, for instance, discusses the effects of slow-moving vehicles
on highway capacity and level of service. As a result, the maximum grade for a given
facility is a matter of judgment, with the tradeoffs usually being cost of construction
versus speed. In the case of railroads, on the other hand, the tradeoff is an economic one,
involving travel time, construction cost, and minimum power/weight ratios for trains on
various grades

Vertical Curves
Changes in grade should be connected by a parabolic curve (the vertical offset
being proportional to the square of the horizontal distance). Vertical curves are required
when the algebraic difference of intersecting grades exceeds the values of maximum
change in grade. Vertical curves used in highway may be classified in to two categories:
 34

 Summit curves or crest curves Length of summit curve:

- while designing the length the parabolic summit curves, it is necessary to
consider ssd and osd separately.
- length of summit curve for stopping sight distance (ssd):

 Valley curves or sag curves Length of valley curve:

The important factors to considered in valley curve design are:
a. Impact free movement of vehicles at design speed or comfort to passenger.
b. Providing adequate sight distance under head lights of vehicles for night driving
c. Locating lowest point of valley curve for providing suitable cross drainage facilities

The valley curve and its length are designed as a transition curve to fulfil two criteria:
1. Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration or comfort conditions
2. Required head light sight distance for night driving

3. Super- elevation
In the design of highway curves, it is necessary to establish a proper relationship
between curvature of the roadway and design speed. The use of superelevation (rotation
of the roadway about its axis) is employed to counteract centrifugal force and allow
drivers to comfortably and safely travel through curves at the design speed. Advantages
of providing Super elevation:
 Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of vehicles.
 It increases the stability of fast-moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal
curve, and it also decreases the stresses on the foundation.
 In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes are likely to occur at
the outer edge of the road.
 The Indian Road Congress (IRC) has prescribed the max value of Super Elevation is 1 in
15.

Maximum Super-elevation:
 35

 Indian Roads Congress (IRC) had fixed the maximum limit of Superelevation in plan and
rolling terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0%
 On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Super elevation up to 10% is recommended.
 On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be necessary to limit the
maximum super elevation to 4.0%
Minimum Super-elevation:
 From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to drain off
the surface water. If the calculated super elevation is equal to or less than the camber
of the
road surface, then the minimum super elevation to be provided on horizontal curve may
be limited to the camber of the surface.
Although superelevation is advantageous for traffic operations, various factors
combine to make its use impractical in many built-up areas. Such factors include:
 Wide pavement areas
 Need to meet grade of adjacent property
 Surface drainage considerations
 Frequency of cross streets, alleys, and driveway

5. Earthworks
Earthworks are engineering works created through the moving and/or processing
of massive quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earthwork is done to reconfigure the
topography of a site to achieve the design levels. Earthwork involves cutting and filling
to achieve the required topography.

Cutting: Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a work location to
achieve the desired topography.

Filling: Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth
material to a work location to achieve the desired topography.
 36

Applications of Earthwork Typically, earthwork is done in the following projects:

 Road works
 Railways
 Irrigation project such as canals and dams
 Other common earthwork applications are land grading to reconfigure the topography of
a site, or to stabilize slopes.
 37

References:

https://theconstructor.org/transportation/geometric-design-of-highways-factors/20897/ -
What is Geometric Design of Highways and Factors Affecting it? - The Constructor

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Railway Engineering - Geometric design of track (slideshare.net)

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matter/appendix9
 38

MODULE 5: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF RAILWAYS AND PAVEMENTS

Structural Design of Railways and Pavements

Railways Structure- Railway structures encompass a
wide array of construction intended to support
the track itself or house railway operations.

Bridge Deck- portion of a railway bridge that supplies a means of carrying the
track rails.

2 general types of Bridge Deck:

• Open Bridge Deck- the rails are

anchored directly to timber bridge
ties supported directly on the floor
system of the superstructure.

Open Bridge Deck

• Ballasted Bridge- the

 39

rails are anchored directly National to timber track ties supported in the
ballast section.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Ballasted Bridge

Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and

rigidity of structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is
to produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure
during its intended life.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

A structural design project may be divided into three phases, i.e. planning,
design and construction.
Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and
factors affecting the general layout and dimensions of the structure and results
in the choice of one or perhaps several alternative types of structure, which
offer the best general solution.
Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions
defined in the planning phase and results in the determination of the most
suitable proportions, dimensions and details of the structural elements and
connections for constructing each alternative structural arrangement being
considered.
Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of
materials and equipment, including their transportation to the site, and actual
on-site erection.

The geometric design of a railway track includes all those parameters which
determine or affect the geometry of the track. These parameters are as
 40

follows.

1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient,

and falling gradient.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves,
transition curves, sharpness of the curve in terms of radius or degree of the
curve, cant or superelevation on curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.
Necessity for Geometric Design The need for proper geometric design of a
track arises because of the following considerations
∙ To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
∙ To achieve maximum speeds
∙ To carry heavy axle loads
∙ To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way ∙
To ensure that the track requires least maintenance.
∙ For good aesthetics

Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway
track.

∙ A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of the movement
of traffic and a down or falling gradient is one in which the track loses
elevation in the direction of the movement of traffic.
∙ A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of
one unit.
∙ Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if there
is a rise of 1 m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25%.
 41

Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives.

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations

(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible

(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork.

The following types of gradients are used on the railways.

(a) Ruling gradient - is the steepest gradient that exists in a section.

(b) Pusher or helper gradient - When the gradient of the ensuing section is
so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is
known as a pusher or helper gradient.
(c) Momentum gradient - is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be
overcome by a train because of the momentum it gathers while running on the
section.
(d) Gradients in station yards - are quite flat due to the following reasons.

∙ To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard
due to the combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
∙ To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the
extent possible.

Grade Compensation on Curves

Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a

result, gradients are compensated to the following extent on curves .
 42

(a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum

(b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum

(c) On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is
minimum where R is the radius of the curve in metres. The gradient of a
curved portion of the section should be flatter than the ruling gradient because
of the extra resistance offered by the curve.

Example: Find the steepest gradient on a 2° curve for a BG line with a ruling
gradient of 1 in 200.

Solution

(i) Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.5%

(ii) Compensation for a 2° curve = 0.04 × 2 = 0.08%

(iii) Compensated gradient = 0.5 – 0.08 = 0.42% = 1 in 238 The steepest
gradient on the curved track is 1 in 238.
Introduction to pavement design
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed
layers of processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary
function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value

on the sub-grade soil,
 43

• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,

• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles, •

Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
• Produce least noise from moving vehicles,

• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing

visibility, • Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and •
Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Soil Engineering for Highway Design

The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its origin,

formation, grain size, and shape.

I. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Origin and Formation of Soils

2. Surface Texture

∙ fine-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of silts and clays with very small
particle sizes.
∙ coarse-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of sands and gravel with much
larger particles.
 44

II. PROPERTIES OF SOILS-influence their behavior when subjected to external loads

1. Phase Relations-Soil is considered 3 phase system consist of air, water, and solids.
A. Porosity-the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.

B. Void Ratio-the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

C. Moisture Content-quantity of water in a soil mass.

D. Degree of Saturation-percentage of void space occupied by water.

 45

E. Dry Density-density of the soil with the water removed.

F. Submerged Density-density of the soil when submerged in water and is

the difference between the saturated density and the density of water.
 46

2. Atterberg Limits-The water content levels at which the soil changes from one
state to the other mare the Atterberg limits.
a. Shrinkage Limit (SL)- When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume shrinks, but
the soil continues to contain moisture
b. Plastic Limit (PL)- the moisture content at which the soil crumbles when it is
rolled down to a diameter of one-eighth of an inch.
c. Liquid Limit (LL)- the moisture content at which the soil will flow and close a
groove of one-half inch within it after the standard LL equipment has been
dropped 25 times.
III.CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE-Soil classification is a method
by which soils are systematically categorized according to their probable
engineering characteristics.
1. AASHTO Soil Classification System-based on the Public Roads

Classification System that was developed from the results of extensive

research conducted by the Bureau of Public Roads, now known as the Federal
Highway Administration.
2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- The original USCS system was developed
during World War II for use in airfield construction.
IV. SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION-Soil surveys for highway
construction entail the investigation of the soil characteristics on the highway
route and the identification of suitable soils for use as subbase and fill materials.
1. Geophysical Methods of Soil Exploration-Soil profiles can also be obtained
from one of two geophysical methods of soil exploration known as the
resistivity and seismic methods.
a. Resistivity Method- is based on the difference in electrical conductivity or
resistivity of different types of soils.
b. Seismic Method- is used to identify the location of rock profiles or dense strata
 47

underlying softer materials.

V. SOIL COMPACTION- When soil is to be used as embankment or subbase
material in highway construction, it is essential that the material be placed in
uniform layers and compacted to a high density.
VI. SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN-The results obtained from these
tests are used individually in the design of some pavements, depending on
the pavement design method used.
1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

2. Hveem Stabilometer Test

Types of pavements:

1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements

Flexible pavement- will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by
grain-to-grain transfer through the
 48

points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 1).

Types of Flexible Pavements:

transfer in granular structure

Load
• Conventional layered flexible pavement- are layered systems with high
quality expensive materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and
low quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.
• Full - depth asphalt pavement- are constructed by placing bituminous layers
directly on the soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and
local materials are not available.
• Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM)- are constructed by placing dense/open
graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense
graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly
reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from
surface water.
 49

Typical layers of a flexible pavement:

• Seal coat- is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and
to provide skid resistance.
• Tack coat- is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion
diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder
course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
• Prime coat- is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent
surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides
bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the
layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.
• Surface course- is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials.

• Binder course- This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete
structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course.
• Base course- is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of
binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to
the sub-surface drainage.
• Sub-base course- is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure.
• Top soil or sub-grade- is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from
the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is
overstressed.

Failure of flexible pavements- The major flexible pavement failures are

fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The fatigue cracking of
flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete.
 50

Rigid pavements- have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load
stresses to a wider area below.

Typical Cross secon of Rigid pavement

Types of Rigid Pavements:

• Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)- are plain cement concrete

pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or
aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints. They
normally have a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)- Although reinforcements do
not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase
the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer.
Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.
• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)- Complete elimination of
joints are achieved by reinforcement.
• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)- are designed and produced to be
prestressed to bear tensile forces caused by external loads by various live
objects such as vehicles on the roads or aircraft in the airports.
Failure criteria of rigid pavements
 51

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only

criterion for rigid pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions
to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio between flexural tensile
stress and concrete modulus of rupture.
SOIL STABILIZATION- is the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering
properties.
CHEMICAL STABILIZATION- Cement stabilization of soils usually involves the
addition of 5 to 14 percent Portland cement by volume of the compacted
mixture to the soil being stabilized.
The procedure for stabilizing soils with cement involves:

• Pulverizing the soil

• Mixing the required quantity of cement with the pulverized soil •

Compacting the soil cement mixture

• Curing the compacted layer

Asphalt Stabilization- is carried out to achieve one or both of the following:

• Waterproofing of natural materials through asphalt stabilization aids in

maintaining the water content at a required level by providing a membrane
that impedes the penetration of water, thereby reducing the effect of any
surface water that may enter the soil when it is used as a base course.
• Binding of natural materials- improves the durability characteristics of
the natural soil by providing an adhesive characteristic, whereby the soil
particles adhere to each other, increasing cohesion.
Lime Stabilization- is one of the oldest processes of improving the engineering
 52

properties of soils and can be used for stabilizing both base and sub-base
materials.

AASHTO Design Method- The AASHTO method for design of highway

pavements is based primarily on the results of the AASHTO road test that
was conducted in Ottawa, Illinois.

Design Considerations

The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of flexible
pavement as presented in the 1993 guide are:

• Pavement performance
• Traffic

• Roadbed soils (subgrade material)

• Materials of construction

• Environment

• Drainage

• Reliability

A general equation for the accumulated ESAL for each category of axle load
is obtained as
ESALi = fd X Grn X AADTi X 365 × Ni X FE
 53

ESALi = equivalent accumulated 18,000lb (80 kN) single-axle load for the axle
category i fd = design lane factor
Grn = growth factor for a given growth rate r and design period n AADTi = first
year annual average daily traffic for axle category i Ni = number of axles on
each vehicle in category i
FEi = load equivalency factor for axle category i
 54

Structural Design

The objective of the design using the AASHTO method is to determine a

flexible pavement Structural Number (SN) adequate to carry the projected
design ESAL.
The 1993 AASHTO guide gives the expression for SN as: SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 +
a3D3m3
 55

ISU MODULE Subject: CE 312 Highway and Railroad Engineering

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 6: Failures, maintenance and rehabilitation of transportation infrastructure.
2. Introduction
Road maintenance is work that takes place on roads from motorways to unclassified
roads to ensure they remain strong, safe and efficient. Road maintenance takes many forms, but the
overarching aim is to keep road users safe, manage traffic and maintain upkeep.

3. Learning Outcome
Explain Highway Maintenance and Traffic Safety Management

4. Learning Content

9-1 Highway Maintenance

Highway maintenance begins just after the construction, reconstruction or rehabilitation of the roadway
facilities. As defined by AASHTO; <Maintenance is the preservation and keeping of each type of
roadway, roadside, structures and facilities as nearly as possible in its original condition as
constructed or as subsequently improved the operation of highway facilities and service to provide
satisfactory and safe transportation.=

Objective of Highway Maintenance

1. Highway programs and activities are measured by the amount of expenditures for construction of new
facilities and reconstruction of new existing structure with the aim of keeping up with the traffic demand.
2. Maintenance has its own role: by giving priority to local, rural and urban facilities particularly the paving
and rehabilitation after the construction has been completed.
3. Maintenance is focus on the do betterment projects. It includes grading and paving for short alignment
changes, to correct steep grades or sharp curves, re-surfacing and mulching, planting, flood and
erosion control.
 56

Relationship between design, Construction and Maintenance

1. Poor preparation of the base, insufficient slab thickness and poor mixture ratio will only result to the very
expensive road repair. Indeed, management absorbed the end result of design and construction
inefficiency.
2. Poor drainage design will mean erosion or deposition of materials that requires costly clean up
operations.
 57

3. Sharp ditches and steep slopes require costly manual labor maintenance as compared to flat ditches
and slopes hat allow equipment to work at a lower cost.
4. Narrow road lanes usually forced large and heavy vehicles to travel with one set of wheels near the edge or off
the pavement, giving the maintenance personnel serious problems in the care of pavements edges
and the shoulder.
5. High maintenance cost is the result of poor design or construction methods. This is the main
problem that causes numerous demolitions and unending reconstruction activities being undertaken by the
highway people.

Maintenance calls for periodic and immediate correction of unfavorable conditions. It involves making
the facilities as near the newly constructed or reconstructed conditions a s possible. The utilization of
manpower is what makes the maintenance very costly. Cost could be reduced substantially, if maintenance
operations are done by the use of equipment. Unfortunately, instead of using modern equipment as a
product of modern technology, highway Management return to the use of primitive tools like of traditional
pick, shovels, hoe, scythe, axe or machete.
One particular example is the community Employment Development program (CEDP) with man
objective of giving employment to the people of the rural areas. Large
amount of money was spent for the purchase of traditional primitive tools and for manpower payroll
disturbing several millions for northing except for political gimmicks.
The project was summarily sacrificed when 50% of the appropriation was spent for labor payroll
without accomplishment.

Maintenance in Categorizes into:

1. Road surface maintenance
2. Shoulder and approach maintenance
3. Bridge maintenance
4. Traffic services

Road Surface Maintenance

Unlike construction involving high volume of work, maintenance operation, deals with small
amount of work at separate locations. Road maintenance requires speed performance to cause the
 58

least possible disruption and danger to traffic. Maintenance operation requires:

1. For Gravel Roads, blading and periodic re-shaping or resurfacing is a routine periodic maintenance
activity.
2. For Surface Treatment of low type bituminous pavement, maintenance could be patching, seal coating,
remixing and relaying.
3. For Slick Asphalt Surface, roughening, burning or non-skid seal is required.
4. For Concrete Road, maintenance could be removal and replacement or filling of damage areas.
Sometimes joint sealing or mid-jacking or undersealing is relatively common maintenance work.
 59

Maintenance of Shoulder and Approach

Maintenance of the shoulder and approaches of the highway is governed by the surface
characteristics in the area.
1. Sod shoulders should be removed and periodically bladed down to the roadway elevation to avoid
entrapment of water in the traveled way.
2. Grass prevents shoulder erosion. If necessary, fertilized, re-seeded, or treated to keep them in good
conditions.
3. Grave and earth shoulder should be maintained by blading under favorable weather conditions.
4. Rutting or setting of the shoulder should be corrected at once by reconstruction or re-surfacing.

Maintenance of Roadside
The type and kind of roadside maintenance depends upon the following conditions:
1. If the roadside is full of grass, mowing closer to the shoulder is the answer. If necessary, grass at the
roadside be fertilized or treated with lime. In some areas, re-seeding maybe required.
2. If the roadside has dry grass considered as fire hazard, burning or plowing is the solution.
3. If brushes cover the black-slope, trimming is necessary to maintain clearance and sight distance.

The Indigenous Machine used for Roadside Maintenance

a. Mechanical sod cutter
b. Combined seed and fertilizer spreader.
c. Power mowers.
d. Portable grass cutter
e. Bush mower
f. Bush chopper

Drainage Maintenance
1. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch basins to accommodate free flow of water.
 60

2. Removal of sediments, braches and other debris gathered at trash racks, culvert and structures
entrances.
3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.
4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recurrence.

Bridge Maintenance
1. For steel bridge structure, the routine maintenance calls for cleaning by sandblasting, flame or other
means of re-painting.
 61

2. Cleaning and re-sealing of deck joints that are extruded or filled with dirt.
3. Repair of drainage handrails.
4. Re-surfacing of rough or slicky deck surface.
5. Correct serious scour around the pier and abutments.
6. Most bridges maintenance is considered specialized work.
Traveling crews exclusively for bridges work alone is a function of the maintenance operations.
7. Concrete bridge decks normally deteriorate due to deicing salts. The problem starts when the sat
penetrates and corrodes the reinforcing steel that spall-off the overlaying concrete.
8. Correction is to remove the concrete, clean the steal and apply new material such as polymer concrete.
9. Sometimes seal-out or overlay of asphalt materials are used as protective covering.
10. Check the bridge deck deterioration by:
a. Applying waterproof membranes.
b. Applying latex modified concrete.
c. Impregnating the deck with polymers.
d. Passing electric current through reinforcing steel.
11. If decks are dismantled, an epoxy coated reinforcing steel may be used.

Traffic Service

Maintenance operations of highway includes the traffic services like:

1. Stripping is a continuing function

2. Repair of road signs
3. Maintenance of street and highway light and signals. (sometimes the functions of the government)
4. Coping up with emergencies. Personnel on patrol to keep the road open and rescue stranded vehicles.

9-2 Maintenance Management

Before, maintenance is regarded as secondary functions of the Highway agency. The personnel of
the maintenance sections.
 62

Often felt that they are regarded as secondary class employees of the Highway agency. Indeed, the
spoil system exist wherein the maintenance positions are used to pay political favors or buy patronage
support.
Today, maintenance and its management are considered the most intricate and ever-changing highway
and technology. Maintenance is now regarded as one of the most important part of the Highway
maintenance program.
Continuous studies have been going focused on the best management, time utilization, productivity,
methods, and management of maintenance.
Studies showed the need for improvement on the following field.
1. Education is management technique for maintenance Engineers foreman including its field personnel.
2. More detailed and careful planning and scheduling of work and establishing standards for the level of
maintenance.
3. Major improvement of maintenance tools and equipment.
 63

4. Providing a better and efficient communications.

5. Establishing lines of authority and responsibilities.
6. For the maintenance organization to succeed, staffing with permanent trained and dedicated personnel is the
solution.
7. Effective management system requires efficient, accurate and fair budgeting and reporting procedures. But
how to implement these, is next to impossible, because it is difficult to overcome varied
administration, and behavioral problems.

One example is the studies made on roadside mowing shows that:

1. The use of better equipment could accomplish mowing from 3 to 6 times as much area compared to the use of
poor and antiquated tools.
2. Two mowers working side by side accomplish less than when they work separately. Conversation time eats
most of the working time.
3. Not less than one and one half of two hours a day is spent unproductively for the preparatory operation and
travel of the mower to the job site.

There is no specific number of mowing the road shoulder per year but normally, from one to four
times depending upon the physical condition of the shoulder. Grass by the nature grows faster during
rainy days than on summertime.

Requirements for Maintenance Management

1. To stabilize the standard level of the maintenance by setting performance standards for workers crew and
maintenance units. This requires Methods Time Management (MTM) expected output for
operations that are pre-determined.
2. To develop an accurate monitoring and fair reporting system and to compare actual work with the
expected production.
3. To develop a management system that will give the efficient work scheduling assignment.
4. To develop effective procedures, methods and machinery or organization to carry individual
maintenance operations.
 64

Effective maintenance management could be achieved by gaining the enthusiastic support of the personnel
educating them with the new methods plus acknowledgement of their efforts through personal
recognition and by financial reward for there is a saying that we cannot live by the love alone.

The roadway to the development in maintenance is still far. While the others have already gone for
advanced, we are just about to begin.
65
 66

Effective maintenance personal activities are measured under the following criteria.

1. Personnel who are devoted to the maintenance work are not those who just kill the time and collect their
salaries.
2. Personnel responsibility for keeping the roadway open to traffic moving under all conditions.
3. Personnel rescue operation in assisting stranded motorists during bad weather, heavy rain, removal of fallen
trees, flood, erosion, etc.
4. Maintenance personnel are exposed to accidents, hazards during their maintenance or rehabilitation
work.

Maintenance personnel deserves to be recognized and rewarded accordingly, unfortunately,

these dedicated people are sometimes victims of neglect especially in the promotion and increase of
salaries.

On some instances, Highway agency is legally held responsible for injury to person or damages to property
resulted from poor highway maintenance. Unfortunately, employees and supervisors are even charged in court,
condemned, and crucified by the media people prior the hearing of the case.

9-3 Rehabilitation

Pavement rehabilitation is an activity primarily to provide god riding and skid resistance or to
improve the structural effectiveness of the pavement.

The FHWA defined rehabilitation as:

= Resurfacing, restoration and rehabilitation work, restoring to the original safe usable condition without
addition to the original capacity.=

According to AASHTO, the primary objectives of pavement rehabilitations are:

1. To improve the smoothness of the road surface.

 67

2. To extend the pavement life.

3. To improve the skid resistance to the road.
4. To construct the sections with poor foundations.
5. To improve the drainage facilities.

The efficiency of the highway system could be rated by:

1. Sufficiency ratings.
2. Accident data.
3. Skid tests.
4. Maintenance report.
5. Public comments and suggestions.

Resurfacing
 68

Resurfacing is the addition pavement layer over the existing roadway or bridge deck surface to
provide additional capacity. The additional re-surface pavement should not be less than 20 mm in thickness.

Restoration and Rehabilitation

Restoration and rehabilitation work include:

1. Replacement of defective joints.
2. Repair of spalled joints
3. Substantial pavement work.
4. Reworking or strengthening of sub-base.
5. Recycling existing materials to improve their structural integrity.
6. Adding under drains.
7. Improving shoulders
8. Removing and replacing deteriorated materials.

Pavement Maintenance refers to actions that are corrective or preventive.

Reconstruction refers to the removal of existing pavement and replacing them with a new
pavement and under course.

Overlays could be either by Portland cement or Asphalt concrete laid on an existing pavement.

Recycling means the repeated use of existing materials working on asphalt materials, Portland cement
or lime.

Generally, recycling contributes to the stabilization of cost conservation due to inadequate

material resources and reduction of energy requirements.

Pavement Recycling is Categorize into:

1. The type of materials to be used.

 69

2. The procedure to be employed.

3. The structural benefit to be gained.

The Recycling Procedures could be as follows

1. Surface Recycling consists of reworking about the top surface of asphalt pavement. It is applied for the
treatment of raveling, wheel truck rutting, flushing and corrugations. The work includes the use of
heater-planer, heater-scarifier, cold planners and cold milling. The disadvantage of their use is the are the
presence of noise, heat, and air pollution.

2. In place Surface and Base Recycling. This procedure involves pulverizing all existing pavement,
followed by re-shaping, and compacting. Before relaying, the materials are upgraded with lime, Portland
 70

cement or chemicals. This method is used for both asphalt and Portland cement concrete pavement. One
advantage of this method is the ability to increase the load carrying capacity of the pavement without
major changes in the grade.

3. Central Plant Recycling is the removal materials from the roadway, crushing them, mixing in the plant
then laid and compacted with conventional equipment.

Both asphalt and Portland cement concrete are reprocessed to make aggregate materials for
stabilization of the base course. The recycled materials when used as base course is blended with
additives without heat such as Portland cement, Lime of Cutback or Emulsified asphalt. For surfacing, it
is heated and then blended with new asphalt cement or recycling agents and sometimes with new
aggregates.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling Categories

A. Surface Recycling Advantage:
1. It reduces reflection cracking.
2. Promotes bond between the old pavement and the thin overlay.
Provides transition between the new overlay and the existing gutter, bridge, pavement, etc., that is
resistant to raveling (eliminates feathering).
3. Reduces localized roughness.
4. Treats variety of types of pavement distress such as raveling, flushing, corrugations, rutting, oxidizing
pavement faulting at a reasonable cost.
5. Improved skid resistance.
6. Minimum disruption to traffic. Disadvantages:
1. Limited structural improvement.
2. The heater-scarifyer and heater planning has limited effectiveness on rough pavement without multiple
passes of equipment.
3. Limited repair of severely flushed or unstable pavements.
4. Some air quality problems.
 71

5. Vegetation closer to roadway may be damaged.

6. Mixture with maximum size aggregate greater than 1 inch cannot be treated with some equipment.

B. In-Place Recycling Advantages:

 72

1. Significant structural improvements.

2. Treats all types and degrees of pavements distress.
3. Reflection cracking can be eliminated.
4. Frost susceptibility may be improved.
5. Improved riding quality.

Disadvantages:
1. Quality control not as good as from the central plant.
2. Traffic disruption.
3. Pulverizing equipment repair requirement.
4. Higher in cost.

C. Central Plant Recycling Advantages:

1. Significant structural improvement.
2. Good quality control.
3. Treats all types and degree of pavement distress.
4. Reflection cracking can be eliminated.
5. Improved skid resistance.
6. Geometrics can be easily altered.
7. Better control if additional binder or aggregate is used.
8. Improved riding quality. Disadvantages:
1. Increased traffic disruption.
2. May have air quality problems at plant site.

Maintenance and Rehabilitation programs are based on different types of collected data that includes:
1. Surface roughness
2. Surface distress
3. Surface deflection
4. Surface friction or skid resistance
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Definition of Terms
Surface Roughness is defined as the irregularities in the pavement surface that adversely affect
the riding quality.
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Surface Distress is defined as any indication of unfavorable pavement performance or signs

of impending failure, or any unsatisfactory performance is sort of failure.
Any type of distress that may be observed includes any one of the following:
a) Fracture associated with load and non-load cracking.
b) Distortion is a permanent deformation of faulting.
c) Disintegration such as spalling, raveling and other failure of the pavement.

For each Distress Type, the corresponding damage, severity and locations are specified. All data
are gathered and indicated in the survey form as a guide

In case of Surface Deflection, measurement of the changes in pavement surface level between the loaded
and unloaded segment is the basis for rehabilitation design strategies. The design strategy is to determine
the structural adequacy or the ability of the pavement to resist traffic load without developing undesirable
distress.
Distress observations could be of static deflection, steady state of deflection or by the impact
load response as determined by the Dynaflect and Falling Weight Deflection respectively.
Surface Friction is determined by gathered data identifying a pavement section having low coefficient
of friction. There is equipment available to determine the skid number. It is measured using a locked
wheel trailer (ASTM Method E-274) or by the Yaw Mode trailer where the wheels are skewed in
accordance with the direction of travel.

9-4 Evaluation and Maintenance of Concrete Pavement

Maintenance decision are based on pavement condition data gathered from project to project
basis. From these gathered data, it is determined which project calls for maintenance or rehabilitation
including the decisions required to correct pavement deficiencies. Decisions however, are made on a yearly
basis.
Considering the increasing length of the roadways, the management on the basis of field
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observations alone is becoming difficult hence the objective method of evaluation was introduced:
1. Those project that need immediate maintenance or rehabilitations are listed on the priority projects.
2. The type and kind of maintenance or rehabilitation required is specified.
3. What strategy of maintenance or rehabilitation would be adopted now and in the future to minimize life
cycle costs or maximized the net benefits.

Maintenance of Concrete Pavements

As mentioned earlier, maintenance of the roadway of any type is routine activity. Maintenance
of good concrete road could be argued as follows:
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1. Sealing cracks of transverse and longitudinal construction and expansion joints is one recommendation where
maintenance Engineers could not agree on one question whether sealing the narrow cracks is effective or
not. The practice however, is to clean properly wide cracks or spalled joints then applied with sealing
materials to prevent the intrusion of extraneous material, and to block the downward penetration of
surface water.
2. For small and scattered broken surface on good concrete pavement, patching with
concrete is economical. On affected portion old concrete is removed by vertical straight line cut
parallel and perpendicular to the roadway center-line. For corner repair, the angle from the roadway
center-line should be greater than 30°but less than 60°.
3. Sections that are removed should have a minimum area of 20 square meters. If the sub-grade appears to be
weak, suitable materials and compact properly. The new concrete slab should be as thick as the original
pavement.
4. Good practice demand that extra thickness adjoining the old concrete be provided
extending the patch under the old pavement to width and depth of 1.0 centimeters
5. Additional cement is necessary to produce high early strength concrete or an accelerator such as
calcium chloride is used for patching if early use of the pavement is desired. The ideal time to make repair
of concrete pavement road is in the evening.
6. Pavement surface with spall from freezing and thawing or salt action are levelled with asphalt
mixture or surface treatment. Another method is to patch with concrete bonded to the old concrete
with a cement-water or epoxy.
7. Spalled joint can be repaired with cement grout containing epoxy mixed with catalyst.

Mud Jacking

Mud Jacking is a maintenance method adopted to restore the sub-grade support under pumping
pavement and to level uneven slabs. The liquid filler is injected under the slab through drilled holes. The mud-
or slurry, filled all the voids that if continuously injected applying hydraulic pressure will force the slab
upward. Slurry for mud jacking consists of a mixture of fine grain aggregate, portland cement and water
or an addition of small amount of asphalt. A mixture of one part cement, and three to four parts of ground
limestone, could be used as slurry for mud jacking.
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The mixture must pass through the pump without gumming. It must flow readily under the pavement to the
smallest voids. The mixture must harden rapidly without excessive shrinkage and not becoming hard and
brittle.
Take note that the spacing of the holes through the concrete should be palnned carefully when the slab is to
be lifted by pumping slurry into several holes. Frequent movement of the nozzle is necessary so that the
lifting will be in small increment.

Under sealing
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Under sealing is an alternative for mud jacking. Heated asphalt is sometimes used. The advantage of
under sealing is the formation of the asphalt as seal against the penetration of surface water into the
subgrade.

9-5 Highway and its environment

Early road was patterned after the railroad of the same period. The principle behind the construction of
early road is to construct the cheapest roadway that would serve the traffic under all conditions of
weather without regard to its environment.

Roadside development was not included in the program. Shoulders and the right of way are narrow or no-
existing at all. Side slopes were too steep, drainage and ditches, channels and structures were designed to
protect the roadbed without regard to erosion outside the roadway limit.

These crude practices in road building have brought unslightly conditions and high maintenance cost
until such time that the design standard were gradually modified.and improved. The later development and
improvement of roadways has incorporated the following features:

1. Pleasing views and surroundings were developed sacrificing a little costs or distances to
enhance driving pleasure.
2. Long sweeping horizontal curves are acceptable than short curve connected by long tangents.
3. Choppy or broken back grade line were not only flattened but smoothened.
4. In rough areas, the depth of cuts and fill heights were lowered to reduce scare and slope erosion
to a minimum level.
5. Retaining walls are sometimes helpful and improve the attractiveness of the roadway.
6. Modem highway now provides wide roadbeds, shallow wide gutter and ditches, flat back
slope and cuts, and flat side slope on fill.
7. Top of the cut banks and toes of fills are rounded to blend with the original ground.

These features of the roadway give safer roadbed and a pleasing approach. Erosion occurs more
slowly or prevented on flatter slopes. The result is less expense for cleaning gutters and
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ditches. Mowing could be done using power equipment that substantially reduces maintenance costs. Wider
right of way has become a necessity in roadside development by the following reasons:
1. It allows blending of the road into the natural landscape.
2. It provides space to plant screening in front of unsightly and objectionable areas and
other undesirable objects.
3. It isolated the highway visually from its surroundings and freeing the roadside of hazards.

Roadside is the entire right of way except the travelled way. In planning roadside development,
planners were conscious of the cost maintenance including the cost of mowing, trimming
and cleaning. Roadside development is sometimes referred to as roadside beautification made after the road
construction is completed. Roadside development without question provides a more pleasing
environment for travelers, less maintenance cost and safer highways. The roadside development is
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under the carc of the Highway agency, although there re-adjacent property home-owners who
sometimes contribute to the beautification of their surroundings including the roadside itself for aesthetic
consideration that they themselves enjoyed.

9-6 Highway Beautification

Highway beautification is a broad term that includes activi- ties like:

1. Landscaping and roadside development within the rights of way.
2. Improvement of strips and land adjacent to the highway for restoration, preservation and
enhancement of natural beauty.
3. Acquisition and development of publicly owned and con- trolled rest area, recreation areas and
sanitary areas in- cluding other facilities.

Factors that Contribute to Beautification

1. Good location
2. Good design
3. Construction
4. Maintenance Outdoor Advertising
The control and removal of outdoor advertising had long been controversial in the beautification of
highways A court ruling on these aspects states that:
<The concept of public welfare, for the purpose of which the legislative may exercise police power, is
broad and exclusive and the value it represents is spiritual and aesthetic as well as physical and
monetary.=
For public interest, the government should extend full assistance to control the use of the areas
adjustment to the highway by regulating the erection and maintenance of outdoor advertisement signs,
display or other devices within a reasonable distance from the edge of the right of way but still visible
from the main traveled way.

9.7 Environmental Laws

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The government had passed enough laws to protect the environment. The Environmental Laws has the
following intent:

1. The government recognizes the impact of man9s activities in relation to all components of the
natural environment more particularly:
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a) The influence of population growth

b) The high density urbanization
c) Industrial expansion
d) Resource exploration:
e) The expanding technological advances
f) Restoration and maintenance of environmental quality to the welfare and development of man.

2. The present generation must fulfill the responsibility as trustees of the environment
for. the succeeding generations.

3, To assure all Filipino people of a safe, healthful, productive and aesthetically and culturally pleasing
surroundings.
4.To provide the widest beneficial use of the environment 8without degradation and risk to health or
other undesirable consequences.
5. To preserve some important pre historic, cultural and natural aspect of our natural heritage
and whenever possible an environment which uphold diversity and variety of individual choice.
6. To maintain a balanced distribution of population and use of resources that will give high
standard of living and wide sharing of life's amenities
7. To impart that all person has the responsibility to contribute to the preservation and
enhancement of the environment.

9-8 Environmental Effect of Highways

The main objections of community complaint on environmental effects of transportations are as follows:
1. Air and noise problem
2. Traffic induced vibration
3. Accidents
4. Annoyance caused by water pollution, dust and dirt.

Air Pollution Control

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Air pollution be it from fixed or mobile sources is the main concern in most urban areas. Air pollution is
the result of progress. It comes from discharges into the air of non-reactive pollutants including carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfates, dust, smoke and lead. The highway pollution problems are of two
dimensions. They are:
1Area wide effects of preliminary reactive pollutants.
2. High concentration of non-reactive pollutants at points or corridors along or near highways.

Motor vehicles are mainly the contributor to both forms of pollutants estimated at 70% carbon dioxide,
50% hydrocarbon, and 30% of nitric oxide. The area condition is acceptably worst when temperature
inversions trap pollutants near the ground surface when there is little wind or no wind at all.
Concentration becomes extremely high affecting human life and even some vegetation are killed,
stunted or the foliage is burned.
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Various approaches to reduce area pollutants were planned and employed including future approaches such as:

1. By Land Use Control. One example is the limitation and control of industrial-commercial
development where their construction and land use would contribute to pollution
2. To Lower the Emission. This is by lowering the emission of pollutant from existing machineries.
3. Modification of the fixed existing facilities such as substituting low sulfur coal to reduce the
release of sulfur di-oxide.
4. Lowering pollution coming from motor vehicles that falls under the following categories:
a) Reducing the output of pollutants by making them fuel efficient and controlling pollutant out- put.
b) Limiting vehicle travel by shifting travelers to other mode using electric current.
c) Cutting fuel consumption and pollutant output by improving traffic flow.
d) A set of standard to be met by new vehicles.

Noise Control

Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Noise is measured in decibels with a common unit dBA. This single
unit combine sound intensities from all frequencies above 100 per second and
strongly react in the human ear. Sound at 1dBA level could be hardly detected by human
ears, but an increase of 10 on the decibel scale means tenfold increase in intensity. In a quite
residential area at night, the ambient noise is measured from 32 to 43 dBA. The urban residential
district at daytime limit is about 41 to 53 dBA. In industrial areas the range is 48 to 66 dBA, and in
downtown commercial areas with heavy traffic is 62 to 73 dBA.
In terms of conversation or communication. these sound level means that at 65 dBA a conversation is
difficult at a distance of 1.00 meter and at 75 dBA an ear has to be plugged by a finger in order to hear a
telephone conversation.

Transportation noises are complex, studies showed that:

1. Complaints are focused on interference with speech. TV viewing or sleep related to
increase of sound above ambient noise level.
2. Increase up to 9 dBA | complaints would be widespread and there would be community
reactions.
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3. Highway noises near residences at peak noise of about 70dBA bring few complaints, at 75
dBA, complaints are likely and 80 dBA will invite letter of petition and protest.

9-9 Construction in Relation to Roadside Development

At the time of grading operations, topsoil should be preserved for future landscaping. Likewise, trees
outside the distance limit from the travelled way, should be protected from damages caused by man and
equipment. Removing of soil or fills from along the right of way called side borrow should be
avoided, and borrow fills out of sight from the roadway is preferable.
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Objects of interest like rocks, outcrops in cut slope or trees at toes of fill should be preserved for
pleasant view. Rugged slope in borrow areas and along roadside are dressed to encourage the return of
native plants and shrubs.

9-10 Vegetation and the Highways

Ground cover is defined as low growing herbaceous or woody plants more than one meter at Both low
shrubs and vines are included.

Ground cover is an altemative to grass in controlling erosion by wind and water. It also serves as
insulation that reduces sloughing caused by freezing and thawing. Mat forming plantsare considered best
ground cover for protecting slopes and other roadside areas. There are those that root from
decumbent branches and those that spread from suckers and shoots.

Other Vegetation Desirable for Roadside Protection

1. Bushy dense foliage plants, and those producing litter with great water holding
capacity are considered good vegetation to protect the roadside against erosion.
2. The rapid growing species with inconspicuous flowers to prevent distraction and
vandalism are preferred.
3. Fire resistant plants with the ability to sprout after burning are much desirable. The cogon
grass is one example.
4. Plants that are subject to disease and insect damage, poisonous or irritating to the skin or
that may become agricultural pest should be rejected.

For median strips and islands, erosion control is but one of the functions of ground covers. Properly
selected plants prevent headlight glare without affecting distance and provide a contrasting background that
also guide traffic directions.

Tires and Shrubs

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Trees and shrubs are effective means of providing interest, variety and beauty to the roadside. Those that
are native to the area are more preferred than the imported variety. The following are important tips in
planting.
1. For rural roads, the objective is to preserve or recreate a natural foreground in harmony with a
distant view. Existing well placed trees should be preserved while ugly and obstructing growth are
removed.
2. Replanting should be considered only when irregular introduction of trees and shrub serve to
highlight natural beauty or where it is particularly unsightly objects.
3. Trees should be planted back a distance from the traveled way to provide recovery area for
vehicles that run off the roadway. A Minimum distance of 9.00 meters from the lane edge is recommended
(See
<A guide for highway landscape and environmental design=)
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4. Row planting along rural road is not considered a good taste. It spoils distant views
with a monotonous design. The formal arrangement of trees and shrubs is suitable for urban freeways
and expressways.
5. Group planting creates an occasional point of interest or call attention to intersections,
bridges or other point of hazard.
6. Continuous planting is appropriate to screen unsightly roadside conditions or to insulate
residential areas from the road.
7. Avoid monotony over long stretches of the route. The solution is to group flowering trees and
vines at best and appropriate locations.

9-11 Parking and Rest Area

Parking turnout to accommodate stopping off the traveled way is an important adjunct to major rural
highways. Wayside rest areas are necessary facilities of the highway wherein motor-ist stops, relaxes and
use sanitary facilities.
Wayside rest areas should be located on those with natural features that make the area:
1. More attractive.
2Those that are accessible and safely located.
3Those with sufficient area and with existing shades.
Locations where public use will create fire hazard or others wise affect adjoining property should be
avoided.
Likewise, location closer to cities and towns are not advisable, because it will just be monopolized by the
town people. The site must have adequate driveways and parking space separated from the traveled
way with bumper rails or curbs to confine vehicles, and if possible, provided with fence.
Without questions, highway rest areas are worthwhile, but highway officials and maintenance personnel object
to their establishment because motorist users are untidy and are some-
times vandals making maintenance difficult and very expensive. #
5. Teaching and Learning Activities Essay
In an essay form,

1. Why road maintenance is necessary?

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2. What is the importance of pavement rehabilitation?

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
All related Highway and Traffic Engineering & Railroad Engineering books are recommended for reading

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted Online (synchronous)

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TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, essay activities, etc…

9. References

Max B. Fajardo, Jr.-Elements of Roads and Highways Garber, Nicholas J, Traffic and Highway Engineering
, 2020

Besavilla, Venancio I., Jr. Basic Fundamentals of Transportation, Highway Engineering and Surveying ,
2016

Pyrgidis, Christos N Railway transportation system , 2016

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