8b32a4b6b75740e68528b54ee1d0c09b

1 18
1 2
.
H Periodic Table of the Elements He
2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 No 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Element B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
Transition Metal 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Metal
Metalloid La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Non-metal
Noble Gas
Lanthanide 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
.
Natural Sciences
Grade 7-A
CAPS
developed by
funded by
Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Foundation in partnership with Siyavula and volunteers.
Distributed by the Department of Basic Education

COPYRIGHT NOTICE
.
Your freedom to legally copy this book
You are allowed and encouraged to freely copy this book. You can photocopy,
print and distribute it as often as you like. You can download it onto your
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The only restriction is that you cannot change this version of this book, its cover
or content in any way.
For more information about the Creative Commons

Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-ND 3.0) license, visit:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/
This book is an open educational resource and you are encouraged to take full
advantage of this.
Therefore, if you would like a version of this book that you can reuse, revise,
remix and redistribute, under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported
(CC-BY) license, visit our website, www.curious.org.za
AUTHORS' LIST
. This book was written by Siyavula with the help, insight and collaboration of volunteer
educators, academics, students and a diverse group of contributors. Siyavula believes
in the power of community and collaboration by working with volunteers and
networking across the country, enabled through our use of technology and online tools.
The vision is to create and use open educational resources to transform the way we
teach and learn, especially in South Africa.
Siyavula Coordinator and Editor

Megan Beckett
Siyavula Team
Ewald Zietsman, Bridget Nash, Melanie Hay, Delita Otto, Marthélize Tredoux, Luke
Kannemeyer, Dr Mark Horner, Neels van der Westhuizen
Contributors
Dr Karen Wallace, Dr Nicola Loaring, Isabel Tarling, Sarah Niss, René Toerien, Rose
Thomas, Novosti Buta, Dr Bernard Heyns, Dr Colleen Henning, Dr Sarah Blyth, Dr
Thalassa Matthews, Brandt Botes, Daniël du Plessis, Johann Myburgh, Brice Reignier,
Marvin Reimer, Corene Myburgh, Dr Maritha le Roux, Dr Francois Toerien, Martli
Greyvenstein, Elsabe Kruger, Elizabeth Barnard, Irma van der Vyver, Nonna Weideman,
Annatjie Linnenkamp, Hendrine Krieg, Liz Smit, Evelyn Visage, Laetitia Bedeker, Wetsie
Visser, Rhoda van Schalkwyk, Suzanne Grové, Peter Moodie, Dr Sahal Yacoob, Siyalo
Qanya, Sam Faso, Miriam Makhene, Kabelo Maletsoa, Lesego Matshane, Nokuthula
Mpanza, Brenda Samuel, MTV Selogiloe, Boitumelo Sihlangu, Mbuzeli Tyawana, Dr Sello
Rapule, Andrea Motto, Dr Rufus Wesi
Volunteers
Iesrafeel Abbas, Shireen Amien, Bianca Amos Brown, Dr Eric Banda, Dr Christopher
Barnett, Prof Ilsa Basson, Mariaan Bester, Jennifer de Beyer, Mark Carolissen, Tarisai
Chanetsa, Ashley Chetty, Lizzy Chivaka, Mari Clark, Dr Marna S Costanzo, Dr Andrew
Craig, Dawn Crawford, Rosemary Dally, Ann Donald, Dr Philip Fourie, Shamin Garib,
Sanette Gildenhuys, Natelie Gower-Winter, Isabel Grinwis, Kirsten Hay, Pierre van
Heerden, Dr Fritha Hennessy, Dr Colleen Henning, Grant Hillebrand, Beryl Hook,
Cameron Hutchison, Mike Kendrick, Paul Kennedy, Dr Setshaba David Khanye, Melissa
Kistner, James Klatzow, Andrea Koch, Grove Koch, Paul van Koersveld, Dr Kevin
Lobb, Dr Erica Makings, Adriana Marais, Dowelani Mashuvhamele, Modisaemang Molusi,
Glen Morris, Talitha Mostert, Christopher Muller, Norman Muvoti, Vernusha Naidoo,
Dr Hlumani Ndlovu, Godwell Nhema, Edison Nyamayaro, Nkululeko Nyangiwe, Tony
Nzundu, Alison Page, Firoza Patel, Koebraa Peters, Seth Phatoli, Swasthi Pillay, Siyalo
Qanya, Tshimangadzo Rakhuhu, Bharati Ratanjee, Robert Reddick, Adam Reynolds,
Matthew Ridgway, William Robinson, Dr Marian Ross, Lelani Roux, Nicola Scriven, Dr
Ryman Shoko, Natalie Smith, Antonette Tonkie, Alida Venter, Christie Viljoen, Daan
Visage, Evelyn Visage, Dr Sahal Yacoob
A special thanks goes to St John's College in Johannesburg for hosting the first planning
workshop for these workbooks and to Pinelands High School in Cape Town for the use
of their school grounds for photography.
To learn more about the project and the Sasol Inzalo Foundation, visit the website at:
www.sasolinzalofoundation.org.za
Table of Contents
Teacher's Guide Overview 12
Teacher's Guide Overview 12

Curious? Discover the possibilities! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Natural Sciences curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
How to use this workbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Get involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Life and living 22
1 The Biosphere 24
1.1 What is the biosphere? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.2 Requirements for sustaining life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2 Biodiversity 52
2.1 Classification of living things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2 Diversity of animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3 Diversity of plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3 Sexual reproduction 106

3.1 Reproduction in angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2 Human reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4 Variation 162
4.1 Variation within a species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.2 Inheritance in humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Matter and Materials 184
1 Properties of materials 186

1.1 Physical properties of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
1.2 Impact on the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2 Separating mixtures 222

2.1 Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
2.2 Methods of physical separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.3 Sorting and recycling materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
3 Acids, bases and neutral substances 264

3.1 Tastes of substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
3.2 Properties of acids, bases and neutral substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
3.3 Acid-base indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4 The Periodic Table of Elements 292

4.1 Arrangement of elements on the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
4.2 Properties of metals, semi-metals and non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
A Assessment rubrics 324

A.1 Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
A.2 Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
A.3 Assessment Rubric 3: Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
A.4 Assessment Rubric 4: Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
A.5 Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
A.6 Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or Project . . . . . . . . . 330
A.7 Assessment Rubric 7: Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
A.8 Assessment Rubric 8: Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
A.9 Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
A.10 Assessment Rubric 10: Group work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Image Attribution 336

Teacher's Guide Overview
. the possibilities!
Curious? Discover
.
. . ...
VISIT Asking questions and discovering our world around us has been central to
Carl Sagan was an
human nature throughout our history. Over time, this search to understand our
astronomer,
natural and physical world through observation, testing and refining ideas, has
astrophysicist,
evolved into what we loosely think of as 'science' today. Key to this, is that
cosmologist, author,
science is a continuous revision in progress, it is a mechanism rather than a
science popularizer and
product, it is a way of thinking rather than a collection of knowledge, whose
science communicator.
driving force is not certainty in a truth, but rather being comfortable with
Watch one of his most
uncertainty, thereby cultivating curiosity.
pertinent messages for
However, as Carl Sagan famously said in 1994:
humanity here
bit.ly/1bbVDqg
"We live in a society absolutely dependent on science and technology,
and yet have cleverly arranged things so that almost no one
understands science and technology. That's a clear prescription for
disaster."
We need to replace fear of the unknown and the difficult with curiosity, as Marie
Curie said:
"Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the

time to understand more, so that we may fear less."
. We would like to instill this sense of curiosity and an enquiring mind in learners.
DID YOU KNOW? Science, technology, engineering and mathematics are not subjects to be
Marie Curie was a feared, rather they are tools to unlock the potential of the world around you, to
chemist and physicist create solutions to problems, to discover the possibilities.
famous for becoming
the first person to be
But, how do we practically do this in our classrooms? We would like this
awarded two Nobel
workbook to become a tool that you can use to do this. The theme for the
Prizes.
presentation of this content in Gr 7-9 Natural Sciences is 'Curious? Discover the
possibilities.' We have shown everyday science and objects with 'doodles' over
them to show how if you are curious, intrigued and investigate the world around
you, there are many possibilities for discovery. Sometimes these doodles are
science or technology related, and sometimes they are more fantastical and fun.
Learners should be inspired to discover, but also imagine the possibilities, as
Freeman Dysan said:
"The glory of science is to imagine more than we can prove."
Learners must be encouraged to 'doodle' themselves, take notes during your

class discussions, write down their observations, reflect on what they have
learned. They must not be afraid of drawing and writing in these books. Science
is also about being creative in your thinking.
We have aimed to present the content in an investigative, questioning way. At

the beginning of each chapter, the topics are introduced by asking questions to
which you will discover the answers as you go through the chapter. In teaching
learners to ask questions, make observations, think freely and creatively, they
12
will be rewarded. Although, possibly not every time - it requires patience and .
determination. Although your learners will be exploring science and the world TAKE NOTE
around us within a classroom context where assessment is integral, keep in
Albert Einstein
mind this idea from Claude Levi-Strauss, when instilling the ethos of science in
repeatedly did poorly at
your learners:
school, dropped out at
16 and failed his first
"The scientist is not a person who gives the right answers, but one university entrance
who asks the right questions." examinations. Every
child deserves a chance
to become someone,
Science is relevant to everyone. Scientific principles, knowledge and skills can sometime in some
be applied in creative and exciting ways to solve problems and advance our place.
world. It is not just a subject restricted to our classrooms, but reaches far
beyond, and within. Ultimately, we also want learners to embark on a personal
discovery and be curious about their own potential and possibilities for the
future.
Albert Einstein certainly did this when he observed:
"The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious - the

fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true
science."
.
The Natural Sciences curriculum
As learners enter the Senior Phase in their schooling, the focus is now purely on
Natural Sciences within this subject, and Technology is a separate subject.
However, there are close links between the content in both of these subjects as
they complement each other. The Natural Sciences curriculum also links to what
learners cover in Social Sciences and Life Orientation. Whether you are a
subject specialist teacher, or a class teacher, it is worthwhile to take note of
where Natural Sciences overlaps with and integrates with some of the other
subjects that learners are covering. .
VISIT
Organisation of the curriculum If you would like to see
what learners covered in
In the Natural Sciences curriculum, the knowledge strands below are used as a
Gr 4-6 with the
tool for organising and grouping the content.
Thunderbolt Kids, visit
Natural Sciences Knowledge Strands www.thunderboltkids.co.za
Life and Living

Matter and Materials
Energy and Change
Planet Earth and Beyond
These knowledge strands follow on from Gr 4-6. The strands also link into each
other, and these have been pointed out both within the learners' workbook and
here in the teachers guide.
We have also produced concept maps which show the progression of concepts
across the grades, within a strand, and how the build upon each other. These
concept maps are useful tools for teaching to see what learners should have
covered in previous grades, and where they are going in the future.
. .
Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 13

.
TAKE NOTE
You can download the
concept maps from our
website, or order large
printed versions for
your classroom, as well
as other posters to
brighten up your
classroom.
Allocation of teaching time
The time allocation for Natural Sciences is as follows:
• 10 weeks per term with 3 hours per week

• Grades 7, 8 and 9 have been designed to be completed within 34 weeks
• Terms 1 and 3 work will cover 9 weeks each with 3 hours (1 week) allocated
to assessment within each of these terms
• Terms 2 and 4 work will cover 8 weeks each, with 2 weeks allocated to
revision and examinations at the end of each of these terms
Below is a summary of the time allocations per topic in Grade 7. This time
allocation is a guideline for how how many weeks should be spent on each topic
(chapter).
Life and Living
Chapter Time allocation

1. The biosphere 1 week
2. Biodiversity 3.5 weeks
3. Sexual reproduction 3.5 weeks
4. Variation 1 week
Matter and Materials

1. Properties of metals 2 weeks
2. Separating mixtures 2 weeks
3. Acids, bases and neutrals 2 weeks
4. The Periodic Table of Elements 2 weeks
Energy and Change

1. Sources of energy 1 week
2. Potential and kinetic energy 2 weeks
3. Energy transfer: Heat 2 weeks
4. Insulation and energy saving 2 weeks
5. Energy transfer to surroundings 1 week
6. The national electricity supply 1 week
system
...
14 Teacher's Guide Overview

Planet Earth and Beyond

1. Relationship of the Sun to the Earth 4 weeks
2. Relationship of the Moon to the 2 weeks
Earth
3. Historical development of 2 weeks
astronomy
We have provided a finer breakdown of the time into the number of hours to
spend on each section within a chapter in the Chapter overviews in the
Teacher's Guide. However, again, this is a guideline or suggestion and should be
applied flexibly according to circumstances in the classroom and to
accommodate the interests of your learners.
Specific aims
There are three specific aims in Natural Sciences which are covered in these
workbooks in the range of tasks provided and in the way the content is
presented.
Specific Aim 1: 'Doing Science'
Learners should be able to complete investigations, analyse problems and use

practical processes and skills in evaluating solutions.
There are many practical tasks within this workbook that provide the
opportunity to conduct investigations to answer questions using the scientific
method, to use scientific apparatus, instruments and materials and to develop a
range of process skills, such as observing, measuring, identifying problems and
issues, predicting, hypothesizing, recording, interpreting and communicating
information. The skills associated with each task in this workbook have been
identified in the chapter overviews in this Teacher's Guide.
Learners also need to be aware of the ethical concerns and values that underpin
any science work that they do, as well as health and safety precautions. Where
appropriate, these have been pointed out in the learners workbook and in this
Teacher's Guide.
Specific Aim 2: 'Knowing the subject content and making connections'
Learners should have a grasp of scientific, technological and environmental

knowledge to be able to apply it in new contexts.
In teaching and discovering the content in Natural Sciences, the aim for learners
is not to just recall facts, but to also use the knowledge to make connections
between the ideas and concepts in their minds. Most of the activities in this
workbook have questions at the end which aim to consolidate the knowledge
and skills learned in the task, and also help learners to make connections with
what they have previously learned.
There are many opportunities for discussion when going through the content in
these workbooks. This is often highlighted in the Teacher's Guide with
suggestions for how to lead the discussion and what questions to ask your
learners to stimulate their minds and create links between what they are
learning. There are often questions within the learners' workbooks which relate
what they are learning at that point to previously acquired knowledge and
experience.
Many of the links between content and also between strands and grades are
pointed out within this Teacher's Guide. We suggest also making use of the
. .

concept maps when creating a clear picture in your own mind of the framework
of knowledge that learners should have up to that point about a particular topic.
Specific Aim 3: 'Understanding the uses of Science'
Learners should understand the uses of Natural Sciences and indigenous

knowledge in society and the environment.
There is a strong emphasis in these workbooks to show that science is relevant

to our everyday lives, and it is not restricted to what we learn within the
classroom. Rather, we are learning about the natural and physical world around
us and how it works, as well as how our own bodies function.
These workbooks aim to show learners that many of the issues in our world can
be solved through scientific discovery and pursuit. For example, improving
water quality, conserving our environment, finding renewable energy sources
and medical research into cures for diseases. Where appropriate, the history of
various scientific discoveries and inventions, as well as the scientists involved,
have been discussed.
These workbooks also aim to highlight the beauty, diversity and scientific
achievements, discoveries and possibilities in our country, South Africa. An
appreciation of local indigenous knowledge is very important. When going
through particular topics in class, encourage your learners to talk about their
own experiences so that learners are exposed to the indigenous knowledge of
different cultures, to different belief systems and worldviews.
Understanding how scientific discovery has shaped and influenced local and
. global communities will enable learners to see the connections between Science
VISIT
and Society. This will help to reinforce that Science is practical and relevant,
Learn more about Creative and it can be used as a tool together with other subjects like Mathematics and
Commons licenses and all Technology to find solutions and understand our world.
the freedoms that these
licenses grant you! .
bit.ly/1cesNJT
How to use this workbook
We would like these Curious workbooks and Teacher's Guides to become a tool
for you in your classrooms to teach, explore and discover Natural Sciences.
But first, did you notice the copyright license at the front of this book? At
Siyavula, our textbooks and workbooks are published under an open copyright
license.
An OPEN license?
An open license is fundamentally different to the traditional closed copyright
licenses. Instead of imposing restrictions on how you can use this content (for
example, all rights reserved), this open license grants you freedoms! The
Siyavula books are published under a Creative Commons license.
You are legally allowed to copy this book.
We encourage you to photocopy it, download it from our website, save it on

your mobile phone, tablet, PC or flashdrive, print it and distribute it as often as
you like.
But, how does that help? This is part of a larger, global movement called open
education. These books are an example of an open educational resource
(OER). OERs are generally defined as freely accessible, usually openly licensed
documents and online resources that can be used in teaching, learning,
education, assessment and research. Open education aims to break the barriers
that many people face when wanting to get an education, namely that content,
...

courses and resources are hidden behind restricting closed copyright licences .
and are expensive. VISIT
Watch this video to learn
By using this book, you are also part of the global open education movement,
more about why open
striving to make education as accessible as possible by breaking down the
education matters.
barriers that learners, student, teachers, academics and the general public
bit.ly/17yW5Lj
normally face.
With OERs, you are free to:
• Reuse - the right to reuse the content in its unaltered form

• Revise - the right to adapt, adjust, modify, or alter the content itself (for
example if you want to modify an activity to suit your learners' needs o
translate the content into another language)
• Remix - the right to combine the original or revised content with other
content to create something new (for example if you want to include one
of your own activities or content into this existing content)
• Redistribute - the right to share copies of the original content, your
revisions, or your remixes with others (for example if you want to give a
copy to a friend, a fellow teacher or share what you have done with your
cluster of schools)
We encourage you to modify and tweak this content to suit your learners and
your context. You just need to attribute Siyavula, as is specified in the Creative
Commons license.
You can download a soft copy of the source files for these books from our
website: www.curious.org.za
We would also love it if you told us how you are using this content as it helps us
refine our processes.
Structure of the book

There is an A and a B book for the Natural Sciences content.
The A book covers term 1 and 2:
• Life and Living

• Matter and Materials
The B book covers terms 3 and 4:
• Energy and Change

• Planet Earth and Beyond
These books are an amalgamation between workbooks and textbooks. They

have spaces for learners to write and draw whilst completing their tasks.
Learners must be encouraged to write in these books, take notes, and make
them their own. These workbooks also contain the content to support the
various tasks. This makes these books slightly longer than usual.
The beginning of each chapter starts off with KEY QUESTIONS. These introduce
the content that will be covered in the chapter, but rather phrased as questions.
This reinforces the idea of questioning, being curious and the investigative
nature of science to discover the world around us and how it works.
The content and various ACTIVITIES and INVESTIGATIONS follow:
• Investigations are those tasks where learners will be using the scientific
method to answer a question, test a hypothesis, etc. These are science
experiments.
• Activities are all other tasks where the learner is required to do something
. .

. whether it is making a model, researching a topic, discussing an idea, doing
TAKE NOTE calculations, filling in a table, doing a play, writing a poem, etc.
A suggestion is to use At the end of each chapter there is a SUMMARY, where the KEY CONCEPTS
the concept maps as a highlight the main points from the chapter. Following this, there is a CONCEPT
self-study homework MAP for each chapter. One of the aims for these workbooks is to also teach
exercise for learners to various methods of studying and taking notes. Producing concept maps is one
go over what they have way to consolidate information. Throughout the year, the skill of making
learned in the chapter. concept maps will be taught as the maps have more and more for the learners
to fill in themselves as the year progresses.
Lastly, there is REVISION at the end of each chapter. There are mark allocations
for these questions. These revision exercises can be used as formal or informal
assessment.
At the end of each strand there is a GLOSSARY which contains the definitions
for all the NEW WORDS which are highlighted throughout that strand.
Going through the content

These workbooks are a tool for you to use in your classroom and to assist you in
your teaching. You will still need to plan your lessons and decide which
activities you would like to do. there are sometimes more activities provided
than what is possible within the time allocation. We have specifically done this
to give teachers a choice, providing different levels of tasks.
The tasks which are suggested in CAPS have been identified here in the
teachers guide, and we have marked those that are optional or extensions.
When going through the content in class and you are using the workbook, there
are various questions within the content. These questions are aimed at
stimulating class discussions where learners can take notes, or they link back to
what learners have already done. The answers are provided in the Teacher's
Guide. Use these questions to check learners understanding and keep engaged
with the content.
The various activities and investigations often contain questions at the end. The
questions can often be used as a separate activity, even the next day in class or
as homework, to reinforce what was learned.
Teacher's notes
The way this Teacher's Guide is structured to provide the content of the
learner's book, but with all the model solutions written in italic blue text, and
with many Teacher's notes embedded within the content.
An example of a teacher's note:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is an example of what a teacher's note looks like. It can contain:
• chapter overviews
• suggestions on how to introduce a .topic
• guidelines for setting up or demonstrating a practical task
• general tips for teaching the content
• extra background information on a topic
• misconceptions which can easily be introduced to learners, or which
learners might already have
...

At the beginning of each chapter, there is a CHAPTER OVERVIEW. This is
crucial for your planning. This overview contains:
• the number of weeks allocated to the chapter, as suggested in CAPS

• an introduction to the chapter, highlighting any links to previous content
that learners have already covered, or anything to be aware of when going
through the content
• tables highlighting the various tasks for the chapter
The tables for each section can be used to plan your lessons. We have
suggested an hours break down to spend on each section within the chapter,
based on how much content there is to cover, and the number of tasks. This is
only a suggested guideline.
Within each table, we have listed the different Activities and Investigations and
the process skills associated with each task.
The third column contains the Recommendation for the task. These
recommendations are, in order of priority:
• CAPS suggested (a task suggested in CAPS)

• Suggested (a task we suggest doing doing, but is not suggested in CAPS)
• Optional (an additional activity which is optional if you have time or would
rather do this than the other suggested tasks)
• Extension (an additional activity which is optional and also an extension)
An example of one of these tables is given below:
1.1 Cell structure (2.5 hours)
Tasks Skills Recommendation

Activity: Brainstorm the Recalling information Optional (Revision)
Seven Functions of Life
Activity: Summarise what Recalling information, Suggested
you have learnt identifying, writing
Activity: Cell 3D model Planning, identifying, CAPS suggested
describing
You will need to look at how many hours you have for each section, and then
decide which tasks you would like to do with your learners. These tables
provide a useful overview and will also help you choose tasks so that you cover
a range of process skills and specific aims.
Assessment
The assessment guidelines for Gr 7-9 Natural Sciences are outlined in CAPS on
page 85.
There are many opportunities for informal assessment within these workbooks.
Any of the tasks can be chosen to continuously monitor your learners' progress
as well as checking the short answers they provide to questions interspersed in
the content.
At the end of each strand in the CAPS document, there is a section on

assessment guidelines. There is a column entitled 'Check the learner's
knowledge and that they can:' and there is a list. These items are included
within the content for that strand and can be used for assessment.
The questions in the revision exercises at the end of each term can be used as
formal assessment and you can use these questions, as well as your own, to
make class tests and examinations.
. .

At the end of the Teacher’s Guide, there is an appendix with Assessment
Rubrics. These rubrics are a guideline for assessment for the different tasks
which you would like to assess, either informally (to assess learners’ progress)
or formally (to record marks to contribute to the final year mark).
. The various rubrics provided are:
NEW WORDS
• Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity
• cell
• atom • Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
• energy • Assessment Rubric 3: Graph
• telescope
• Assessment Rubric 4: Table
• Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing
• Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or project
• Assessment Rubric 7: Model
• Assessment Rubric 8: Poster
• Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation
• Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
Margin boxes
You may have already noticed some of the margin boxes in this Teacher's Guide
overview so far. These boxes contain additional information and enrichment.
The NEW WORDS highlight not only the new words used, but also the key
words for the chapter or section. The definitions for all these new words are
listed in the glossary at the back of the strand.
DID YOU KNOW has some fun, interesting facts relating to the content.
TAKE NOTE points out useful tips, with a special focus on language usage and
the origins of words. This may be useful to second language learners.
The VISIT boxes contain links to interesting websites, videos relating to the
content or simulations. This enrichment is also aimed to encourage learners to
be curious about their subject in their own time by discovering more online. We
feel it is important for learners to be aware that science is a rapidly advancing
field and there are many exciting, innovative and useful discoveries being made
all the time in science, mathematics and technology research.
To access the links in the VISIT boxes, you will see there is a bit.ly link. This is a
shortened link that we created, as sometimes the website links to Youtube
videos can be very long! You simply need to type this whole link into the
address bar in your internet browser, either on your PC, tablet or mobile phone,
and it will direct you to the website or video.
For example, in this Teacher's Guide overview, there is the link to a video about
why open education matters. It is bit.ly/17yW5Lj Simply type this into your
address bar as shown below and press enter.
This will either direct you to a website page, or to our website where you can
watch the video online.
Discover more online at www.curious.org.za
...

.
Get involved
When we first embarked on this journey to create these books, our first step
was to hold a workshop with volunteer teachers to get their perspective,
suggestions and experience. Just turn to the front cover of this book to see how
many people contributed in some way to these books! At Siyavula, we believe
in openness and transparency and we would love your input in the next phase.
These books are not perfect and we will be continuously improving them. We
would find your input and experience as a teacher crucial and highly beneficial
in this process.
• Do you have any feedback about the books?

• Do you have suggestions?
• Would you like to share how you use these books in your classroom?
• Have you found any errors you would like to point out so we can fix them?
• Have you tried an activity and found a better way of doing it?
• What more would you like to see in these workbooks?
Get involved and let us know!
Find out more about our Siyavula Community at

projects.siyavula.com/community
And sign up by following this link bit.ly/15eiA6u. Specify Gr 7-9 Natural

Sciences to stay informed about this process going forward in the future.
. .

SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider L&L DBE A4.indd 1 2013/12/11 4:03 PM
SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider L&L DBE A4.indd 2 2013/12/11 4:03 PM
1 The Biosphere
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
1 week
In this introduction to the biosphere learners are exposed to the components of

the biosphere, namely the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, as well as
the organisms that live in each of these spheres. Learners are required to
identify organisms that are specifically adapted to live in each of these spheres,
in different temperatures and at different altitudes, and will learn how and why
some organisms have developed specific adaptations to survive. They are then
guided to distinguish between living and non-living elements of the biosphere,
by identifying the seven life processes (a revision of Gr. 4 work). Having revised
the seven life processes, they will then learn what is necessary to continue these
seven life processes, by studying the requirements to sustain life and learning
about adaptations that enable organisms to live in extreme environments. This
links back to work done in Gr. 5 and 6 on the interdependence between living
and non-living things in ecosystems and food webs. Learners will look at the
biosphere again in Gr. 8 in the context of. ecology, as well as in Earth and
Beyond in Gr. 9, where there is a greater focus on the lithosphere and
atmosphere.
In the section on 'Requirements to sustain life' there is an investigation to

germinate seeds and grow seedlings under different conditions.This is the first
investigation for Natural Sciences in this phase. Learners will repeat a familiar
study of observing the requirements to sustain the life of a bean plant; however,
for the first time they are confronted with topics such as dependent and
independent variables, and more on graphing. As learners progress into high
school, they will be required to conduct more and more of the investigation
design and planning on their own, whereas now they are still led through the
steps. NB: We suggest doing this investigation concurrently to the rest of the
content so that you are growing seedlings through the week that you do the
biosphere, and you might even only finish it and do the results and conclusion a
bit later on.
These tables and how to use them are explained in the Teacher's Guide
Overview at the front of the book. We have also explained how to use the bit.ly
links to websites and videos in the front of the book
24
1.1 What is the Biosphere? (1.5 hours)

Activity: Where do you CAPS suggested
Identifying, describing,
think life exists on
writing
Earth?
Activity: Describe the CAPS suggested
components of the Describing, writing
biosphere
Activity: Study the Optional (Extension)
Identifying, writing
atmosphere
Remembering, Optional (Revision)
Activity: The water
identifying, describing,
cycle
writing
Activity: How do
Identifying, . describing, Optional (Extension)
organisms depend on
writing
the lithosphere?
1.2 Requirements for sustaining life (1.5 hours)

Activity: Identify the CAPS suggested
Identifying, discussing,
requirements for
group work, writing
sustaining life
Investigating,
Investigation: What are CAPS suggested
observing, recording,
the requirements to
measuring, plotting
sustain life in plants
graphs, group work
Activity: Adaptations in Identifying, describing, Optional (Extension)
organisms writing
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is the biosphere?
• What are the coldest or hottest places where life can exist?
• How deep can you go in the sea before you do not find anything living
anymore?
• Are there living organisms on top of the world's highest mountains?
• How can you tell if something is alive or if it was never alive?
• What do organisms need to stay alive?
• How come some organisms can live in certain places while others
cannot?
Let's start exploring the world around us and how it works! Remember that this
is your book! You must use it to explore and ask questions about the world
around you, and also to learn about yourself and who you are. Do not be afraid
. .
Chapter 1. The Biosphere 25

to take notes in the margins of this book - make your own scribbles and notes
TAKE NOTE to yourself about points to remember or questions you would like to ask. Be
curious! Explore and imagine the possibilities of what you can do with science!
All the 'New words' listed in
.
the boxes in the margin are
defined in the glossary at . biosphere?
1.1 What is the
the end of this strand.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This website has many interesting articles
. about science and science-related
jobs. They have been classified according to topics and also provide tips on
how to incorporate the articles into your classroom. If you are interested in
incorporating real world science into your classroom, visit: 1 bit.ly/16zEuUf
Have you heard the word 'sphere' before? Do you know what it means? A
sphere is normally used when talking about a round shape (like a ball). Now,
what do we mean when we talk about the biosphere? The prefix 'bio-' indicates
something to do with life. For example, 'biology' is the study of living
organisms. So, can you put these two meanings together to work out what
'biosphere' means?
The biosphere is the place where life exists on planet Earth. When we talk about
the biosphere, we are talking about a huge system (the whole world!) and how
all the different parts work together to support life. We will look at these
different parts in more detail a bit later.
VISIT
The biosphere is where life exists on our planet, including the soil and rocks, water and air.
Learn more about Biosphere
. ongoing
2, a fascinating
project to maintain a
We can also use the term biosphere in different ways. When we speak of all life
man-made biosphere
on Earth as it interacts with the non-living rocks and soil, water and air
bit.ly/18cwCth
(atmosphere), we call this the biosphere.
...
26 Life and living

Biosphere 2 is a man-made research centre in America, in the Arizona desert, where
scientists have built a large enclosed artificial biosphere.
We can also call a specific part or region on Earth that supports life, a
biosphere, especially when we refer to the living organisms and the
environments in which they live.
ACTIVITY: Where do you think life exists on Earth?

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is meant as an introductory activity to show that life exists everywhere on
Earth and also bring to mind some of the. work done on habitats in Gr. 4-6. You
can also use it to assess what learners understand by the term 'life'. For
example, do they only identify animals as . life, and forget that plants are also
living organisms? Learners have not yet been exposed much to microorganisms
and so might not identify these as life forms.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. The following table contains some photos of different places on Earth.

Describe what each photo is showing.
2. Then decide if you think life exists there or not. If you do think so, list some
of the organisms which you think live in this place.
. .

Do you think there
What is this image
A place on Earth is life there? If so,
showing?
what?
Yes, life exists here.
Organisms include:
• snakes
• birds
• grasses
A desert with rocks, • cacti
some mountains • insects
and grass. • possibly buck, jackal,
hares, etc
• possibly humans (this
is actually a photo
from Namibia)

Organisms include:
• trees (seen at bottom
A mountain range of photo)
covered
. in snow. • possibly bears, snow
leopards, rabbits, etc.
• possibly humans

Organisms include:
The sky with clouds
• birds
and some birds.
• insects

Organisms include:
• plants (grasses and
Soil with grass other shrubs)
growing on top. • insects
• earthworms
• microorganisms
TAKE NOTE
The 'Visit' boxes in the
margins contain links to
.
interesting websites and .
videos. Simply type the link
exactly as it is into the
address bar in your browser. After doing this activity, did you see that life exists everywhere on Earth? From
the highest mountains to the deepest oceans, from the hottest deserts to the
thickest jungles, there is life. Did you also notice that when describing the
places on Earth where life exists, you used words such as soil, rocks, water, air?
These are all part of the biosphere and have special names.
Components of the biosphere

In the previous activity we saw that life can be found in water, soil and rocks or
the air around us. These components form part of the biosphere and have
special names:
...
28 Life and living

• Lithosphere which includes the soil and rocks.
• Hydrosphere which includes all the water.
• Atmosphere which includes all the gases.
The biosphere includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The

biosphere includes all living organisms, and also dead organic matter.
ACTIVITY: Describe the components of the

biosphere
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the following photo that shows the components of the biosphere.
2. Identify and describe the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere that you can see in the photo.
The lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere on Earth.
.
VISIT
QUESTIONS:
. about the
A fun infographic
1. Lithosphere: atmosphere
There are rocks. They are hard, sharp, porous in places, eroded by water. bit.ly/132W0U0
There is sand. It is grainy, rough, contains many small pieces of shell and
rocks.
2. Hydrosphere:
This is the seawater and sea spray. Some learners might mention the water
vapour that evaporates from the sea. The water is clear and fast flowing,
the sea water tastes salty, the sea foam forms on top.
3. Atmosphere:
This is the gases. The air includes gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen. Atmospheric gases are not visible, but the sky looks blue.
4. Even though you cannot see living organisms in this photo, there are many
living and dead plants and animals that could live on a beach such as this
one. Make about 10 plausible (believable) guesses of the types of
organisms which would live in this environment. (Hint: think about what
might be living in the sea, sand or air.)
Learner-dependent answer. Learners should be able to imagine for
example dolphins swimming in the water, or snails or mussels on the rocks,
seaweed in the water and perhaps microbes in the sand. Other organisms
could be: crabs, sea gulls and other birds, many types of fish, sharks and
whales out at sea, corals, anemones, etc.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This question was specifically included in .. this way to assist teachers in gauging
learner's ability to differentiate between living (biotic)and non-living (abiotic)
components of the biosphere.
Different organisms can exists in different places in the biosphere. Let's have a
look at the different components of the biosphere and which types of
organisms exist there.
Atmosphere
VISIT
. The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. The three most
Our atmosphere is escaping!
important gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
(video) bit.ly/1beNzVB
The atmosphere is made up of several layers.
ACTIVITY: The atmosphere

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners do not need to know the layers of the atmosphere - this will be done in
.
more detail in Gr. 9 Earth and Beyond. The focus of this activity is to show that
the atmosphere is actually a very wide layer around the Earth, but life only
exists at the bottom near to the Earth's surface where their requirements for life
are met.
.
QUESTIONS:
1. Discuss with your partner whether you think organisms could live on Earth
without the atmosphere. Explain why you think so.
This questions is deliberately included to elicit debate. Without the
atmosphere life as we know it would not be possible. The oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the lower layers of the troposphere (that touches Earth)
allow life to exist as organisms can respire and plants can photosynthesise.
The atmosphere also helps to keep the Earth warm by trapping solar
energy. The atmosphere protects life from too much UV radiation from the
Sun. Earth is the only planet in our solar system that can support life, due in
part to our atmosphere.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere consists of all water on Earth in all its forms.
...
30 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: The water cycle

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This acts as a revision of some of the previous work done on the water cycle
and states of matter and links this to different aquatic habitats for organisms.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the following diagram describing the water cycle on Earth.

2. Answer the questions that follow.
TAKE NOTE
The word 'aquatic' is used to
describe something to do
with water. Therefore
.
aquatic animals are animals
that live in or near water.
The word 'marine' describes
.
organisms that live in
saltwater or the sea. So
someone studying the
QUESTIONS: organisms in the sea is
called a marine biologist.
1. Do you remember learning about the different states of matter? The
hydrosphere includes all water in all the states of matter. Look at the
diagram of the water cycle and identify water in the different states of
matter.
Water is a liquid in the sea, dams, river, rain and dew.
Water is a solid as snow on the mountains (or in hail).
Water is a gas as water vapour in the air.
2. The water cycle shows different sources of freshwater and saltwater. Many
plants, animals and microorganisms have adapted to live in an aquatic
habitat. A very small percentage of the world's water sources are
freshwater and the rest is saltwater. Write down as many different types of
aquatic habitats that you can think of where different organisms exist.
Aquatic habitats include: rivers, dams, lakes, ponds, marshes, estuaries,
groundwater and aquifers. There are many different aquatic habitats in the
sea, such as rocky shorelines and rock pools, deep water and polar ice caps.
Lithosphere
As we have said, the lithosphere includes the rocks, soil and sand on Earth.
Organisms depend on the lithosphere in many different ways. We find out how
in the next activity.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners will look at the lithosphere in much
. more detail in Gr. 9 Earth and
Beyond, where they will look at the rock cycle as well as mining in South Africa.
This is meant as an introduction and the focus should be on how organisms
interact with the lithosphere.
ACTIVITY: How do organisms depend on the

lithosphere?
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Below are several photos depicting different ways that organisms depend
on and interact with the lithosphere.
2. Use these images to write a paragraph about how different organisms
depend on the lithosphere in different ways.
Bird nests A rock pool
A termite mound A tree growing in the ground
...
32 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A frequent misconception is that plants get larger and grow because of
nutrients they absorb from the soil. However most of the organic mass from any
.
plant is from carbon dioxide that is captured during photosynthesis and used to
make organic molecules. It is important to stress that the main nutrient
obtained from the soil is water, and relatively small amounts of minerals. If
plants 'took up' the actual soil then one would expect it to be depleted and
there would be large craters around every large tree!
An earthworm in soil A mud hut
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some of the things which learners could note are:
• Animals live in parts of the lithosphere, such as earthworms which live in

the soil, ants which make their nests out of sand. Many microorganisms live
in soil. .
• Some birds make their nests on rocks and also use sand to make the nests.
• Most plants and trees need soil to grow in. They absorb water and
minerals, and use the soil to anchor their roots.
• Rocks form rock pools on the shoreline. Rock pools are homes to many
different organisms.
• Humans use mud and stones to build houses and other buildings.
.
.
We have now looked at the different parts of the biosphere and seen that there
are many different types of organisms that exist. Each of the organisms that we
have seen so far needs to be able to stay alive in those specific conditions. We
say they need to adapt to live in their particular habitat. What does it mean to
stay alive though?
Characteristics of living plants and animals
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This was first introduced in Gr. 4 Life and Living and also revised in Gr. 5 and 6.
. .

VISIT
.
Video about the seven life
processes bit.ly/1cxrrZT
There are seven processes that all living organisms perform that determine
whether they are alive or not. Let's have a look at the seven life processes:
1. All living things need to be able to move. Moving does not have to consist
of big movements. Even plants move, for example as the flowers and
leaves turn to face the sun during the course of the day.
Learners may wonder about certain animals that don't move (are sessile)
such as anemones, barnacles and corals. Usually these animals do move
during some part of their life cycle and are sessile or stationary for the
adult phase. In addition, even animals that stay in one spot can still moves
parts of their body, such as barnacles which have feathery appendages
which beat the water and bring food into the shell.
2. All living things need energy to perform the life processes. Organisms
release energy from their food by a process called cellular respiration.
3. All living things need to be sensitive to their environment. Think of an

example of why animals need to sense their environment and write it down
below.
For example, animals need to sense food and be able to find it. They also
need to sense danger in their environment or sense temperature changes
and respond to them.
4. All living things need to be able to grow.
5. All living things need to be able to reproduce so that they do not die out.
6. All living things need to be able to excrete waste.
7. All living things need nutrition, as they need to break down nutrients
TAKE NOTE during cellular respiration to release energy.
We will learn.more about
Now that we can determine whether something is living or not, we can take a
reproduction a bit later in
look at what living things need to survive. In other words, what are the
Chapter 3.
requirements for life?
1.2 Requirements . for sustaining life

After studying the seven life processes, we now know what animals, plants and
other living organisms need to do in order to be classified as living. In order to
stay alive these living organisms require (need) certain things or specific
conditions. In this section we are going to study the requirements necessary to
sustain life.
ACTIVITY: Identify the requirements for sustaining

life
. .
Imagine that you are the design team for the first International Moon Space
Station, similar to the International Space Station already orbiting Earth, but
situated on the Moon!
...
34 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The answers to this activity are summarised in the subsequent text. In order to
.
get learners to first think about the answers and discuss them without just
reading them up in the text, perhaps get them to first take notes in a separate
notebook or on scrap paper and have the class discussion before opening the
workbooks and allowing them to then take down some notes.
The international space station that orbits Earth,

seen from above.
VISIT
INSTRUCTIONS:
Find out more about life on
1. Work in groups of four. the International Space
2. What do you think the astronauts and plants living on the new Moon .
Station as astronauts
Station will need in order to live? Discuss
. the five most important perform their everyday
requirements that you need to provide in order for the astronauts and tasks. bit.ly/178CXVe or
plants to remain alive on your Moon Space Station. bit.ly/1cfDcF7
3. Explain why your group chose these five requirements as the most
important to sustain life. Write down your notes from your group
discussion on the lines provided. Decide which member of your group is
going to report back your findings to the rest of the class.
4. Have a class discussion after you have finished discussing this in your
group.
Learner-dependent answer
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
When groups are finished discussing their most important requirements, let
groups share their lists with the other groups and have a class discussion. List
their answers on the board and make a tick for each one that is repeated - for
example Food/ Oxygen/ Water might be repeated so each time it repeats make
a tick next to it. This way they will quickly be able to see which requirements
are most commonly repeated in the class. . Learners might identify 'Food' rather
than energy. Remind them that they also have to think about the plants which
do not need to eat food. So ask the learners what term they could use as a more
general term for food? This links back to nutrition in the seven life processes.
The answer is that living things need a source of energy. If learners do not come
up with the fact that living things need 'favourable/good/optimal
temperatures', ask them some leading questions such as: 'Do you think the
space station needs to be heated or cooled? Why? Will the humans and plants
be able to survive at the temperature it is on the Moon? ' etc.
.
.
. .

Living organisms require certain conditions or things to be able to stay alive.
We say that these things or conditions sustain life.
You would have discussed some of these requirements in the last activity. Did
you come up with the same or similar requirements? Living organisms require
the following to survive:
• energy
VISIT
• gases
. • water
Learn more about the seven • soil
life processes bit.ly/16Cj2jz • favourable temperatures
Next, we look at these in a bit more detail.
Energy: All living organisms need energy to stay alive and perform the life
processes. Plants need energy from sunlight in order to photosynthesise. Other
organisms get their energy from the food that they eat.
TAKE NOTE
'Sustain' means to keep
things alive or in existence.
We also use. the word
sustainable when we want
to say that something can
continue or be continued for
a long time.
All living things need a source of energy. All living things need oxygen to respire,
The grass and trees get their energy from such as this dog which is breathing air in
the Sun to photosynthesise. The cow gets through its nose.
its energy by eating the grass.
Gases: All living things require oxygen for cellular respiration. Oxygen is used to
release energy from nutrients and carbon dioxide and water is produced as a
waste product of respiration. Green plants also need carbon dioxide to
photosynthesise.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask your learners what they think makes. Earth's atmosphere unique. Answers:
Our atmosphere contains the right gases to sustain life (i.e. oxygen and carbon
dioxide), our atmosphere also protects us from the harmful rays of the Sun
(such as UV rays) by absorbing some of them.
...
36 Life and living

Water is vital to life. Every organism on our planet needs water to live.
Water is vital for life on Earth. Most plants need soil to grow in.
TAKE NOTE
Soil sustains life on Earth. Most plants depend on soil for support, minerals and In Life Sciences, when we
water. Without the soil, plants would not be able to produce the food that use the word 'favourable' we
animals and other organisms depend on.
. that is
mean something
advantageous, helpful, or
Favourable temperatures: All organisms are adapted to live in a particular
optimal. For example, we
temperature. In general, our planet has favourable temperatures to support life.
can talk about favourable
Earth is at an optimal distance from the sun so that it is not too hot, like on
conditions for life.
Mercury, and not too cold, like on Neptune.
Let's find out what the requirements are to grow seedlings. We will learn how to
conduct a scientific investigation to do this.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In previous grades learners were required to complete a similar investigation to
determine the optimal requirements for seeds to grow. CAPS suggests that
they do this activity again in order to reinforce the concept of the requirements
to sustain life. Teachers should gauge how . many learners did this particular
activity in previous grades and should explain that this repetition is not so much
to find out what requirements are necessary to sustain life, but to give them an
opportunity to learn how to conduct a science investigation. This has therefore
been included again as a very good opportunity (with learners already aware of
the outcome) to review the scientific method and allow learners to practise this.
INVESTIGATION: What are the requirements to

sustain life in plants?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Start growing seedlings at the beginning of the term in the first lesson. A
suggestion is to break the class up into groups
. and assign each group a
different requirement to investigate. For example, one group should test
whether water is needed, one group should test whether light is needed, one
group should test the favourable temperature. Each group should also conduct
a control so that they can all attempt to get seed to germinate.
. .

In this investigation, we are going to germinate bean seeds (or any other seeds
that your teacher provides you with). Each group in the class is going to be
testing a different requirement for germination and growth of the seedling.
AIM:
A scientific investigation always has an aim or question that needs to be

answered. What is the aim of this investigation? Write down what you aim to
find out.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
'To find out what plants need to grow'. (An . aim MUST start with 'To find out /
To determine / To see if .. etc. This is different from a scientific question like
'What do plants need to grow?')
HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is where you propose (suggest) what the outcome of the

investigation will be. It is a prediction of what the results will be. Write a
hypothesis for this investigation.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner-dependent answer. The hypothesis . should include a prediction about
the need for soil, light, water and the favourable temperature. For example:
'The plant will grow best in full sunlight, less in the shade, and not at all in full
.
darkness.'
VARIABLES:
Scientists often use investigations to search for cause and effect relationships.
This means that they design experiments to investigate how changes to one
part will cause an effect on another. These changing quantities are called
variables. There are usually three kinds of variables:
1. Independent variables: This is the thing that you are changing in the
investigation. You are in control of the independent variable. For example,
if you wanted to investigate if eating a lot of sugar makes you gain weight,
then the amount of sugar you eat is the independent variable. You control
how much sugar you eat. We want to achieve something called a FAIR
TEST which means that only ONE independent variable is changed at one
time. Once the independent variable has been changed the scientist then
observes what the effect will be. In the example of investigating if sugar
makes you gain weight, you cannot at the same time investigate whether
exercise makes you lose weight. This would not be a fair test.
TAKE NOTE
A hypothesis is an educated
2. Dependent variables: The dependent variable is the thing that you
guess about what the
observe in an investigation. You do not change it. The dependent variable
outcome of the investigation
. will change depending on the independent variable. For example, in the
will be. The hypothesis is
investigation to see if eating a lot of sugar makes you gain weight, then the
stated before starting the
dependent variable will be how many kilograms you gain (or lose) as a
investigation and must be
result of eating sugar. How much weight you gain depends on how much
written as a statement and
sugar you ate. Dependent variables should be measured in an objective
must be in the future tense.
way using numbers as far as possible.
...
38 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Stress to the learners that dependent variables should be measured using
NUMBERS as far as possible, as this leads to tables and graphs. They should
avoid subjective evaluations like it 'looks good' or 'feels nice'. This is not science.
3. Controlled variables: These are the quantities that a scientist wants to

remain the same or unchanged throughout the experiment. The controlled
variable needs to be carefully monitored to make sure that it stays the
same. In the example to see if sugar makes you gain weight, you could
have one person eat a lot of sugar and the other person eat no sugar and
then see the changes in weight. There are some things that need to stay
the same for both of these people so that it is a fair test. For example, both
people must do the same amount of exercise so that this does not
influence their weight. This is a controlled variable.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask learners if they can think of any other
. variables that need to be kept the
same in this example. They might think of things like the starting weight of the
people should be the same, they should be the same sex, same age, they should
both be healthy and not sick etc.
You can also do a control test. For example, in this investigation about the
growth of plants, you will be taking away one of the requirements for growth.
You need to do a control test where another plant is given all the requirements,
.
including the one you took away in the other plant. You can then compare your
plant where you took one requirement away to the control plant which has that
requirement to see if there is a difference.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You, the teacher, can decide how you want to conduct this investigation.
Perhaps learners can just assess whether. it germinates or not, or they can look
at how tall the plant grows, how many leaves it grows, etc. In most cases, the
seeds probably will not germinate and grow if put in a cupboard or fridge or not
given any water. So the best test is just to see whether it germinates or not.
Identify the variables for this investigation.

1. Independent variable. What will you change?
Learners need to explain that they will only change one factor, i.e. remove
light from the plant (by putting it in a dark cupboard) or remove water (by
not watering it), while keeping all the other factors constant.
2. Dependent variable. What will you measure to see the effect of the
independent variable on the germination and growth of the plant?
3. Controlled variables and control group. What will your control test be and
what will you keep the same between the control plant and the tested
plant?
Learners need to explain how they will keep the other factors the same in
each case but only change one at a time. It is important that learners
understand and reflect on having a control group that has all the necessary
factors/requirements to allow it to grow. We suggest that more than one
control group be included. ..
. .

TAKE NOTE
. control
Remember your .
group is a special kind of TEACHER'S NOTE
comparison group.
The above questions give learners the opportunity to reflect on their variables
and control groups. As Gr. 7s might not have had a chance to work with these
concepts it is imperative that you spend. time explaining why a control group is
required and why only one variable be changed in each of the plants. Use the
above example of testing whether eating too much sugar makes you put on
weight, so that learners can then apply what you discuss about the example to
this investigation.
METHOD:
In your group, plan how you are going to do the investigation. Think about
which requirement you are testing and how you will take this requirement away.
For example, if you are looking at light, where could you place the seeds so that
they do not receive light? Remember, if you are looking at light, then you need
to make sure the control and test seeds both receive the same amount of water.
Once you have planned the investigation on rough paper and discussed it with
your teacher, write up the method below (in numbered steps) explaining what
you will do.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As groups are discussing their design, go around and check that they are on the
right path and discuss it with them and provide help. Help learners to find ways
that they can test the requirement, especially if they are looking at a favourable
temperature. Perhaps you have a fridge. that learners could put the seeds in?
(However, remember to take into account whether the plants will receive light
in the fridge). Find a suitable spot in the classroom for the control group plants,
perhaps on a windowsill with light. How many seeds will the learners use for
each experimental condition? Is one seed enough? What can go wrong if only
one seed is used?
.
A suggestion is to give learners some options for materials for germinating the
seeds. For example, they could either use cotton wool, or newspaper, or soil.
But, whatever they use, it must be the same in the control and test plants within
one group. It does not matter if different groups do different things. This should
actually be encouraged.
Learners also need to think about how they are going to record their results
before starting the investigation. If they are just seeing whether plants
germinate or not, then perhaps they can draw a table. If they are going to be
measuring how much the plants grow, then they will need a table for this, and
they will then need to draw a graph. If they are measuring the growth of
seedlings, a suggestion is to use string to measure out the height, and then to
measure the length of the string on a ruler.
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:
Write a list of all the materials and apparatus that you will be using in this
investigation.
...
40 Life and living

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS:
Use this space to record the results for your investigation. If you are seeing
whether plants germinate or not, then you need to draw a table to show this. If
you are measuring how much the plants grow, then you will also need a table
for this.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner-dependent answer. (Some examples of the types of tables learners can
draw are shown below. They might need help with this and you could draw
these on the board. Learners could also record the results of each other's
investigations as well.)
Table to show whether plants germinated or not
Requirement being tested Did test plants Did control plants

germinate? germinate?
Light Some did. Yes
Water No Yes
Favourable temperature No Yes
.
If the learners have included a number of seeds in each test group/ condition,
they may want to express the result as numbers rather, or as a percentage of
seeds that germinated.
Table to show growth of seedlings over time in light and in dark

.
Day Average height of Average height of
seedlings in dark (mm) seedlings in light (mm)
0 0 0
1 0 2
2 0 5
3 1 10
4 2 15
5 3 22
6 3 30
VISIT
ANALYSIS:
Read more about the
Once we have collected our results in a scientific investigation, we need to .
'Goldilocks Zone'
analyse them. This often involves drawing a graph. If you measured the growth bit.ly/13ITCQU and
of the seedlings over time, then you can draw a line graph to show this. If you bit.ly/11OIY9R
have counted the number of seeds that germinated you can express this using a
bar chart (provided you used the same number of seeds in each group), or you
can express the percentage of seeds that germinated as a pie chart. Your
teacher will help you do this.
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner-dependent answer. An example of the type of line graph which could
be drawn, using the information in the second table is given below. Time will be
along the independent x-axis. The height of the plants is the dependent variable
and this goes along the y-axis. Both the test plants and the control plants can
then be plotted on the same graph to compare the growth between the two
groups. Ensure that the intervals are equal along each of the axes. On each axis
the interval between points must represent an increase of the same amount!
(E.g. 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 etc. ) However, the intervals on the x-axis and the y-axis
can be different in order to suit the data. For example you may use an interval
of 1 on the x-axis to represent number of days, but an interval of 5 mm on the
y-axis to represent change in height.
.
VISIT
CONCLUSION:
. of bean
Watch a timelapse
plants growing. After collecting all your results and drawing a graph using these results, you will
bit.ly/1467MIj need to use this to draw a conclusion about the requirements to sustain life in
plants. The following questions will guide you in drawing your conclusion.
1. I found out...
Learner-dependent answer.
2. I know this because...
3. The investigation was fair because...
4. I can trust the results because...
5. While I conducted (did) this investigation I also discovered that...
6. If I did this investigation again I could improve it by...
What did you learn from doing this scientific investigation?
Write 3 to 5 sentences explaining what you learnt from doing this scientific
investigation following the scientific method.
...
42 Life and living

Each organism is able to survive and continue to survive in their environment
because they have acquired the characteristics that allow them to do things in a
special way in their particular environment. We say they have adapted to life in
their particular type of environment.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learning about adaptations is a precursor to an understanding of the concepts
of natural selection and evolution which will be introduced later in the term.
Make sure that learners understand that organisms cannot will their bodies to
change or learn to survive in a particular environment in a single generation
(lifetime). These adaptations take place .over many generations as a result of
natural selection, in which organisms who are better adapted to their
environment are more likely to thrive and have lots of off-spring. These
offspring will have the genes of the parents, and will inherit the characteristics
(adaptations) that made the parents better able to survive. Teachers do not
need to go into any detail about natural selection yet, but should make sure that
the learners are not under the impression that any organism can 'decide' to
acquire an adaptation.
Adapted for life

Do you think you could put a polar bear in the Kalahari desert or a gemsbok in
Antarctica and they would survive? Why, or why not?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. a polar bear in the Kalahari desert, it
Discuss this with your learners. If you put
would overheat, and similarly if you put a gemsbok in Antarctica it would freeze
to death.
These animals are specifically adapted to live in their specific environments. All
organisms are adapted to their specific environments. In the next activity we
examine some more examples of how organisms are adapted to their
environments.
ACTIVITY: Adaptations in organisms

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the photos below showing different organisms in different

environments.
2. Answer the questions. .
3. You might need to do some extra research in books and on the Internet to
complete your answers.
QUESTIONS:
Look at the photos of a penguin in the water and an eagle flying in the air. Both
of these are birds, but they live in very different environments that make the
penguin adapted for the water and the eagle adapted for flight.
. .

A penguin in the water. A flying fish eagle about to catch some
food.
1. How do you think the penguin is adapted to swim in water? Hint: What are
its wings used for? Does it have small or large feathers? How do you think
this helps?
The penguin is adapted to swim in water as it uses its wings as flippers to
swim. The feathers are very small/fine which help make it waterproof.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some additional adaptations to discuss: Penguins are able to hold their breath
and dive deep underwater to catch food.. Penguins are black and white which
helps them to be camouflaged in the water and hide from predators (They look
dark like the water from above, and light like the sky from below). Penguins
have even adapted to drink salty sea water.
.
2. How do you think the eagle is adapted to fly and catch its prey? Hint: Look
at its feathers and wings.
Fish eagles have very long wings and long feathers to enable flight and to
be able to soar in the air and then swoop down and catch prey.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some additional adaptations to discuss: . They have long talons/claws so that
they can catch their food as they swoop down and grab it. They also have large
tail feathers that they can fan out to help them control their speed when flying.
South Africa is home to two very skilled predators, the great white shark and
the lion. Both of these animals are very skilled at catching their prey, but in very
different environments.
A great white shark in Gansbaai, A lioness attacking a buffalo in Kruger

... Western Cape. National Park.
44 Life and living

3. What characteristics does the shark have that makes it adapted to living
and feeding in the sea? Hint: Look at its streamlined body shape and sharp
teeth.
The great white shark is adapted to move very fast through the water as its
body is streamlined and it has fins and a tail to swim. It has sharp teeth to
bite into prey. .
4. What characteristics does a lion have that makes it adapted to living and
hunting in the savanna? Hint: Look at the colour of its fur and the colour of
the grass and its strong limbs.
The lion is a light brown colour so that it is camouflaged in the
savanna/bush to sneak up on its prey. It has 4 strong legs with claws to
chase and catch prey. .
.
We have now looked at how a few of the animals on Earth are adapted to their
environments. There are many, many more organisms with very unique and
interesting adaptations. In the next chapter we will learn more about the
diversity of plants and animals on Earth.
Have you noticed the VISIT boxes in the margins which contain links? You
simply need to type this whole link into the address bar in your Internet
browser, either on your PC, tablet or mobile phone, and press enter, like this:
It will direct you to our website where you can watch the video or visit the
webpage online. Be curious and discover more online on our website!
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• Life on planet Earth exists in the biosphere.
• The biosphere consists of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere,
as well as the many living organisms and dead, organic matter.
• Many different kinds of living organisms exist in the biosphere.
• Things can be classified as living if they perform the seven life processes:
– Movement
– Reproduction
– Sensing the environment
– Growth
– Respiration
– Excretion
– Nutrition
• Living things need energy, gases, water, soil and a favourable
temperature to survive.
• Living things are suited or adapted to the environment in which they
live.
. .

. Map
Concept
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Throughout this year, we are going to develop the skill of designing and
makingconcept maps in Natural Sciences. The 'Key concepts' listed above
is a summary written out in full sentences. A concept map provides another
way of representing information (ideas and concepts) in a more visual way.
The benefits of a concept map are that it allows one to show the linkages
between different concepts. Often a concept map has a 'focus question'
around which the other concepts radiate from - in these books the focus
question will be the main topic for the chapter. The relationships between
different concepts are shown using arrows with linking phrases, such as
'results in', 'includes', 'can be', 'used to', 'depends on', etc.
As this year progresses, learners will have to start filling in more parts of
the concept maps themselves, and then hopefully draw their own ones by
the end of the year. This teacher's guide contains the full version of each
.
concept map. Encourage your learners to study the concept maps and
make sense of them at the end of each chapter before doing the revision
questions. Help your learners to understand and 'read' the concept maps by
constructing sentences from them. For example in this case you could read:
'The biosphere is made up of dead organic matter and living things. Living
things can be plants, animals or microorganisms. Living things are adapted
to their environment and carry out the 7 life processes. These are ….'
Learners need to learn how to learn! This is one skill which might help
them later in their school career where they have a lot more information to
ingest and learn and make sense of. Concept mapping is one tool to use
to summarise information and also understand how different concepts link
together. Real understanding and knowledge comes from grappling with
the subject matter, and not just memorising facts.
"Knowledge is real knowledge only when it is acquired by the efforts of your

intellect, not by memory." - Henry David Thoreau
Do you know what a concept map is? This year in Natural Sciences, we are
going to learn more about how to make our own concept maps.
Above you have the 'Key concepts' for this chapter. This is a written summary
and the information from this chapter is summarised using words. We can
also create a concept map of this chapter, which is a map of how all the
concepts (ideas and topics) in this chapter fit together and are linked to each
other. A concept map gives us a more visual way of summarising information.
Different people like to learn and study in different ways: some people like to
make written summaries, whilst others like to draw their own concept maps
when studying and learning. These are useful skills to have, especially for
later in high school and after school!
Have a look at the concept map for 'The Biosphere' on the next page.
Complete the concept map by filling in the 7 life processes in the blank
spaces.
...
46 Life and living

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Explain what the biosphere is. [2 marks]

The biosphere is where life exists on earth. It includes the atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere.
2. Give an example of something that is found in each of the following:
[3 marks]
a) Lithosphere:
b) Hydrosphere:
c) Atmosphere:
a) Lithosphere: Rocks or sand
b) Hydrosphere: Water e.g., oceans and seas, lakes, rivers
c) Atmosphere: Gases, e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen
3. Discuss why the atmosphere is important for life on Earth. [2 marks]
The atmosphere is the layer of gases around Earth. The atmosphere
contains important gases that are key to life on Earth, namely oxygen for
respiration in organisms and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis in plants.
The layers of the atmosphere filter out harmful rays of the sun and hold the
heat energy from the sun's rays in the atmosphere to help it maintain the
necessary heat levels required for life. The weather changes occur in the
lower part of the atmosphere allowing it to rain / snow / hail in order for
the water cycle to get water to the plants on land.
4. Imagine an alien creature arrives on Earth attached to a meteorite (fallen
space rock). You were tasked with deciding whether it lives in the
conventional way that we understand organisms to live. Draw up seven
.
questions to determine how this organism lives and whether it can be
classified as alive. [7 marks]
Learners need to be able to use their knowledge of the 7 life processes to
ask these key questions in order to establish if this organism is living or not.
Questions should include something as follows:
• Can it move?
• Can it make more of it's own kind? How does this reproduction occur?
• Can it sense changes in it's environment and respond to this?
• Does this organism grow?
• How does it get energy for movement, reproduction or growth?
• Does it excrete waste products?
• Does it get nourishment somehow?
5. What are the requirements for sustaining life on Earth? [5 marks]
Organisms require energy, gases, water, soil and favourable temperatures.
6. Look at the following photos of different organisms in their environments.
Answer the questions about how they are adapted.
a) Giraffe
How are giraffe adapted to eat their food? Hint: They eat the leaves of
trees. [1 mark]
. .

b) A cactus
This cactus is adapted to live in hot environments? How do you think

it stores water for long periods? Hint: Look at its leaves. [1 mark]
How do you think the cactus has adapted to prevent other animals
from eating it? Hint: What is on the leaves? [1 mark]
c) A stick insect.
Can you see the stick insect in this photo? How do you think it is
adapted, especially to hide away from predators? [1 mark]
a) Giraffe have very long necks so that they can reach the leaves at the
tops of trees. .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An additional adaptation which. is not visible here, but you can
mention, is that giraffe have very tough tongues so that they do not
get hurt when pulling the leaves off branches covered in thorns.
b) The cactus has thick succulent stems which can store water for when
there is none around.
The cactus leaves have long, sharp thorns to prevent animals from
eating the leaves.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Additional adaptation to discuss: The stems have a thick waxy layer
that prevents the loss of water.
c) This insect is very camouflaged as it looks just like the sticks around it.
This helps to protect it from being eaten by predators.
7. Think back to the scientific investigation you did in this section. Evaluate
how well you think you followed the scientific method to make your
experiment fair or not fair. [2 marks]
Learner-dependent answer. Make sure that learners justify their answer.
Total [25 marks]
...
50 Life and living

2 Biodiversity
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
3.5 weeks
After looking at the biosphere and where life exists on Earth, we will now look at
the biodiversity of life on Earth. This chapter starts off with looking at the
classification system and how scientists have classified all living organisms. This
hierarchical classification system provides an overview and will be dealt with
again in Gr. 10 if learners take Life Sciences. After looking at the five kingdoms,
we will then look at the biodiversity of plants and animals. In CAPS, learners
would have looked at the variety in plants and animals before in Gr. 5 and heard
the term biodiversity. This is built upon and extended as we look at the different
classifications of plants and animals. The other three kingdoms, namely Protista,
Fungi and Bacteria are not dealt with in detail, but in Gr. 9, learners will again
look at some examples when they do microorganisms in more detail.
2.1 Classification of living things (3 hours)

Observing, classifying,
Activity: Group
group work,
some everyday CAPS suggested
describing, .discussing,
objects
recording, writing
Activity: Aristotle's Observing, classifying,
Optional (Extension)
classification system drawing, explaining
Activity: Comparing Observing, identifying,
CAPS suggested
plants and animals comparing, discussing
2.2 Diversity of animals (4.5 hours)

Activity: Classifying
vertebrates and Identifying, classifying CAPS suggested
invertebrates
Activity: Identify the
five classes of Identifying, classifying,
CAPS suggested
vertebrates remembering
(Chordata)
Activity: Identify
Observing, identifying, Optional
defining features of
listing (Suggested)
fish
Observing, identifying,
Activity: Describing
explaining, Optional (Extension)
amphibians
hypothesising
Activity: Reflect on Drawing, labeling,
reptiles identifying, classifying
52
Group work,
Activity: Identify
explaining, identifying,
characteristics of Optional (Extension)
characterising,
birds
comparing
Activity: Identify Group work,
characteristics of brainstorming, Optional (Extension)
mammals remembering, listing
Activity: Comparing Optional
Comparing
vertebrates (Suggested)
Activity: Classifying Observing, describing,
arthropods classifying
Observing, identifying,
Activity: Observing
describing, .drawing, CAPS suggested
molluscs
labeling
2.3 Diversity of plants (3 hours)

Activity: Invasive Observing,
plants in South researching, Optional (Extension)
Africa describing
Activity:
Discovering the
Observing, describing,
differences between CAPS suggested
summarising
monocotyledons
and dicotyledons
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• How do we group or classify all the living organisms in the world?
• Why do we need to group or classify living things?
• How can we classify all the animals on Earth?
• What is the difference between reptiles and amphibians?
• Are insects and arachnids (spiders) different?
• Is there a way to classify plants?
• What is the diversity of plants and animals in South Africa?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If possible, display a selection of nature magazines, books and reading materials
.
in the class during the time that you go through this chapter. You can collect
photos or pictures from magazines of many different plants and animals, fungi
and bacteria. A suggestion is to cover them in plastic, in order to reuse them in
subsequent years.
. .
Chapter 2. Biodiversity 53
Over millions of years each species living today has changed and adapted to
live in a specific type of environment in order to ensure the survival of that
species. Biodiversityis a term used to describe the great variety of living
organisms on Earth and their varied habitats.
There are just so many types of organisms. How can we make sense of all the
organisms on Earth? We need some way to group them. This is called
classifying. Let's find out how we do this!
2.1 Classification. of living things

Grouping has been a common activity in humans for thousands of years as we
make sense of the world around us.
ACTIVITY: Group some everyday objects

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In this activity learners will get an opportunity to group a selection of everyday
objects according to observable features. This lays the foundation for the
classification and grouping work that is covered in this section. Teachers should
.
collect enough shoeboxes or recycled ice-cream tubs (or if this is not possible
shopping bags should also work) for each of the groups in the class. As
homework the previous day each learner needs to bring five items from home.
These items should be small enough to go into the shoebox. They should
choose items that they use in their everyday lives. Please ensure that no
valuables are brought!
MATERIALS: .
• objects from home

• shoe boxes/ ice-cream tubs
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work in groups of four.

2. Each member of the group should bring five items from home. Choose
items that are easy to carry around and that will fit into a standard shoe
box.
3. Carefully observe each of the items that everyone in your group brought.
4. Use the shoe boxes to group the items according to your observations.
5. Place all objects brought by the whole class on a display table in the front
of the class.
6. Discuss the different grouping methods that each group has used as a
class. Work towards a standard grouping or classifying method that you
could use to classify ALL the items that you all brought to school.
...
54 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
During this activity, encourage learners to look at the observable features of the
items in order to classify them, for example shape, colour, size, texture, use etc.
QUESTIONS:
1. Draw a table in the space below and record all the items in your class in the
groups you assigned them to. .
TAKE NOTE
2. How did your small group classify your items to begin with? What features
When you observe you use
did you use to classify the items?
your senses to tell you more
3. Write three or four sentences about the standard classification method . How does
about something.
it feel or look? Does it have a
that you decided to use in your class. What characteristics of the items did
special smell or taste? Is
you use to classify and group them? Were these different to what you
there a specific sound
used in your small group?
coming from it?
Learner-dependent answer. .
.
Plato and Aristotle in a famous painting by Raphael called "School of Athens".
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and thinker who lived about 2400 years ago.
Aristotle came up with the following grouping system that was used for almost
2000 years after his death!
• He divided all organisms into either animals or plants.

• Then he divided animals into those 'with blood' and those 'without blood'.
• Lastly animals are divided into three groups based on their method of
movement: walkers, flyers or swimmers.
. .
.
ACTIVITY: Aristotle's classification system

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an optional activity to introduce different types of classification.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Look at the following photos of different kinds of animals.

2. Use Aristotle's method of classification to group the animals based on the
way that they move.
3. Draw a table of your groupings in the space provided after the photos.
Give your table a heading.
.
A penguin A butterfly A cat
An elephant A crocodile An eagle
A human Dolphins Bats
...
56 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner-dependent answer. The table should look as follows. There may be
some variations depending if learners decide to put an animal in more than one
group or classify it according to its main method of movement.
.
Classification of a group of animals according to Aristotle's method
Walkers Flyers Swimmers

Penguin, Elephant,
Penguin, Dolphins,
Cat, Crocodile, Eagle, Butterfly, Bats
Crocodile, Human
Human .
QUESTIONS:
1. Were there any animals which you battled to classify into one group?
Which ones were these?
Difficult animals to classify are those which can fall into more than one
group, such as the penguin, crocodile, human.
2. Do you think Aristotle's classification system has any problems? Explain
any problems that you might find when using it.
Possible answers might include: Some animals fit into more than one group
(penguin, crocodile, etc.) because it looks more at what the animals do
rather than what they are or similarities and differences between their
forms. .
.
As more and more animals, plants and microorganisms were discovered,

scientists started questioning Aristotle's classification system. It was not
working as well as everyone had believed it would. Why do you think it is
important to evaluate how we classify things?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Discuss this as a class. Refer to this process
. as being a constant refining of the
way that classification is done and that it is not a 'given' or a static method. It
needs to evolve as our knowledge and understanding of the world and the
organisms in it develops and must take these new discoveries into account.
. .
In the 1700s Carl Linnaeus developed
the classification system that classified
organisms according to their
similarities, functions and relationships
with other organisms.
Carl Linnaeus
TAKE NOTE
Today with the use of modern microscopes and genetics we can classify living
The kingdom. Bacteria is organisms very accurately. In this way we are able to classify living organisms
often also referred to as according to their shared characteristics.
Monera.
Our classification system
All living organisms can be divided into five kingdoms:
1. Animals
2. Plants
3. Fungi
4. Protists
5. Bacteria
TAKE NOTE
Be careful to use these
. one
words correctly:
phylum, many phyla.
Similarly, one genus, many
genera.
What are humans? Which kingdom do we belong to?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Since we know that we are not a fungi or plant, or a protista or bacteria (quite a
bit bigger!) we belong to the animal kingdom.
...
58 Life and living

Think back to the example of how we classify learners at school. First, school is
divided into pre-primary school, primary school and high school. If we compare
school to the way we classify organisms, we can say that the school system has
three kingdoms. But, we need to divide learners up further. So primary school is
divided into seven grades (Gr. 1-7) and high school is divided into five grades
(Gr. 8-12). The classification system for organisms also needs to divide
organisms up further as each kingdom contains thousands of different types of
organisms.
Each kingdom is divided into smaller groups or divisions called phyla.

Organisms with similar traits (characteristics) will occupy a similar phylum. In
each phylum, smaller divisions called classes are found and each class is further
divided into orders, families, genera and then species.
Think of your school again. Your primary school contains many learners. When
you divide your entire school into grades, there are fewer learners in each
grade. Your grade might be divided into different classes, and each class has
fewer learners in it. When we classify organisms, the same thing happens. A
kingdom is a very big group, whereas a species is a much smaller group.
Study this diagram to help you remember the order:
TAKE NOTE
. the first
A mnemonic takes
letters of a group of terms to
make a funny rhyme.
TAKE NOTE
Binomial comes from the
Latinbi- two and nomius-
names. Nomenclature
comes from .Latin words
nomen - name and calare- to
call. Binomial nomenclature
KingPhil Cuts Open Five Green Snakes therefore means calling
things by two names.
We need to be able to distinguish between organisms too. So how do we name
organisms?
Carl Linnaeus designed a special naming system called the binomial

nomenclature to name all organisms. All organisms are therefore given two (bi-
means two) words in their name.
• The first part of the name refers to the genus that the organism belongs to.
This is always written with a capital letter.
• The second part of the name refers to the species within the genus
• If you are typing you will put both these names in italics but if you are
doing a handwritten piece you underline it. This shows that you are
identifying the organism by its scientific name.
. .
For example, the scientific name for the african elephant is Loxodonta africana.
Humans belong to the genus Homo and to the species sapiens so we are Homo
sapiens. Now that we have seen how to classify organisms, let's take a closer
look at the differences between the kingdoms.
Plants and animals
ACTIVITY: Comparing plants and animals

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the diagram that shows the five kingdoms that we commonly use to
classify organisms. Pay close attention to the plants and animals.
2. Answer the following questions.
QUESTIONS:
1. Study the organisms in the animal kingdom. What are some common
features that you can see in all the animals?
TAKE NOTE Learner-dependent answers. Might include: all these animals can move
When we compare plants using a variety of methods or that all might have a special body covering.
and animals we can often These animals all have to eat, either plants or other animals. They generally
compare them.based on the reproduce by mating with other animals of the same species. Animals drink
way that they move, what water. Animals respire as they take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide,
and how they get food or often through breathing. Animals need to excrete their waste from their
nourishment, and how they bodies.
reproduce. 2. Study the organisms in the plant kingdom. What are some features that
are common to all plants?
Learner-dependent answers. Might include: plants cannot move, they are
rooted to one spot. Plants do not need to eat as they produce their own
food by photosynthesis. They take in water. Plants also respire like animals
but they also take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and give off oxygen
as a by product. Plants' reproduction. differs to animal reproduction in that
many plants produce seeds while others produce other structures (like
ferns) etc.
3. Draw a table in the space below and compare the characteristics of plants
that make them different to animals. Discuss your plant and animal
comparisons with your group and then with the class.
Learners should compare the observable differences on the diagram /
illustration between plants and animals. Some of these might include:
Plants Animals
Plants are generally rooted in Animals can self-propel (move
one place and move by growing themselves around) through
in shape and turning their leaves locomotion in order to find food,
or petals towards the sun or a a mate or shelter, or to evade
water source. danger.
Plants that contain chlorophyll Animals cannot produce their
can photosynthesize to produce own food and have to eat plants
glucose (food) from sunlight and or other animals to get
carbon dioxide. nourishment.
Plants produce oxygen and take Animals take in oxygen and
in carbon dioxide. produce carbon dioxide.
Plants have a limited ability to Animals have a well-developed
sense. ability to sense.
etc. etc
...
60 Life and living

VISIT
Fungi Learn more. about the
kingdom Animalia
Most people will not eat bread covered in bread mould but will eat at a plate of
bit.ly/18djDrj
fried mushrooms, truffles and morels. These are all examples of fungi, including
yeast.
Morel A truffle
Bread mould Yeast cells
VISIT
. (a card
The phylogame
game which could be played
in class) bit.ly/14o3yPp
A very poisonous mushroom Button mushrooms (like we buy in the

shops)
Fungi play a very important role in our biosphere since they break down dead
organic material and return nutrients to the soil for plants to use. Some fungi
cause diseases while others, such as penicillin (an antibiotic) are very useful to
us. Yeast is used in many of our products, such as making bread rise and
fermenting wine and beer.
. .
Protists and Bacteria
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners will only be able to fully understand the differences between Protists
and Bacteria once they have done cells in . Gr. 9. Essentially, Protists are
eukaryotic (usually unicellular, but not always) as they have cells with a
membrane bound nucleus, whereas Protists are prokaryotic as their DNA
material is not membrane bound. Bacteria are always unicellular. Protists
require a liquid medium, whereas Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
We will look at Protists and Bacteria in more detail later on in Gr. 9. For now,
lets look at some of the basic features of these kingdoms.
Organisms in these two kingdoms are microscopic which means you cannot see
them with your naked eye. However we can see them if we look at them under a
microscope.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
These images are included to give learners some idea about these two
kingdoms, otherwise they will have no reference point until they get to Gr. 8
and do microorganisms again. These images are also interesting and show what
is possible with the microscopy techniques available today. They include a
.
range of techniques from scanning electron microscopy, confocal, fluorescent
and light microscopy. The differentiation of a membrane bound nucleus in
Protists and not in Bacteria is too advanced for learners at this stage if they
have not yet done cells. For now, encourage learners to look at the photos,
TAKE NOTE perhaps ask them to explain what they see, and let them get excited about the
You can find out lots more unseen world! Learners do not need to know how to recognise or name any of
. the links
online by visiting these microorganisms.
provided in the Visit boxes.
Be curious and discover the
possibilities!
Different bacteria:
Escherichia coli bacteria, commonly found Staphylococcus aureus (yellow cells) often
in the intestines of animals causes skin infections and pneumonia
...
62 Life and living

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is found in soil Actinomyces bacteria which cause diseases
and water and cause infections in animals in the mouth
Different Protists:
Phytoplankton from the Antarctic sea Asterionella formosa
Nitzschia kerguelensis Different coloured amoebas
Now we will look at the amazing diversity of animals and plants on Earth, and
especially in South Africa.
. .
. of animals
2.2 Diversity
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Provide learners with old magazines and ask them to cut out any and all animals
that they see. (If you teach this lesson a few years running it is worth the effort
and money to cut their animals out carefully and have these laminated then they
can be used over and over again!) When they have collected a large quantity of
animals ask them to group the animals into only two groups. Encourage them
to manipulate the animals and transfer them from one group to another, and
encourage positive debate about their groupings and why they chose those
specific groupings. Then end result should be that there are two main groups of
animals, and scientifically speaking these would hopefully be vertebrates and
invertebrates, or alternatively those with feathers and those without; those with
mammary glands and those without, those with wings and those without, etc.
.
As learners work with the pictures make sure to model words like observe,
compare, contrast, evaluate, etc.
Some learners might ask "WHY" we classify and they should be praised for
doing this. If this occurs point out to them that classification helps us to sort out
ancestor / descendent relationships and we are therefore able to track the
evolutionary history of all living organisms.Thus the presence or absence of one
specific characteristic might show that an organism is related to others in in a
specific genus, family or order and can also guide an investigation into the
evolutionary history of these organisms. Many learners might for instance be
unaware that lions, rhino and elephants are indigenous to Africa but are also
found naturally in other parts of the world, like India, and through classification
we are able to see how the Black Buck and the Koedoe, or the One-horned
Rhinoceros of Asia and the South African black rhino are related.
Classifying animals
All the animals in the world form part of the animal kingdom.There are two
distinct divisions or groups of animals within the animal kingdom: the
vertebrates and the invertebrates. Can you remember what is used to classify
an animal as a vertebrate or invertebrate? Look at these x-rays of animals for a
clue.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The presence or absence of a backbone .is used to classify animals as
vertebrates or invertebrates. The dolphin, dog and goose are vertebrates and
the grasshopper and crab are invertebrates.
...
64 Life and living

Animals that have a backbone with a hollow tube inside to hold the nerves are
vertebrates. As we can see in the x-ray images of the dolphin, dog and goose,
we can see the skeletons of these vertebrates. They are made of bone. We say
that vertebrates have an endoskeleton.
What about the grasshopper and the crab? Why can we not see their bones?
This is because invertebratesdo not have a skeleton made of bones. The
grasshopper and crab have a hard shell covering on the outside of their bodies.
This supports their soft bodies inside. We say they have an exoskeleton. But not
all invertebrates have an exoskeleton.
What about a jellyfish? It does not have a backbone, so it is not a vertebrate, so

it must be an invertebrate. Does it have a hard, outer covering called an
exoskeleton? Discuss this with your class. Make sure to take note of the third
type of skeleton in your discussion.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Invertebrates do not have a backbone, but this does not necessarily mean that
.
they have an exoskeleton. Many invertebrates have a hydrostatic skeleton, like
the jellyfish and earthworm. Some invertebrates such as like the snail and have
an exoskeleton (shell) and a hydrostatic skeleton. Sponges actually have a type
of endoskeleton as their 'skeletons' are made of calcareous spicules.
. .
.
ACTIVITY: Classifying vertebrates and

invertebrates
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. In the table identify the type of skeleton that each animal has and write it
down beneath each picture.
2. Write down whether the animal is an invertebrate or a vertebrate.
Animal
A grasshopper A bluebottle
Type of skeleton Exoskeleton Hydroskeleton

.
Vertebrate or
Invertebrate Invertebrate
invertebrate
Animal
Cape sparrow
Butterfly
Type of skeleton Endoskeleton Exoskeleton
Vertebrate or
Vertebrate Invertebrate
invertebrate
...
66 Life and living

Animal
Tortoise Frog
Type of skeleton Endoskeleton Endoskeleton
Vertebrate or
Vertebarte Vertebrate
invertebrate
Animal
Crab
Type of skeleton Exoskeleton Endoskeleton
Vertebrate or
Invertebarte Invertebrate
invertebrate
.
.
. .
VISIT
The invertebrates are divided into five phyla. The invertebrate phyla are:
A useful chart.showing the
classification system 1. Sea sponges
bit.ly/178IzyU 2. Jellyfish
3. Roundworms
4. Molluscs
5. Arthropods
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. have scientific names, but these are
The five phyla making up the invertebrates
not necessary to know at this stage. We will only focus on the two phyla
TAKE NOTE
Arthropoda and Mollusca.
'Phylum' is the. singular and

'phyla' is the plural use of
the word.
All vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata. Vertebrates are subdivided into
five classes.
Have a look at the following diagram which shows the different classes of
vertebrates and phyla of invertebrates. Remember, all vertebrates belong to the
phylum Chordata.
...
68 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Identify the five classes of vertebrates

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the previous chart showing vertebrates and invertebrates and

identify the names of the five classes of vertebrates. Write these on the
lines below.
2. Use the pictures that you previously collected from magazines to find at
least 5 examples of each of these classes of animals.
QUESTIONS:
1. Identify at least one distinguishing characteristic that each class shares or

has in common (that makes that class different from other classes.) Write
this on the line next to the classes that you identified above.
a) Fish - scales / gills / fins / etc
b) Amphibians - soft moist skin / lungs and skin used for breathing / four
.
limbs with webbed feet
c) Reptiles - scaly skin / lungs used for breathing / four limbs with toes
d) Birds - beak, feathers cover body / air sacs used for breathing / two
scaly legs and two wings,
e) Mammals - fur or hairy skin / lungs / four limbs / mammary glands, live
birth
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Since many animals in Africa are under threat due to habitat loss and poaching
the animals featured in this section were specifically included to raise awareness
and to expose learners to the wonderful. animals living in South Africa. Teachers
are encouraged to work with teachers from other subjects, such as the
languages or art, to let learners make anti-poaching or awareness campaign
posters to address the environmental issues and raise awareness with other
learners in the school.
Vertebrates
The five classes of vertebrates are:
1. Fish
2. Amphibians
3. Reptiles
4. Birds
5. Mammals
. .
Fish
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
1
Visit bit.ly/195EX30 for a teachers' support website on fish.
Fish come in all sorts of shapes, sizes and colours. There is huge diversity
amongst fish. Have a look at some of the following drawings of different types
of fish.
Scorpion fish Swordfish
Sole Fish Hammerhead shark
VISIT
.
Unusual and weird deep sea
fish (video) bit.ly/1460jZG
Puffer fish Goldfish
...
70 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Identify defining features of fish

.
QUESTIONS:
1. Carefully study the drawings of the fish shown previously. Although they
are different shapes, sizes and colours, you should be able to identify
common features to all fish. List as many of the defining features of fish as
you can.
Features learners might list include:. ectothermic, backbone, fins, gills,
scales, living in water, breathing oxygen from water, streamlined body, lay
eggs.
2. Some of the features that you listed might apply to other animals that are
not fish. Look at your list again. Make a tick next to any of the features you
listed that only apply to fish, or perhaps a combination of characteristics
that only apply to fish.
The combination of gills, fins and the fact that fish live only in the water are
the main defining characteristics of fish and make fish different from all
other animals.
When classifying fish we look closely at the material that makes up the skeleton
of the fish. This leads us to divide fish into two main groups:
• Cartilaginous fish have skeletons made of cartilage.

• Bony fish that have skeletons made of bone.
Sharks, skates and rays are part of a group of cartilaginous fish because their
skeletons are made of cartilage. These fish breathe using five to seven pairs of
gills.
Manta ray Spotted eagle ray
. .
A whale shark surrounded by other fish A great white shark
The largest group of all vertebrates are bony fish. Bony fish have a hard, bony
skeleton.
Challenge question: Is a seahorse a fish? Search books and the internet to find
out and explain why we can or cannot consider it to be a fish.
A sea horse.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
VISIT
Yes a sea horse is in fact a fish. It breathes
. with gills, has a swim bladder to
. of a male
Watch this video
seahorse giving birth
control buoyancy and a spine, and even though they don't have a tail fin they
bit.ly/15eTuEw
have four other fins that help them move. Unlike most fish, sea horses do not
have scales, but skin.
Amphibians
Did you know that the word amphibia comes from two Greek words, amphi
meaning both and bios meaning life? So an amphibian is an animal that has
'both lives'. What does this mean?
Amphibians are animals that include salamanders, newts, caecilians, frogs and
toads. Let's find out what is meant by amphibians having 'both lives'.
...
72 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Describing amphibians

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the photos of different amphibians in the following table.

2. Answer the questions which follow.
Amphibian Larva (young)

Frog
Toad
Salamander .
Newt
QUESTIONS:
1. What do you notice about the habitat of the young amphibians compared
to the adult amphibians?
The young larvae are all in water whereas the adults are on land or near
water.
2. What do you think the larvae need to breathe underwater? What do the
adult amphibians need to breathe when they are on land?
The larvae needs gills to breathe in water, the adults have lungs to breathe
on land.
. .
3. Can you now explain why amphibians have a name which comes from two
Greek words and means 'double life' or 'both life'? Write your explanation
below.
Amphibians have two stages in their life cycle. First, they have the larval
stage where they are in water, and then they have the adult stage where
they live on land (and also in or near water).
4. Amphibians are ectothermic. Explain how an amphibian keeps its body
warm.
They get heat from their environment and therefore need to live in areas
where it is warm enough for them to have enough body heat to survive. If it
gets very cold an amphibian will need to either find a space under a log or
leaves, or else sit in the sun.
5. Most amphibians have a slimy, moist skin. Discuss possible reasons why
they need to have this specific type of skin.
Learners need to compile a plausible explanation or hypothesis. The
correct explanation is: Glands in the skin secrete liquid to keep the skin
slimy and moist as frogs may need to use the skin alongside the lungs and
mouth for gaseous exchange.
6. Look at the following image of a caecilian. There is a debate going on in a
Gr. 6 class. Some learners think this animal is a worm, making it an
invertebrate. Others think it is a snake, making it a vertebrate. What do
you think?
.
A caecilian.
The caecilian is actually an amphibian! What characteristics would you test

or make sure this animal displayed to explain to the Gr. 6 learners that it is
not a worm. Secondly, what would you need to find out and explain to the
learners to explain that it is not a reptile (a snake) but an amphibian?
In order not to be an invertebrate, like a worm, the animal needs to have a
backbone. The caecilian does have a backbone and a skull. The caecilian is
not a snake (it is not a reptile) as it has a larval stage which is born in water
and it undergoes metamorphosis to become the adult caecilian. The larvae
also have gills to breathe underwater. Caecilians also do not have scales
like reptiles.
7. Amphibians lay their eggs in water, like this frog. Why do you think they
need to do this? Give two reasons.
A frog that has just laid its eggs
Some possible reasons are: The eggs are in water so that when the larvae
hatch they are already in the water to swim around, the eggs would dry out
if they were not in water, the fertilisation process in amphibians often
requires water as the female will lay the eggs and as she does so, the male
deposits his sperm is the water around them so they are fertilised.
.
...
74 Life and living

VISIT
. Amphibians
Metamorphosis:
Reptiles (full documentary)
bit.ly/14rZABn
Reptiles have survived on Earth for millions of years. The first reptiles on earth
lived 310 to 320 million years ago and included the dinosaurs.
Most reptiles live on land although some, like crocodiles, terrapins and turtles,
and some snakes and lizards spend large portions of their lives in water.
Reptiles are ectothermic. They cannot regulate their body heat but depend on
their environment for heat.
A lizard lying in the sun to warm up
Reptiles are covered in dry scales. Reptiles reproduce by laying their eggs on
dry land. The eggs are covered by a leathery or hard shell.
ACTIVITY: Reflect on reptiles

.
QUESTIONS:
1. Complete these sentences.

a) Since reptiles all have a backbone they are one of the classes of
.
b) Reptiles are ectothermic which means that .
a) chordata or vertebrates
b) they cannot regulate their body temperature but depend on their
environment for heat
2. Make a biological drawing with labels and a heading of the lizard lying in
the sun in the previous photo. .
VISIT
Learn more about the boa
. keeps its
constrictor which
eggs inside its body until
they are ready to hatch
bit.ly/1331Bd1
. .
3. We can divide reptiles into four main groups. Each of the photos in the
table below shows an example of a reptile from each of these groups. Try
to identify the four groups based on the animal in the photo.
crocodiles and alligators lizards and geckos

.
turtles, terrapins and

snakes
tortoises
...
76 Life and living

Birds
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If possible, take your learners outside before
. you start discussing birds to see if
you can spot any in the school grounds. Ask learners to identify what is
common among all the birds - they should note that all birds have feathers. This
is the most distinguishing feature of birds.
The blue crane is South Africa's national bird.
ACTIVITY: Identify characteristics of birds

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work in groups of three.

2. List the identifying characteristics of birds following these steps:
3. Do you remember learning about birds . in previous years? Work with a
different group and brainstorm identifying characteristics of birds. Study
the photo of the blue crane above for some clues.
4. Use one specific colour to list the characteristics that your group can think
of.
5. As you learn more about characteristics of birds add these in a different
colour to help you remember the new characteristics.
. .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner-dependent answers. You should once again ask groups to share their
characteristics with the class in order to avoid incorrect characteristics from
being included. A typical incorrect characteristic
. might be that all birds can fly.
Point out that many birds, such as penguins and ostriches, cannot fly and
remind them that Aristotle used this same classifying technique which proved
to be of little use. There are also other animals that can fly which are not birds,
such as bats and flies. Learners should note that all birds have beaks, wings and
feathers and they lay eggs.
QUESTIONS:
1. Birds are one of the five classes of vertebrates. Write a sentence to explain
what all vertebrates have in common.
All vertebrates have a backbone with a hollow tube running inside it
carrying the nerves.
2. Just like mammals, birds are also endothermic. What does this tell us
about their bodies?
This means that birds can control or regulate their body temperature and
can therefore keep warm in very cold climates and keep cool in very hot
temperatures.
3. What type of body covering do all birds have in common?
Learner-dependent answer. Note:Although almost all learners will say that
all birds have feathers, not many will be able to identify that birds' feet are
covered in scales like those on reptiles. If you are able to go outside to look
at some birds, try to see if you can take note of their legs and feet.
.
4. Is it accurate to say that birds have wings and can therefore fly? Explain
your answer. What would be a better way to write this statement?
Learners are required to evaluate a statement and give an explanation for
their evaluation. It is in fact incorrect to say that birds have wings to fly
since not all birds' wings are used for flying and many flightless birds exist.
Think of the emu, ostrich, penguin, cassowary, kiwi and rhea. A better
statement would be: Birds that can fly have wings to do so.
5. Study the pictures of these flightless birds and compare them with the
flying birds in the next column. Use the pictures to write a paragraph
explaining the observable differences between flightless and flying birds
and why you think these characteristics help some to fly and others not.
Flightless Birds Flying Birds
Ostriches An albatross
Penguins A hummingbird
...
78 Life and living

The ostrich is very big and has a heavy body with long legs. Its long legs
help it to run fast on land. It has wings, but its wings are small in
comparison to its big heavy body. The albatross is also a big bird but it has
a very large wing span relative to its body. The feathers in the albatross are
also small and lie close together to help the bird to fly. Whereas the ostrich
has many feathers, but they are big and loose and will not catch the updraft
of the wind. The penguin also has a. body shape which is not designed to
help it fly, but rather to swim. It has short, stubby wings, which are not VISIT
strong enough to lift it off the ground, but are useful for swimming. It is
An application for a smart
quite fat and heavy, but this helps to keep it warm in the water. The .
phone which helps you to
hummingbird is very light and has small wings which beat extremely fast,
identify all birds in South
allowing it to fly and hover. The hummingbird has wings designed to flap
Africa. bit.ly/178KinL
quickly in the wind as they are narrow and light, while the penguin has
fatter wings shaped like a paddle which are rather used for swimming. .
.
Mammals
Lions are mammals A warthog is a mammal
ACTIVITY: Identify characteristics of mammals

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work in groups of three to four.

2. You might have learnt about mammals in previous years. Work with your
.
group to brainstorm as many identifying characteristics of mammals that
you can think of. Study the diagram of the lion above for some clues.
3. List the characteristics that you can identify in the space below using one
specific colour.
4. As you learn more about mammals, add what you have learnt to this list in
a different colour. This will then provide a summary on mammals when you
have completed the section.
. .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learner-dependent answers. Note: After learners have generated their lists, you
should ask groups to share their characteristics with the rest of the class in
.. are included (although these would
order to insure that no false characteristics
provide a foundation for discussion as to why they are not identifying
characteristics for instance). Some characteristics that learners might identify
are: warm-blooded (endothermic), four limbs, sexual reproduction, live young,
hair on bodies.
Mammals are vertebrates meaning they have a backbone. Almost all mammals
are endothermic. This means they are also able to maintain (keep) their body
TAKE NOTE temperature at a constant level.
'Thermic' means to do with
Mammals give birth to live young which are fed milk. The milk is produced by
temperature and 'endo'
. the mother's mammary glands (in the teats or breasts). Mammals also have hair
means inside, so mammals
on their bodies. This varies greatly between mammals. Mammals also have
are endothermic as they can
teeth that look different in different parts of the mouth.
regulate their body
temperature from the inside.
Kittens drinking milk from the mother cat. A seal pup suckling from its mother.
All mammals breathe using lungs. Many mammals therefore live on land. Those
mammals that do live in water, like whales and dolphins, have to come to the
surface of the water to breathe.
Dolphins surfacing to breathe air
...
80 Life and living

bit.ly/13gvab1
ACTIVITY: Comparing vertebrates

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Use the table below to compare the vertebrates shown in the photos
based on the features in the first column.
Guinea Goldfish
Tortoise Chimpanzee Frog fowl
Fish
Class Reptile Mammals Amphibian Birds
slimy,
smooth,
Skin covering dry, scales Hair or fur . feathers scales
slippery
lays eggs
How babies lays eggs live birth lays eggs lays eggs
are born
in water
when in water
Habitat on land on land young, on on land
land when
older
ectothermic
Ectothermic ectothermic endothermic ectothermic endothermic
or
Endothermic
Young
drink milk
from the Live first Live only in
Scales and mammary stage in Have water, have
Distinguishing
lay eggs glands of water, then feathers. fins, scales
features
the mother on land and gills.
and have
fur
. .
Now that we have looked at all the classes of vertebrates, let's have a look at
the invertebrates.
Invertebrates
What should you look out for when you have to decide if an animal is an
invertebrate?
• All invertebrates lack a backbone. They either have a hard outer shell or a
fluid-filled structure that acts as a skeleton (for example jellyfish and slugs).
• All invertebrates are ectothermic.
Did you know that 97% of the animals on Earth are invertebrates? Due to the
huge diversity in the invertebrates, it can sometimes make classifying them a bit
tricky. The invertebrates are divided into several phyla. Some of the
invertebrate phyla are:
1. Molluscs (for example snails and octopuses)

2. Arthropods (for example insects, spiders and crabs)
3. Echinoderms (for example sea urchins and starfish)
4. Cnidaria (for example jellyfish)
5. Porifera (sponges)
6. Annelids (segmented worms)
VISIT 7. Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
. about the
Find out more
There are some other phyla too. As you can see, the invertebrates are a very
other phyla of invertebrates
large and diverse group of animals. We are mostly going to focus on the two
bit.ly/178L1FG
phyla Arthropods and Molluscs.
The word arthropod comes from two greek words arthron meaning 'joint' and
podos meaning 'leg', so together it means 'jointed legs'. Arthropods have an
exoskeleton and they have jointed (segmented) limbs.
Let's now find out more about Arthropods!
Arthropods
The invertebrates that fall into the phylum arthropoda, all have a hard outer
covering called an exoskeleton. The exoskeleton protects the animal and
provides a place for its muscles to attach and function.
ACTIVITY: Classifying arthropods

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If possible, collect different arthropods in a terrarium and have learners study
them with magnifying glasses as they work . through the activity. However,
photos have been provided if this is not .possible. Learners can still be
encouraged to study different arthropods in the school premises as they work
through the activities. If the school permits this, ask learners to walk around
school taking photos with cell phones or cameras of arthropods to share with
the class. If the school has access to an interactive whiteboard, put these
photos up and use these to complete this activity.
...
82 Life and living

INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the photos of different arthropods below

2. Answer the question that follow.
A spider A prawn
A butterfly A scorpion
A millipede A dung beetle
A crab A grasshopper
..
. .
A crayfish A centipede
QUESTIONS:
1. Study the bodies of each of these animals.

a) Describe how the bodies of the different arthropods look and if you
could touch it, what do you think it would feel like?
b) Do you think their bodies would be warm or cold?
a) They have hard shell-like bodies that look sturdy and inflexible; it
would possibly feel hard and would crunch if broken.
b) Their bodies would feel similar to the temperature of their environment.
2. Study the legs of the different arthropods.
a) Describe how the legs of the different arthropods look in general.
b) How are the legs able to bend?
c) One way to classify an arthropod is to count its legs and to group
these animals according to this. Count the legs on each of these
arthropods and write their names. in the appropriate column below to
see to which group they belong.
a) The legs are made of different parts that are joined together and are
mostly covered in the same hard exoskeleton as the body.
b) Where the pieces of the leg come together they form a flexible joint
that allows the leg to bend and move.
c) The learners' tables must look like this:
Diplopoda and
Crustaceans = 10
Insects = 6 legs Arachnids = 8 legs Chilopoda = many
legs
legs
Dung beetle
Crab, Prawn, Centipede
Grasshopper Spider, Scorpion
Crayfish Millipede
Butterfly
3. As you probably noticed, an arthropod's body is covered by a hard

exoskeleton. Explain how you think an arthropod can grow and get bigger
since the hard exoskeleton cannot grow with it.
It sheds the hard exoskeleton (outer skeleton) in a process called moulting.
4. What habitat would you say most crustaceans live in? How does this differ
from the habitat of the other classes of arthropods?
Most crustaceans are aquatic, either marine or freshwater. The other
classes mostly live on land, although many live near water.
5. Which class of arthropods has wings? Do all of the animals in the class
have wings?
Insects have wings. No, not all insects have wings.
.
...
84 Life and living

Molluscs
Molluscs are a very diverse phylum of invertebrates. They have a huge range in
body shapes and sizes. Molluscs are often given a general description which is
that they have internal or external shells and a single muscular 'foot'. However,
there are lots of molluscs which do not strictly fit this description, such as slugs.
The group of molluscs include snails, squid, octopuses, periwinkles, abalone,

mussels, oysters and other soft-bodied animals.
TAKE NOTE
. for "soft"
mollusc is Latin
which refers to the soft
bodies of molluscs.
A reef squid An octopus
VISIT
.
Video on nudibranch sea
slugs bit.ly/1euVRIX
A sea slug (nudibranch) The Blue Dragon nudibranch
VISIT
.
Video on Cuttlefish: The
chameleons of the sea
bit.ly/178LRlG
A cuttlefish Limpets in a rock pool
. .
An abalone A garden snail
ACTIVITY: Observing molluscs

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Carefully study the above photos of different animals that form part of the
phylum mollusca.
2. Answer the following questions.
QUESTIONS:
1. Identify some characteristics that molluscs have in common.

Molluscs have soft bodies, which are often slimy to touch. Most molluscs
have one or two hard shells to protect their bodies, sometimes the shell is
inside, like that of the cuttlefish, squid and octopus. Molluscs live in moist
environments, mostly in the sea.
2. Most of the molluscs shown in the photographs live in the sea. What do
you think would happen if these molluscs were exposed to the air for a
long time?
They would dry out and die.
3. Walk through the school garden and . see if you can find any garden snails.
If you do, or perhaps you have seen them elsewhere before, think about
their habitat. Describe the areas where you found snails.
Learner-dependent answers - they might say that they found more snails in
low-traffic areas and in shady, less-exposed places, often where it is damp
or under foliage.
4. If possible, collect a few snails to study in class. If you have a glass
terrarium or an old aquarium, keep the snails in there, or else keep a few in
large clean glass jars.
Note:In the last section of this term's work learners are going to study
variation and survival of the strongest / fittest. They will need snails for that
activity too, so if possible keep the snails from this activity for then. Just
make sure the lid is securely shut on the terrarium as snails will escape and
arriving to a slime-covered desk / class before school is no fun at all!
5. Carefully study their bodies and especially their long, slimy foot.
a) What do you think the slime is used for?
b) Describe how the snail moves.
c) How many tentacles (antennae) does the snail have? What do you
think these are used for?
d) What markings are on the shell? Why do you think the shell is marked
...
86 Life and living

in this particular way?
e) Try and see if you can find male and female snails. What conclusion
can you draw from this.
a) As the snail moves it leaves behind a trail of slime to make it easier for
the rest of the body to slide or glide over. This allows it to move easily
over any type of surface.
b) Muscles in the foot of the snail contract and relax causing it to move
along.
c) Snails can have one or two pairs of tentacles (antennae) depending on
the species (however they may be retracted). One pair of
light-sensitive eyes are usually on the longest pair of antennae and the
other pair of antennae are used. for smell and touch.
d) The snails' shells are marked to blend into their environment and to
break the outline of their shape to help to camouflage them.
e) Learners should say that they cannot see any difference and should be
able to conclude that either they only collected one sex or that snails
do not have a male and a female snail (which is in fact the truth). Most
land snails have both male and female parts. They are hermaphrodites.
When they meet with other snails during mating they will both
conceive and lay eggs, so double the number of offspring are formed.
6. Make a drawing of a snail. Include the following labels: hard shell, foot,
head, mouth, tentacle, eyespot.
Learner-dependent answer .
.
.
2.3 Diversity of plants
In this section we will take a closer look at the organisms in the plant kingdom.
So how do we classify plants?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This section guides learners as they investigate the plant kingdom by grouping
plants with seeds and those without seeds into two main groups.
Classifying plants
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As an introduction to the diversity of plants,
. you can do a short walk around
your school, aimed at developing a greater awareness of the plants in and
around the school, and specifically those that produce seeds and those that do
not. Also encourage learners to take note of leaf shape, size, flowers, etc.
VISIT
If you would like to join and
.
become a research scientist
We can easily compare plants based on their characteristics. For example, their
yourself, visit the iSpot
leaf size and shape, whether there are flowers or not and how the petals look,
website bit.ly/1beUSg3
the length and depth of the roots and the type of root system, and many others.
One particularly useful way is grouping plants according to how they reproduce
sexually. If we group plants based on the way that they sexually reproduce we
. .
can quickly see two distinct groups:
• Plants with seeds

• Seedless plants
A common fern in South Africa The structures that produce and

release spores on the underside of
a fern leaf
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If possible, pick some fern fronds to bring
. to school. You can also look for moss
growing in moist environments, such as under a dripping tap and pick some to
bring to class. You can then show learners the spore forming structures on the
underside of the fern leaves.
Plants that do not produce seeds include ferns, mosses and algae. These plants
produce spores. The spores often develop in structures found on the underside
of the leaves or fronds. The spores grow into new plants.
The photo on the left shows a close up of the underside of a fern leaf. Can you
see the clusters of capsule-shaped structures that form the tiny spores?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
A small hand lens is useful to examine the underside of the fern leaves (if
available).
The close up photo on the right shows a moss sporophyte. This contains the
spores of the moss plant.
Moss growing on the forest floor Close up of a spore-producing

moss plant
...
88 Life and living

Do you know what lichen is? You often see it growing on rocks and tree trunks. TAKE NOTE
Do you think lichen is a plant? Look at the photos of lichen below. Plants can also reproduce
asexually by making a clone
or copy of themselves. In
this way new plants can
.
grow from cuttings and
tubers (like potatoes),
frombulbs and rhizomes, or
from shoots and side
branches.
Lichen growing on a tree Lichen growing on an old tin drum
Lichen actually consist of two different organisms growing together! A fungus

and a green alga grow together in a symbiotic relationship. The fungus absorbs
water from the environment and provides the algae with an environment to
grow in. The green algae photosynthesizes, providing food for the itself and the TAKE NOTE
fungus. Why can the fungus not make its own food? Is the fungus a plant? Can .
Alga is singular and algae is
you come up with a definition for a symbiotic relationship? Discuss this with
plural!
your class and take some notes.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Discuss this with your learners. Encourage them to take notes in the margins of
their workbooks. A fungus is not a plant. Fungi are one of the five kingdoms of
organisms. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll and cannot photosynthesize. They
therefore need to obtain their nutrients from elsewhere. Ask your learners what
they think a symbiotic relationship is. A symbiotic relationship is one in which
one or both organisms benefit. A parasite . is something which lives off another
organism in some way and harms that organism. The relationship benefits the
parasite, but not the host. It is not mutually beneficial. On the other hand, the
honey bird and the badger, which learners may have learned about in Gr 6, both
benefit from their relationship. It is a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship.
Start by asking learners if the relationship between the fungus and the alga is
beneficial to one or both of them? Both the algae and fungus benefit from the
relationship. Therefore it is a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship.
The other group of plants produce seeds. These plants can either produce
seeds in flowers or they can produce seeds in cones. Most plants that you see
around you, produce seeds. Plants that produce seeds in flowers are called
angiosperms and plants that produce seeds in cones are called gymnosperms.
. .
This is a gymnosperm plant as it This is an angiosperm plant as it
produces seeds in cones. produces seeds in flowers.
We can therefore classify plants as follows:
Come back to complete this diagram once we have learned more about
angiosperms.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The words to fill in on the diagram are monocotyledon for one cotyledon and
dicotyledon for two cotyledons.
Seed-bearing plants
Gymnosperms
Have you ever seen a living prehistoric plant? If you thought about it, you
probably have without even realising it!
In South Africa we have plants called cycads that are often referred to as 'living
fossils'. Cycads grew in great numbers during the Jurassic period. They have
not been around for as long as ferns and algae, but they have been on Earth for
longer than all flowering plants. Flowering plants (angiosperms) evolved after
gymnosperms.
...
90 Life and living

VISIT
.
More information on cycads:
bit.ly/16CqjQu
A cycad with cones. Cycads at Kirstenbosch Gardens in

Cape Town.
Can you see the large cones in the photo of the cycad above? They are in the
centre of the plant. The cones are made up of many individual seeds. Look at
the following close up images of cones.
A cycad cone. A cone from a pine tree.
The word gymnosperm means 'naked seed'. Gymnosperms are considered to

have naked seeds as the seeds are not covered in a fruit, like we will see in
angiosperm plants.
Another gymnosperm which is

native to South africa, and
grown a lot in the Cape is the
Mountain Cypress, as shown in
the photo. They grow especially
well at high altitudes, such as in
the Cederberg Mountains.
A Mountain Cypress.
There are several species of gymnosperms which are not indigenous to South
Africa. What does this mean? Let's find out.
. .
.
ACTIVITY: Invasive plants in South Africa

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the following photograph of an invasive gymnosperm plant in South

Africa.
3. You will need to do some research in books and on the internet.
Pine trees in Tokai Forest, Cape Town.
.
QUESTIONS :
1. Find out what it means if a plant is indigenous to South Africa. Some

examples of indigenous plants in South Africa are aloes, acacia thorn trees,
strelitzia flowers, rooibos and the the king protea. Write a description
below.
An indigenous plant is one which occurs naturally in a particular
geographical such as South Africa.
2. What is an alien species? Why do we call it invasive? An example is the
Jacaranda trees with the purple flowers which are very common in Pretoria.
An alien species is one which is not indigenous to South Africa, or a
particular geographical area. It has been brought in by humans from
another part of the world. They are said to be invasive as they invade (take
over) the areas in which indigenous plants grow.
3. How do gymnosperm plants reproduce?
They reproduce by making seeds in cones.
4. In many parts of South Africa, plantations of pine trees are regulated so
that they do not impact on the biodiversity of the indigenous plants. But,
there are some forests of pine trees which are not used for timber
anymore. The Tokai Forest in Cape Town is one of these. Many mountain
bikers and runners enjoy doing their activities in this forest. The city of
Cape Town started to clear these trees in 2011 so that they could get
natural, indigenous fynbos to grow again. There was an outcry from some
people as they said their shady riding spot had been ruined. What are your
thoughts on this? Do you think Cape Town should be cutting down these
trees or not? Give reasons for your answer.
...
92 Life and living

Learner-dependent answer. Learners may either disagree or agree. There
are many viewpoints on this at the moment. Perhaps they feel that this is
one area which mountain bikers should be allowed to enjoy as a forest as
. in fynbos. Alternatively, they may
the rest of Table Mountain is covered
agree that we need to re-establish the local flora and fauna, and although it
may take time for a forest and shade to regrow, it will be better in the long
run from an ecological point of view. .
.
VISIT
.
Pretoria's Jacaranda trees
are an 'alien' problem.
Let's now take a look at the other group of seed-producing plants, angiosperms. (video) bit.ly/16HN2ss
Angiosperms
Angiosperms are flowering plants. They produce flowers which develop into
seeds that can grow into new flowering plants. We will learn more about
reproduction in angiosperms in the next chapter. Most of the plants that you
probably see around you in the gardens are flowering plants.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An idea to introduce this topic is to get sheets of paper and get learners to
brainstorm the names of as many flowering plants as possible that they know.
As many learners are not that familiar with
. the names of plants and animals in
their area, we encourage teachers to use this to add names of plants as learners
get to know them in this section. Encourage learners to review the chart they
make and to add to it as they go along. Try and identify as many local examples
as possible with your class. This is aimed at showing the diversity of flowering
plants in South Africa. You can even cut some flowers to bring in to class.
We can group flowering plants into two major groups:
• monocotyledons
• dicotyledons
All the angiosperm plants that we are studying have the following
characteristics in common:
• roots
• stems
• leaves
• flowers
• fruits
• seeds
A huge thorn tree does not look anything like a maize plant, yet they are both
flowering plants. They both have roots, stems, leaves and their flowers produce
seeds. So why can we group the one as a dicotyledon and the other as a
monocotyledon? Let's find out!
. .
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If possible, bring some examples of monocots
. and dicots into class for this
activity so that learners can study actual examples of the plants. Be sure to
include some wind pollinated plants that do not have obvious flowers, as many
learners don't realize that grasses form flowers.
ACTIVITY: Discovering the differences between

monocotyledons and dicotyledons
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the photos of South African monocotyledons and then dicotyledons.

2. Answer the questions which follow about each group.
Monocotyledons:
Maize Sugar cane

.
Agapanthas Bull rushes
QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the leaves of the monocotyledons in the photos. How would you
describe the veins in the leaves? Make a drawing to accompany your
description.
Learner-dependent answer. The leaves are generally long and narrow. The
veins run parallel down the length of the leaves.
2. Describe the stems. Are they woody stems or green (herbaceous) stems?
The stems are all green, with no wood. They are herbaceous.
3. Look at the following photos of typical monocotyledonous flowers. Count
...
94 Life and living

how many petals are on each flower. What can you generalize about the
number of petals (and other flower parts) in monocotyledonous flowers?
A disa Agapanthus flowers

The agapanthus flowers also have six petals, the disa has three petals. We
can say that in general, monocotyledonous flowers have parts in multiples
of three.
4. Many of the crops that we grow are monocotyledons, such as maize and
sugar cane. Name two others.
Some examples include: wheat, rice, oats, barley, sorghum.
Dicotyledons:
Plumbago bush. A geranium.
Fig tree. Protea bush.
QUESTIONS:
1. Describe the leaves of the dicotyledons in the photos. How would you
describe the veins in the leaves. Make a drawing to accompany your
description.
The leaves are varied in shape and size. They are generally broad and the
veins form a branching network across the leaves. ..
. .
2. Describe the stems. Are they woody stems or green (herbaceous) stems?
The stems are varied, some are green and some are woody, for example in
the tree species.
3. Look at the following photos of typical dicotyledonous flowers. Count how
many petals are on each flower. What can you generalize about the
number of petals (and other flower parts) in dicotyledonous flowers?
VISIT
Find out which of South
.
Africa's plants are most Geranium flowers. Plumbago flowers.
threatened and closest to
extinction bit.ly/16x8r7H
Hibiscus flower. . Hydrangea flowers.

The geranium flowers have ten petals, the plumbago flowers have five
petals, the hibiscus flower has five petals, the hydrangea flowers have four
petals. We can say the dicotyledons have flowers with parts in multiples of
four or five.
4. Look at the following image which shows the difference between

monocotyledonous seeds and dicotyledonous seeds. Monocotyledons
have one cotyledon and dicotyledons have two cotyledons.
Learners may be under the impression that the entire mielie pip is the
cotyledon.You may want to explain that the little "yellow bit" that can be
squeezed out of a maize pip is the cotyledon of the embryonic plant. The
rest is just stored food.
...
96 Life and living

5. Using the information you have discovered in this activity, complete the
following table to summarize the differences between monocotyledons
and dicotyledons.
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Two
Cotyledons One
.
The stems are herbaceous, The stems can be
meaning they do not have herbaceous or woody.
Stems
much wood, are often green
and soft.
Generally, the flower parts
Generally, the flower parts are in multiples of four or
Flowers five.
are in multiples of three.
.
.
. .
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• All the plants, animals and microorganisms and their habitats make up
the total biodiversity of planet Earth.
• Living organisms are sorted and classified according to their shared
characteristics.
• We use a classification system that groups living organisms into five
main groups or kingdoms: Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plants and Animals
• All living organisms have to perform the seven life processes and the
way in which they perform these help us to classify them into different
groups, putting plants into one group and animals into another for
instance.
• We can divide a kingdom into smaller and smaller groups, in this order:
phyla, classes, orders, families, genera and species.
• In the kingdom of animals, we can get two main groups of animals -
this with a backbone called vertebrates, and those without a backbone
called invertebrates.
• The vertebrates are divided into five groups: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles,
Fish and Amphibians.
• The invertebrates make up the largest group of animals and there are
many thousands of species. We also divide the invertebrates into
different groups or phyla like the arthropods, molluscs, sponges and
jellyfish, and many others.
• Arthropods all have a hard exoskeleton and jointed legs, such as insects,
arachnids (spiders) and crustaceans (crabs).
• Molluscs have a soft body with or without a shell, such as snails and
octopuses.
• In the kingdom of plants we also get two main groups: plants that
produce seeds and plants that do not produce seeds but spores.
• Seedless plants produce spores - like ferns and some mosses.
• Seed producing plants can be further divided into angiosperms (seeds
in fruit) and gymnosperms (seeds in cones).
• Angiosperms can be divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
• Monocotyledons have seeds that only have one part or cotyledon. Their
stems are herbaceous. The leaves are simple, long and narrow and their
flower parts are arranged in multiples of three.
• Dicotyledons have seeds with two parts or cotyledons from which
their tap root grows deep into the soil. Their stems can be woody or
herbaceous. The leaves are varied in shape and size and have a network
of leaf veins. Flower parts are usually arranged in multiples of four or
five.
. Map
Concept
This concept map shows how the concepts in this chapter on Biodiversity
link together. Complete the concept map by filling in the five Kingdoms
that living things are classified into, and also giving the two major groups
of angiosperm plants. Can you see how the arrows show the direction in
which you must 'read' the concept map?
...
98 Life and living

.
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Teacher's version: Remember that concept maps are different to mind maps in
that concept maps have a hierarchical structure and show how concepts link
together using arrows and linking words. Whereas mindmaps generally contain
.
a central topic and individual branches coming out which do not necessarily link
together. Mindmaps can also be a useful way of summarizing information and
studying, however, we are using concept maps as they help to show linkages,
which is very important in science. Help your learners to "read" the concept
map by showing them that the arrows show the direction in which concepts
progress and are linked to each other.
. .

.
REVISION:
.
1. Use the following diagram to fill in how we classify organisms. The first 3
have been filled in as we did not discuss domains in this chapter. You will
learn more about domains in later grades. [6 marks]
2. Which two levels of classification do we use to name an organism. What is

the correct way to write the scientific name of an organism? [3 marks]
We use the Genus and Species name. The correct name is the Genus must
have a capital letter and the species a small letter and it is in italics if typed
or underlined if handwritten.
3. Why was Aristotle's method of classifying animals as walkers, swimmers or
flyers not very effective? [2 marks]
As more animals were being discovered it became obvious that many
animals can fall into all of these classes and thus it was not a very accurate
method of classification.
...
102 Life and living

4. Use the following space to draw a classification diagram of the animal
kingdom. It has been started for you. You only need to include the phyla
and classes that we studied in detail. [11 marks]
The following gives an example of the animal classification learners could
have drawn.
5. Give one word for the following or complete the sentence required:
a) The existence of a large number of different kinds of plant and animal
.
species which make a balanced environment. [1 mark]
b) The animal kingdom can be divided into two main groups. [2 marks]
c) The five classes of vertebrates are: [5 marks]
d) The phylum of animals that have a hard exoskeleton. [1 mark]
e) The phylum of animals that have a soft body often protected by a
shell. [1 mark]
a) biodiversity
b) vertebrates and invertebrates
c) fish, amphibia, reptiles, mammals, birds
d) arthropods
e) molluscs
6. Write true or false next to each of the following sentences. If the sentence
is false, rewrite it so that it is true. [10 marks]
a) A small percentage of the living organisms on Earth are invertebrates.
b) Invertebrate animals do not have a backbone.
c) Spiders are examples of arthropods.
d) All molluscs have exoskeletons in the form of shells.
e) Birds only have feathers as their body covering.
f) Endothermic animals need to keep very still when it is cold.
a) False - A large percentage of living organisms are invertebrates; OR A
small percentage of the living organisms are vertebrates.
b) True
c) True
d) False - Molluscs typically have a hydroskeleton and only some have
shells.
e) False - Birds have feathers but also have leathery scales covering their
legs. (A body covering encompasses the entire body of the animal.)
f) False - An advantage of being endothermic is that the animal is able to
move when it is very cold unlike cold-ectothermic animals. ..
. .

7. Look at the following sentences and underline the one that best describes
mammals. [1 mark]
a) Mammals are animals that breathe, move, eat, reproduce and excrete.
b) Mammals are animals that can regulate their body temperatures.
c) Mammals are warm blooded animals that feed their young, have
special organs for breathing and a backbone.
d) Mammals are warm blooded animals with mammary glands, a hairy
body, lungs and a backbone.
e) Mammals give birth to live young, can be found living on land and in
water, and can sense their environment with well defined smell and
touch senses.
a) Too broad - all animals should be able to fulfil these if they are alive.
b) Too vague - birds and mammals can regulate their body temperatures.
c) Too vague - this can easily describe birds as well.
d) Learners should underline d.
e) Could describe a boa constrictor as well.
8. Describe how the seeds of angiosperms differ to those produced by the
cycads. [2 marks]
Seeds in angiosperms are enclosed in fruit; seeds of gymnosperms are
'naked' or on the cone itself. .
9. Use the following space to draw a classification diagram of plants. [10
marks]
Learners could produce something like the following.
Total [55 marks]
...
104 Life and living

3 Sexual reproduction
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
3.5 weeks
In Chapter 2 we looked at how to classify organisms, and at the diversity in

plants and animals. In this chapter, we will now focus on how angiosperms
(plants) and humans (animals) reproduce. A brief introduction and description
of asexual and sexual reproduction has been included. This is necessary so that
learners are aware that we are learning about one type of reproduction (sexual)
in different organisms, but that there are other groups of organisms that
reproduce asexually. The differences (and also similarities) in reproduction
between these two different systems will further highlight the diversity of
organisms on Earth. Sexual reproduction is studied again in Gr. 9 Life and Living
and so many of the concepts dealt with here will be reinforced later. One of the
aims of this chapter is to also educate learners about human reproduction so
that they can make informed and responsible choices regarding sexual activity.
3.1 Reproduction in Angiosperms (5 hours)
Growing, observing,
Activity: Growing a
measuring, recording, CAPS suggested
bean plant .
plotting graphs
Activity: Identify the

Identifying, describing,
outer structures of CAPS suggested
drawing, labelling
flowers
Activity: Flower Dissecting, observing,

Suggested
dissection labelling
Activity: Identifying Identifying, comparing,

CAPS suggested
pollinators describing
Activity: Studying the

Observing, writing,
flowers of wind and CAPS suggested
comparing
water pollinated plants
Activity: Article from Reading, identifying, Optional

'The Earth Times' interpreting, explaining (Extension)
CAPS suggested
Activity: Studying Identifying, classifying,
different kinds of seeds explaining
106
3.2 Human Reproduction (5.5 hours)
Activity: What happens CAPS suggested

Identifying, listing
during puberty?
Activity: Draw a Thinking, remembering, CAPS suggested

timeline of your life .
drawing, presenting
Reading,
Activity: Conduct a CAPS suggested
communicating,
survey
recording, discussing
Optional (Suggested)
Activity: Write a letter Thinking, writing
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
In angiosperms
• How do plants make seeds?

• What is the role of flowers in reproduction?
• Flowers come in so many different colours, shapes and sizes. So, are
there some structures that are common to all flowers?
• What is a 'pollinator'? Why are pollinators also important to humans?
Is the flower on a rose the same as the flower on a sweet pea or on a
daisy bush?
• Why are seeds in different shapes and sizes, or contained in fruits? Does
it have something to do with the way seeds are spread to new areas?
• Does fertilisation mean the same things in plants as it does in animals?
In humans
• Why is your body starting to change?

• What is puberty and what does it mean when we "reach puberty"?
• How is it possible that we all go through puberty at different times and
rates?
• What changes take place inside our bodies during puberty?
• What do our reproductive organs look like when they are mature?
• How does reproduction occur?
• What is menstruation and why does it occur once a month?
• How does a baby grow inside a woman's uterus?
• There is a lot of awareness now of HIV/AIDS and STDs, but what exactly
can we learn in Natural Sciences to help us lead a safe and healthy
lifestyle for the rest of our lives?
. .
Chapter 3. Sexual reproduction 107

VISIT
All living organisms on Earth need to be able to reproduce so that their species
A video on. asexual
reproduction bit.ly/18dp5dE does not become extinct. There are two basic ways in which reproduction can
take place:
• asexual reproduction
• sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction occurs when one parent organism makes offspring which
are identical to the parent. The parent organism therefore does not need to
mate to produce new organisms. Archaea, Bacteria, Fungi and Protists
reproduce asexually. Many plants and algae reproduce asexually and also some
animals, such as some species of insects, reptiles, sharks, snails and crustaceans.
These yeast cells are undergoing budding, a A mother aphid with offspring which were
type of asexual reproduction. Can you see produced asexually or sexually, depending
the smaller offspring 'budding' off the on the conditions.
parent?
In this chapter we are going to learn about sexual reproduction where two
parent organisms mate and their genetic information (DNA) combines to make
offspring which look similar, but they are not identical. Sexual reproduction
takes place in most plants and animals. We will look at flowering plants
(angiosperms) as an example of sexual reproduction in plants and at human
reproduction as an example of reproduction in animals.
3.1 Reproduction. in angiosperms
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As an introduction to this section, remind learners of the diversity and
.
classification of plants which was discussed in Chapter 2 and how angiosperms
fit into the classification. CAPS suggests that learners grow a bean plant during
this topic in order to observe the stages in the life cycle of angiosperm plants. It
is recommended that learners plant their seeds during the first lesson.
How do plants make new plants? In this chapter we will learn about how
angiosperm plants reproduce. Sexual reproduction in angiosperms results in
the formation of seeds. Under the right conditions, these seeds will germinate
and grow into a new plant.
...
108 Life and living

ACTIVITY: Growing a bean plant
.
MATERIALS:
• bean seed
• paper towel, toilet paper or tissue
• glass jar (or transparent plastic tub/ jar)
• water
• measuring tape or ruler
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Place some kitchen roll, toilet paper or tissue in your transparent jar.
2. Insert the bean into the paper and place it against the side of the jar so that
you can observe the changes that occur.
3. Add a little bit of water so that the paper towel is damp.
4. Place in an area which gets sunlight.
5. Add a little sprinkling of water every day to keep the paper towel damp.
6. Each day, starting on the day that you plant your seed, measure the length
of the bean or height of the bean plant and record it in the following table.
Day Height of plant (cm). Comment/ notes
10
11
12
13
14
. .

7. Take notes of your observations from day to day. For example, on what
day did your bean start to grow roots? On what day did the stem sprout?
When did you see the first leaf (or leaves)? How many were there and
what did they look like?
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the term for when a seed starts

. to grow?
Germination
2. What are the requirements for a seed to grow?
VISIT Moisture (water), warmth and light
. plant
Watch a bean 3. Use your table of measurement to draw a graph of plant growth (height)
germinate and grow. over the 14 days of your investigation.
bit.ly/14GGtYn
Now let's learn how plants make seeds. In sexual reproduction, half of the
male's and half of the female's genetic material (DNA) fuses (combines) to
create a new individual with the combined genetic materials of the parent
plants or animals. In most animals we can usually easily identify two sexes of
animals: a male or a female animal, which each have male and female parts. In
angiosperms, the flowers are the sexual organs of the plant. The flowers
produce male and female structures that can either be on the same plant or can
be on two separate plants. Let us have a closer look at the structures of flowers.
Flower structures
Flowers are the sexual organs of angiosperms. Many plants have both the male
and female reproductive organs in the same flower although some may have
male and female structures on different plants all together.
Flowers come in many different shapes, sizes and colours, as in the photographs
in the next activity illustrate, but there are components which can usually be
identified in all flowers. These are:
• peduncle
• receptacle
• petals
• sepals
• the male structures
• the female structures
Flowers are typically set on a stem which may be long and rigid like a rose or
agapanthas stem, or short and flexible like those on a petunia. The stalk or stem
of a flower is called the peduncle.
The receptacle is the top part of the flower stalk where the different flower
parts attach.
While the flower bud is forming, small green leaves protect and enclose the
young bud. These are the sepals. The sepals are often green and look like small
leaves, and since they are green they can also photosynthesise. Sometimes the
sepals may be the same colour as the petals, like in lilies or tulips.
Flower petals are usually the brightly coloured parts of the flower. They attract
...
110 Life and living

pollinators, such as insects and birds and also bats and mice. We will look more TAKE NOTE
at pollination a bit later. In some plants the petals are very small and may even Plants can be broadly
divided into gymnosperms
be absent. This is often because these flowers depend on the wind to carry the and angiosperms.
pollen away and therefore do not need petals to attract animals, such as Remember. that
angiosperms produce
grasses. flowers, and their seeds are
within a fruit, whereas
gymnosperms produce
seeds in cones.
Grass flowers.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Identify the outer structures of flowers

.
Rose. Water lilies.
Petunias.
QUESTIONS:
1. What do we call the part of the stalk where the flower petals and sepals
attach to the flower stalk?
Receptacle.
2. Explain why the petals on some flowers are brightly coloured while on
other plants we can hardly see the petals, and sometimes they are absent
altogether.
The brightly coloured petals attract pollinators. Plants pollinated by wind
do not need to attract insects or animals to pollinate them and thus do not
need brightly coloured petals. By not producing petals they can invest in
producing more pollen instead.
3. Study the photos of the different flowers above. Describe the outer
structures of each of these flowers based on their peduncles (stalks) and
receptacles, and their sepals and petals.
...
112 Life and living

Long straight peduncles (stalks) to hold the flowers high
up to the sun; green sepals to protect the buds; flower
Rose petals are bright to attract pollinators
Long straight peduncle, which is underwater and less rigid

than the sunflower so it can sway in the water; there is an
inner layer of white petals, and the outer layer are actually
Lily white sepals, and not petals.
.
Short peduncles that branch from a shrub; small green

sepals, large pink petals to attract pollinators.
Petunias
.
.
The structures of the flower that we have discussed here are on the outside.
The reproductive structures of the flower are in the middle of the flower.
Flowers can contain either male structures or female structures, or both.
Male reproductive structures

TAKE NOTE
. What are cells? Cells are the

smallest building blocks of
TEACHER'S NOTE
organisms. There are many
Cells have not yet been taught in Natural Sciences, but a general understanding different kinds
. of cells, for
is useful for this section to know what is .meant when males and female sex cells example, cheek cells, muscle
are referred to. A note has been included in the margin about cells, and it will be cells and nerve cells in some
beneficial to your class to introduce what cells are, even though they only animals; or leaf cells, root
formally study cells in Gr. 9 Life and Living. cells or petal cells in plants.
In this section, we will be talking about sex cells. These are either male or female
sex cells and only carry half the genetic material (DNA) of a typical cell. When
these sex cells fuse the two halves from the male and the female organism make
a new organism with the combined genetic material (DNA) from both.
The stamen is the male part of the flower. There are two parts to the stamen:
the anthers and the filaments on which the anthers rest.
Anthers produce the pollen that contain the male reproductive sex cells. The
male cells in the pollen is carried to the female sex cells and when they fuse they
will create a seed which can grow into a new plant.
Filaments are stalk-like structures that support the anthers. In some flowers the
filaments may be long and in others relatively short.
. .

The male structures are clearly seen in this close up photo of a flower with the anthers
TAKE NOTE covered in pollen and supported by the stalk-like filaments.
Each carpel consists of a
stigma, style and ovary.
Some flowers have one
Female reproductive structures
. have many.
carpel, and some
Therefore in some flowers,
the carpel and the pistil are
The pistil is the female organ of the plant and is usually at the centre of the
the same thing, but in
flower. It consists of a stigma, style and ovary. All the parts of the pistil work
others, many carpels make
specifically to help the plant receive pollen, transport it and have it fertilise the
up one pistil!
ovules (that contain female sex cells). Ovules become seeds after fertilisation.
The stigma is the structure that receives the pollen during pollination. It is on
top of a long narrow style and when it is ready to receive pollen it becomes
sticky providing a place for the pollen to stick to.
The style is a long tube that connects the stigma with the ovary and the ovules.
The style supports the stigma and holds it in the best possible position to
receive the most pollen grains. After the pollen has landed on the stigma, the
pollen grows long tubes called pollen tubes down through the style from the
stigma to the ovules in the ovary.
The ovary is the enlarged structure at the base of the pistil. It may be divided
into different parts (or locules) and produces the ovules that contain the female
reproductive sex cells. Within the ovule is the embryo sac. The embryo or tiny
seed will develop in here.
The female flowers parts making up the pistil.
...
114 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Flower dissection

.
MATERIALS:
• dissecting needle
• dissecting knife
• petunia or hibiscus flowers
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Petunia or hibiscus flowers work best for a dissection, however, you can use any
flowers from the gardens or surrounding. area that you are able to find. You can
watch the video of the flower dissection using a hibiscus flower in the visit link
provided prior to your lesson so that you know how to do the dissection and
guide learners.
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the following diagram of a flower. Use your understanding of the

outer structures of a flower to add the following labels: petal, sepal,
receptacle and peduncle. Once we have done the dissection, we will come
back to label the inner structures.
VISIT
.
Watch a flower dissection.
.
bit.ly/15yql7o
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners must make sure to label in the correct
. way, using a ruler to draw
straight, parallel label lines pointing and touching the structure to be named.
Take note that the receptacle label should point to the green bulge in between
the sepals and the peduncle label must point to the short stalk at the bottom.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A labelled diagram should look as follows:
2. Go out into your garden or explore the school grounds and surroundings
and select a flower of your own to dissect. If your teacher has petunias or
hibiscus flowers, dissect one of those.
a) First remove the outer sepals.

b) Then remove the petals. You have now exposed the ovary.
c) Identify the male and female structures. Label these on the diagram
above.
d) Using your dissecting knife or scalpel, cut the ovary in half.
e) Use the dissecting needle to carefully open up the ovary. See if you
can identify the ovules.
f) Label the ovary and ovule on the above diagram.
.
Now that we have learnt about the structures of flowers, let us take a look at
how flowers are pollinated.
Pollination
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Take note that learners may confuse the processes of pollination and seed
.
dispersal. Pollination is the process whereby the male pollen is transferred to
the female stigma in order for fertilisation to take place. Seed dispersal occurs
after fertilisation, and involves dispersal of the new seed (offspring) to a
location where it will not compete with the parent plant.
In order for a flowering plant to reproduce sexually, the male sex cells need to
fuse (join) with the egg inside the ovules. The stamen produces pollen that
...
116 Life and living

contain the male sex cells. The pollen grains are usually very small - about the
size of a speck of dust.
This person's hand is covered in millions of A photograph of a variety of pollen grains

tiny grains of pollen. from different plants taken under a very
strong microscope.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The image of pollen here is taken using a. scanning electron microscope. You VISIT
can mention this to learners, but they will only formally learn about different Watch some.fascinating
microscopes in Gr. 9 Life and Living. videos about pollination
bit.ly/18dpxZf or
bit.ly/148pQjS
Pollen from the stamen needs to be transferred to the stigma of the flower,
either on the same plant or another plant of the same species. This process is
called pollination. If pollination does not occur, there will be no fertilisation and
the plant will not be able to produce seeds or fruit.
Generally plants produce a large amount of pollen to maximise the chances of

the pollen being transferred to as many different stigmas on as many different
flowers (of the same species) as possible.
Can you identify the stamens covered in pollen and the stigma in this hibiscus flower?
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
There are numerous stamens covered in yellow pollen and the four 'stalks' with
rounded heads sticking out the top are the stigma.
TAKE NOTE
An adaptation refers to the
Pollination involves the pollen moving from the stamens to the stigma of the
way a behaviour or
. same or another flower. There are different ways that pollination of flowers can
particular structure of the
take place. For example, flowers can be pollinated with the help of the wind,
plant has changed (evolved)
water or animals. Angiosperm flowers have special adaptations which help a
over time to best perform its
specific type of pollination. Let us look at some of these methods for pollination
function.
and how flowers are adapted to promote pollination.
Pollination by animals
Animals that pollinate flowers are called pollinators. These animals come to
flowers to feed on the nectar produced by the flowers. As they are feeding,
pollen sticks to their bodies. When they move on to the next flower to feed,
some of the pollen rubs off onto the new flower parts. We call this process
pollination.
Can you see this bee has been covered in pollen as it is feeding on the nectar?
Since pollinators feed on specific plants, they usually travel from flower to
flower of the same species, therefore pollinating them effectively.
ACTIVITY: Identifying pollinators

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
.
1. There are many different types of pollinators, some of which are shown
below. Identify the pollinator in each photo in the table and write the name
on the line below. Answer the questions that follow.
...
118 Life and living

Moth Sunbird
.
Honey bee Beetles
Butterfly Bat feeds on nectar
QUESTIONS:
1. What do you notice about most of these pollinators? (Which type of

animal is most common?)
They are mostly insects. ..
. .

2. What do you think these pollinators are getting from the flowers that they
visit?
These pollinators are mostly feeding on the nectar, and also on the pollen in
some cases.
3. What do you think attracts insects to flowers? In other words, how do you
think flowers are adapted to attract pollinators to them? See if you can
think of three adaptations and list them below.
Flowers have large colourful petals to attract pollinators.
Flowers have sweet nectar for pollinators to feed on as a reward.
Flowers have a sweet scent to attract pollinators.
Note: A common misconception among learners is that they think flowers
make pollen for the insects. Insects, such as bees, do collect the pollen and
use it for the manufacture of the wax in their hives, but this is not why
flowers make pollen. Also, flowers do not make nectar for the bees, rather
you must stress that the nectar is made as a reward system for the
pollinator.
4. Flowers are also adapted so that

when the pollinators visit them,
they make sure the pollen rubs
off onto the pollinator to be
transferred to another flower.
Look at the following image of a
bird visiting a flower to drink
nectar. How do you think this
flower is adapted to make sure
that it is pollinated by the bird?
A bird drinking nectar from a flower.
The flower is long and thin so that the
. bird has to stick its beak down the
flower and then it will rub its head against the stamens containing the
pollen. The stamens and stigma are long and sticking out the top of the
flower so that they brush against the head of the bird when it is drinking
nectar and the pollen then either sticks onto the bird's head or some from
another flower is rubbed off onto this flower. The flower stem needs to be
strong to support the bird.
5. The following flower is called a

Voodoo Lily. Unlike the flowers
we have looked at so far which
give off a sweet scent to attract
pollinators, this flower gives off a
really bad smell, like rotting meat
or cow dung. The colour of the
petals are also dark, like meat.
This shows that different flowers
have adapted to different
pollinators. A Voodoo Lily.
What types of pollinators do you think will pollinate this flower? Hint: Think
of which insects you normally find when there is rotting food around.
Flies are attracted to rotting meat and so the most likely pollinators of this
flower are flies.
6. Work in pairs for the next 4 questions. Take a walk around your school
and identify plants that you think are pollinated by pollinators. Make a
drawing of at least 3 of these.
...
120 Life and living

7. Identify the common names of these plants and try to find the correct
scientific name.
Learner-dependent answer. Note: If possible, invite the school's
maintenance personnel to help learners identify the names of these plants.
Let them do an Internet search to find the scientific names or have
gardening books available in class for them to search in.
8. Explain how each of these plants' flowers have been adapted to be
pollinated by pollinators. .
Learner-dependent answer. Learners might refer to the brightly coloured
petals, strong scent, the specific length of the stigma, stamen, nectar
pouch, etc.
9. How could you easily distinguish which plants used pollinators to pollinate
them?
Learner-dependent answer. Answers should include an explanation that
these plants have brightly coloured flowers to attract certain insects for
example, a strong odour or perhaps a long nectar producing pouch. .
.
Pollination by wind and water
Many flowers are pollinated by animals, as we discussed in the last section, but
wind and water can also help pollination. Do you think plants that are pollinated
by the wind or water need colourful, sweet-smelling flowers with nectar? Why
do you think this?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Before going through the next section with your learners, get them to first think
about what the flowers of wind and water . pollinated plants will look like and if
they need the same or different adaptations to flowers that attract pollinators.
For example, wind and water pollinated flowers do not need to attract animals
so they do not need large, colourful flowers that emit scents. Wind pollinated
plants will need large amounts of very light pollen that is easily wind-borne.
There are some challenges that plants face if they rely on the wind or water for
pollination. These plants have adapted to overcome these challenges so that
they can be pollinated by the wind or water.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Studying the flowers of wind and water

pollinated plants
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some images are supplied here, but if possible, collect some grass flowers
beforehand and bring these to class. Alternatively, you could take a quick walk
around the school to see if there are any grasses or reeds growing nearby with
flowers that learners can observe. Learners can also do this in pairs and discuss
.
their answers with each other before writing them down.
Afterwards, go through the questions with the class. This activity relies on and
teachers learners making observations with real plants and flowers. Learners
must use what they have already learnt about the adaptations in plants whose
flowers are pollinated by animals. This will enable them to make
conclusions/deductions about the adaptations in wind-pollinated plants.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the following photos of the flowers of different types of grasses that
are pollinated with the help of the wind.
2. Answer the questions which follow.
In this grass plant you can see the small These white, feathery ends are the flowers
yellowish flowers attached to the green of this grass.
stem.
Can you see the small, brown flowers This image shows the silky female flower of
sticking up from the maize plants? These the maize plant.
are the male flowers of maize.
...
122 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Shown here are the male and female flowers. of the maize plant. If you wish to
do so, you can discuss cross pollination with your learners, meaning that the
pollen from one plant has to travel to the female flowers of another plant.
QUESTIONS:
1. Write a description of the flowers in the photos. Your description must

show that you have observed the colour of the flowers, the size, the shape
and how many there are on each plant.
The flowers are not colourful like the flowers that are pollinated by animals.
They are dull in colour (whites, browns and greens). The flowers are quite
small, but there are many flowers per plant. The flowers are mostly long and
slender and quite flimsy (loose). There are large number of anthers which
hang out of the flower so the pollen can easily be swept away by the wind.
2. Why do you think these flowers are not colourful like the flowers in the last
activity?
These flowers do not need to attract animals with their colourful petals as
they rely on the wind for pollination.
3. Do you think the flowers in wind pollinated plants produce nectar? Why do
you say so?
Generally these flowers do not produce nectar as they do not need to
attract animals to feed on them in order to pollinate them. They rely on the
wind.
4. What types of plants are generally pollinated by the wind?
Mostly grasses and reeds, and also many trees.
5. The flowers in these photos generally . produce a huge amount of pollen.
They produce much more pollen compared to the flowers pollinated by
animals. Why do you think this is so? Hint: Think of the chances of a flower
being pollinated by an animal which visits it to drink nectar, compared to
the chances of being pollinated by pollen that is carried in the wind.
Learners may battle with this question so you could discuss it as a class.
These flowers produce large amount of pollen as they cannot predict which
way the wind will blow, so the more pollen the greater the chances that
pollen will land on other flowers when carried in the wind. In flowers that
are pollinated by animals, the animals transfer the pollen directly from one
flower to the next, so they can produce smaller amounts. In flowers that
are wind pollinated, they have to rely on the chance that the wind will blow
and that it will blow in the right direction. The more pollen there is the
greater the chances of pollination.
Note: At this point you can also point out to learners that plants that are
wind pollinated often grow in large populations where the huge numbers of
plants increase the chances of these plants being pollinated (think of fields
of grasses or reeds or forests of trees).
6. In animal pollinated flowers, the pollen is often sticky and clumps together.
This is so that it sticks to the animal which is visiting the flower for nectar
and can then be carried to the next flower. In wind pollinated flowers, the
pollen is very different. The pollen is smooth and not sticky. It is also very
light and small. Why do you think this is so?
In wind pollinated flowers, the pollen needs to be carried by the wind as it
blows. Therefore, the pollen cannot be sticky, otherwise it will not be blown
off the flowers when the wind blows. it also must not clump or stick
together otherwise it will not be carried in the wind. The smaller and lighter
the pollen grains are, the further the wind can carry it.
7. The structures of the male and female parts in wind pollinated and animal
pollinated flowers are also different. For example, in wind pollinated plants, ..
. .

the stamens (male structures) often have much longer filaments and the
anthers hang down and can move easily. The stigmas (female structures)
are also often large and look like feathers, as you can see in the photos in
this activity. How do you think these adaptations of the stamen and stigma
help the flowers to be pollinated by the wind?
The long filaments of the stamens enables the anthers to be exposed to the
wind so that the can blow and move in the wind and easily release the
pollen. The stamens are large and feather-like so that they can 'catch' the
pollen in the air as it blows through. They are still light so that they can
blow and wave around in the wind.
8. Fill in the following table to compare the structures of wind pollinated
plants and pollinator (animal) pollinated plants.
Structure Wind pollinated plants Pollinator pollinated

plants
Petals Very small or absent Large, brightly coloured
petals that may be brown petals to attract insects
or dull green - do not
need to attract insects.
Scent No scent - do not need to Often specific scent to
attract insects. attract specific
pollinator.
Nectar No nectar - do not need Many produce nectar to

to attract insects. attract insects.
.
Amount of Very large quantities of Smaller amounts of
pollen pollen produced as there pollen produced
is a lot of wastage. because there is less
wastage than in wind
pollinated plants.
Structure of Pollen light and smooth to Pollen often sticky or

pollen travel on the wind and not spiky to attach to
clump together. pollinators.
Anthers Anthers loosely attached Anthers firmly placed

and dangle down inside flowers to brush
(mostly) to release pollen against pollinators.
easily into the wind.
Stigma Stigma is large and Stigma is inside the

feather-like to filter the air flower where the
and catch the drifting pollinator will brush up
pollen. against it and has a
sticky coating that the
pollen sticks to.
...
124 Life and living

Plants that are pollinated with the help of water usually live in water. We say
they are aquatic. When pollen is released it floats on the surface of the water.
The stigmas of the receiving plant are generally close to the water surface. This
is so that they can be pollinated when the pollen in the water washes up against
them.
Pollinators and us
Pollinators play an extremely important role in the life cycle of flowering plants.
These flowering plants include the crops that farmers grow for us to eat, such as
maize and sunflowers. Since angiosperms produce a very large amount of the
world's food crops, without pollinators, we would be without most of the food
crops produced for us to eat.
ACTIVITY: Article from "The Earth Times"

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Imagine it is the future - it is the year 2056!

2. Read the following article from a newspaper called "The Earth Times".
Loss of pollinators lead to crop destruction - third year of famine
23 May 2056
The loss of pollinators in Southern Africa, specifically wild bees and

butterflies, has lead to further crop failures three years in a row. Very
few viable seeds remain to plant the. next crop. The next crops planted
might be the last ones unless another means of pollination can be found.
The entire region has been severely affected by the sudden death of large
swarms of bees and butterflies in the past 5 years. Bees and butterflies,
that were once so common, are almost extinct.
One group of researchers have been working to preserve the last

remaining colony of bees. It was found hidden away in the mountains
of the Helderberg Nature Reserve. So far they report that the colony is
doing well and have added 127 new worker bees this week. It is hoped
more colonies will be found in other remote mountain regions.
The researchers are still trying to identify the cause of the extinction of
these insects. They think that the huge increase in air pollution and acid
rain has affected the wings and flight of these insects. They are therefore
not able to fly to food sources, such as the nectar of flowers, and then
die.
. .

The lead researcher, Dr Wimple, has indicated that they have wild bee
larvae from other parts of the world which were frozen several years
ago to preserve them. The team is now close to reintroducing these
bee larvae into the remaining colony. They hope this will increase the
diversity of the population. Dr Wimple's team is working closely with
other similar teams around the world to find a possible solution.
The team is also looking at ways to modify the crop plants to increase
how efficient they are at being pollinated by the wind, for example maize
crop plants. They hope that this will increase the production of maize.
They need to do this by changing the DNA of the existing crop plants.
This is called genetic modification. "It's a long shot but one we hope will
bear fruits" commented Dr Wimple.
Bees, and other pollinators, are dying due to air pollution.

.
VISIT
. QUESTIONS:
Pollinators and us. (video)
bit.ly/14J8Ms6
1. Find the following words in the article and underline them. Then look up a
definition for each word and write it down. Identify whether the word is a
noun, verb, adverb or adjective. Do not copy the definition word for word,
but write it in your own words.
a) famine:
b) failure:
c) severely:
d) extinct:
e) preserve:
f) remote:
g) diversity:
h) modify:
a) (noun) extreme hunger, starvation or lack (scarcity) of food.
b) (noun) when something does not work, and in this case, it specifically
refers to crops which have produced a small amount or not produced
at all
c) (adverb) very badly, or harshly
d) (adjective) the species has ended or died out, there are no more left
e) (verb) to keep something alive or make it last
f) (adjective) far away, out-of-the-way, away from human habitation
g) (noun) something that has variety and differences
h) (verb) to change
...
126 Life and living

Write down the title of this article.
Loss of pollinators lead to crop destruction - third year of famine VISIT
. about the
Watch this video
3.
2. What is the message that is brought across by the title and article? mysterious disappearance of
bees bit.ly/195ITRh
The loss of the wild bees, butterflies and moths has caused major food
shortages because they usually help pollinate the food crops; the message
might also be a warning to us to value our bee and butterfly populations
more, and to reduce air pollution.
4. Explain what the link is between the loss of pollinators and crop failures.
The pollinators are not around to pollinate the flowers of the crop plants.
Therefore, the flowers are not fertilised and can then not produce seeds.
There are then no seeds to plant the next crops for the next year, and
therefore there is less food for humans.
5. Which specific pollinators were lost?
Wild bees, butterflies and moths.
6. What reason did the article provide for the loss of these pollinators?
The air pollution and resulting acid rain damaged the wings of the
pollinators, who could not fly to reach nectar and therefore died of
starvation.
7. Explain at least two ways in which wind pollinated plants' structures are
adapted for wind pollination. .
Learners could mention:
• Anthers are carried on long filaments that hang down. This allows the
wind to move and carry away the pollen easily.
• Pollen grains are light and dry to prevent them clumping together and
are easily carried on the wind.
Female stigma is feathery and branched and acts as a filter trapping the
pollen that is blown through it.
8. How do you think the researchers could modify the crops' flowers so that
they are able to be pollinated more efficiently by wind?
Learner-dependent answer. Learners should make reference to the above
adaptations in plants which are already adapted to be pollinated with the
help of the wind.
9. Do you think the situation described in this article could happen in the
future? Write a paragraph where you explain your reason why.
Learners can either agree or disagree that this could happen in the future.
Their reasoning is important in this question. For example, they could
reason that it might happen as there is already lots of air pollution and it is
not decreasing so it could get to a level where it affects pollinators. Or else,
they could say that they do not think air pollution will get to the level where
it affects the flight of pollinators, or there could be other pollinators that
might not be affected, etc. .
.
Fertilisation
We have now looked at pollination, but what happens next? What happens
after the pollen lands on the stigma of the flower?
Do you remember that the pollen grains contain the male sex cells, and the
ovary contains the ovules or female sex cells. The male and female sex cells
each contains only half of the genetic material (DNA) from the parent plant.
After pollination, the male sex cell in the pollen grain needs to fuse with a
female sex cell in the ovary to produce a fertile seed. This is called fertilisation.
. .

TAKE NOTE In angiosperms, each pollen grain contains two male sex cells. See if you can
An ovary can contain more
identify the reason for this as you read through the steps for fertilisation.
than one ovule. If each ovule
The process of fertilisation in plants occurs in clearly defined steps:
is fertilised, then the fruit
.
will contain more than one 1. After the pollen grain lands on the mature stigma of a flower from the
seed. For example, think of same species, the pollen produces a tube.
an apple which has a few 2. This pollen tube starts to grow from the stigma and down the style. This
seeds inside the fruit. transports the male sex cells to the ovules.
VISIT
.
A simple animation of
fertilisation. bit.ly/17lTvt1
The pollen tube growing down the style to the ovary.
3. There is a small structure inside the ovule called the embryo sac. When the
pollen tube bursts into the ovule, one of the male sex cells fertilises the
female sex cell in the embryo sac.
4. This fertilised egg develops into a seed.
5. The other male sex cell joins with another cell in the embryo sac to form
the endosperm. The endosperm is the starchy food that is stored in the
seed once it has ripened. Later this food is used to feed the germinating
seed until it has formed leaves and can produce its own food through
photosynthesis.
6. The ovary then starts to swell and enlarge, and becomes a fruit.
Can you see the pollen tubes growing here from individual pollen grains?
After fertilisation, the ovule inside the ovary starts to develop into a seed and
the ovary wall becomes the rest of the fruit. There is huge variety in the types of
seeds and fruit in the world.
...
128 Life and living

This is one seed from the Coco de Mer plant Seeds from different orchid species. They
and it has been cut in half. are really small - like dust particles.
Think about all the different fruits that you can buy in the shops - there are
many different shapes, sizes and colours!
There are many colours, shapes and sizes of fruit!
So why do plants have so many different kinds of seeds and fruit? This is
because the seeds need to be spread to other areas to grow into a new plant.
The shapes and structures of seeds help with this, and so too does the fruit. We
say the fruit and seeds are dispersed. Let's look at some ways that seeds can be
VISIT
dispersed.
. on the
Interactive website
life cycle of plants
Seed dispersal bit.ly/15R4ZYX
Plants use different methods to disperse their seeds as far from the parent plant
as possible. Why do you think seeds need to be dispersed? Discuss this with
your teacher and your class and take some notes.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Hold a class discussion on why do seeds need to be dispersed. Learners must
be encouraged to take notes as they will have a question on this at the end of
the chapter. They will need to refer back to this discussion to formulate their
answer so it is important that they start .to learn to take notes. You can even
write down some of the main points on the board.
Some points for the discussion:
• It is important that seeds are moved to different habitats than those

directly around the parent plant.
. .

• If the seeds that are produced by the parent plant germinate and start to
grow directly under it, in some cases it may replace aging plants, but in
most cases it would be in direct competition with the parent plant for light,
minerals and water.
• When seeds grow too close to others, . they grow long and spindly to reach
enough light, making them weak and poor fruit producers.
• Therefore, in order to avoid being in competition with the parent plant and
to produce stronger plants, the seeds are dispersed away from the parent
plant with the hope that they will land in a 'better' habitat where they will
receive enough minerals, light and water.
Different plants have different ways of dispersing the seeds and fruit. Let's have
a look at some of these.
Gravity: Fruit can fall off a tree and roll as far as possible from the parent tree.
When the fruit has fallen it can then be taken further from the parent plant by
water, by rolling along the ground or by animals.
Animals: Animals may eat the fruit from the plant or the fallen fruit, and carry
the seeds in their digestive systems. The seeds have a tough outer covering so
that they are not digested by the animal. Some seeds also have spiky structures
that can stick to the fur of animals. They are then carried along as the animal
walks and drop off later.
Many wild animals love to eat the fruit from the marula tree, such as this elephant, which
has pushed the tree over to get to the fruit. The seeds are dispersed later far away in the
elephant's dung.
Explosive force: In some plants their seed capsules mature and then 'explode',
shooting the small, light seeds far away from the parent plant.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The cells along the opening are specially designed so they rip open with force.
(Three thickened walls and one very thin wall.)
...
130 Life and living

VISIT
The seed pods of jewelweed (shown on the left) explode when they are touched (shown Video showing
. how ripe
yellow woodsorrel pods
on the right) and shoot out the seeds to disperse them.
explode to release their
seeds bit.ly/14Apbii
Wind: Wind dispersal requires very light, small seeds that can be carried on the
wind. Some seeds have 'wings' like dandelion seeds that can be carried across
great distances by the wind.
Dandelion seeds are dispersed by the wind.
Water: Plants that grow in or near water use the water to disperse their seeds.
Mangrove seeds start to germinate while still on the parent plant, then drop into
the ocean and wait until the sea washes them onto a shore where they can
continue germinating and growing.
A mangrove seed floating in the water.
VISIT
Review all of .the different
Do you remember how we spoke about the different flower structures and how ways that plants can
they are adapted for pollination by either animals or wind or water? In the same disperse their seeds
bit.ly/1bf1nzm
way, the seeds and fruit are adapted for their method of dispersal.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Studying different kinds of seeds

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If possible, try collect some of these different seeds, pods and fruit before you
do this activity and bring them to class for learners to look at. They can also try
throwing up some of the seeds that are wind. dispersed to see how they move
through the air. This will help them understand the adaptations. Explain to your
learners how they should explain how something is adapted and how this
structure suits the function. The most common way to do this is to state the
structure and then state why this structure helps the function. This normally
takes the format of: The seed has 'x structure' so that it can do 'y function.'
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Look at the following table which contains different kinds of seeds. Each
one is dispersed in a different way.
2. In the second column, state how the seed or seeds are dispersed (for
example, by an animal, by the wind, by water etc.)
.
3. In the third column, write a couple sentences describing how you think this
seed is adapted for dispersal. You need to think about what would most
help this seed to be dispersed.
What adaptations does

VISIT Seed How is it the seed or plant have for
dispersed? dispersal?
Watch a video that
.
illustrates the different ways By an animal The seeds are within fruit
that plants can disperse (bird) (berries) which the bird likes to
seeds bit.ly/178UyMS eat. Therefore, when they bird
eats the fruit, the seeds pass
through the bird and are
dispersed far away in the bird's
droppings. The seeds are also
adapted by having a hard outer
coat which is not digested by
the bird so they can pass
through its system.
...
132 Life and living

By water These trees normally grow near
water so that when the seeds
fall off, they fall into the water
to be transported away. The
seeds are adapted by being
able to float (they are buoyant)
so that they can travel down the
river to a new place.
By wind The seed is very light so that it

can blow in the wind. It is
'feathery' so that it catches the
wind and can travel.
By explosive This seed pod might respond to

force touch to cause the explosion.
This is beneficial so that not all
pods explode at the same time,
but they do so in stages. The
seeds are small and light so that
. they can travel when they are
shot out of the pod.
By an animal These seeds have burrs (little

(dog) hooks) so that they can catch
onto the fur of the dog and
attach to the dog. As the seed
dries or it is brushed against
something else, they fall off.
The seeds are often in position
on a plant so that they are at a
height to brush against an
animal.
..
. .

By wind These seeds are sometimes
quite large, but still light so that
they can travel through the air.
The 'wings' are light and have a
large surface area to catch the
air and the seed spins as it
moves through the air enabling
it to travel further.
By explosive These seed pods explode when

force they become dry and crack
open. This makes sure the
seeds are ready to be
dispersed. The seeds are quite
small to be able to travel.
.
By an animal Acorns are dispersed by
(squirrel) squirrels who gather the nuts.
The nuts are tasty to the squirrel
so the animal collects them and
carries them to another place to
store them. Some acorns will be
eaten, but others will be buried
and forgotten by the squirrel
and will germinate and start
growing later on. Acorns are
also hard so that they can last a
long time in storage before
getting the chance to
germinate.
...
134 Life and living

We have now finished looking at how angiosperm plants reproduce. We are
now going to look at how animals reproduce. Specifically, we are going to look
at how humans reproduce so that we can learn about our own bodies and how
they function.
.
3.2 Human reproduction
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Be aware that learners might not feel comfortable discussing reproduction in
the classroom, and might laugh or make inappropriate jokes to conceal their
own discomfort.
Some tips for teaching human reproduction:
1. Respect your learners' questions and concerns. Some of them may not
have had an opportunity before to ask questions about reproduction,
especially if their parents have not felt comfortable discussing this with
them. This is a sensitive topic, and learners might be embarrassed to ask
questions. Encourage your learners to ask questions and not be inhibited
or embarrassed.
2. Discuss processes openly so that learners are comfortable within the
classroom environment to talk and learn about reproduction and how it
influences their lives. Discourage and discipline any laughing or
disrespectful behaviour from other students. Insist that learners use the
appropriate scientific terms when asking questions and having discussions,
as this should prevent some learners from being intentionally vulgar.
3. Possibly bring in a guest speaker. Learners
. might feel more comfortable
asking a stranger questions. Also, if you bring in an expert, such as a
gynaecologist or midwife, learners might take the subject more seriously.
It may be helpful to have someone from FAMSA come in and talk to the
learners. Trained FAMSA facilitators will divide the class into smaller
groups so that it is easier to ask questions.
4. If necessary, you can separate boys and girls. For example, if you are
showing a graphic video about the female reproductive organs, it might be
useful to have the boy watch a similar video in another room that explains
the male reproductive organs. It may be very helpful to divide the classes
into boys and girls at least once during the section so that learners can feel
comfortable asking questions that they do not feel comfortable asking in
front of their opposite-sex classmates.
5. Avoid portraying the reproductive system in a negative light or
"forbidden" as this will only add to some of the discomfort that learners
might already feel. At this stage in their lives, learners are already very
interested in reproduction and the changes that their bodies are going
through. This is natural and should be embraced so that they are educated
and can make informed choices about their sexual health going forward.
6. Here is a website to do some further reading: bit.ly/1cfWcTS and some
extra resources and pdfs can be accessed at bit.ly/19PWW09
If you look around at your Gr. 7 classmates, you will probably notice that your
friends, and you, have changed quite a bit since you started Gr. 1. Apart from
growing taller, changing hairstyles or changing the way you dress, your bodies
are changing and growing up. We say you are maturing.
Understanding the changes that occur in your body and more specifically
understanding why they occur, will help you to manage and cope in the next
. .

few years until you become a young adult.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It may be useful before starting this section to have a box where learner's can
put questions in advance of the lesson. Stress to learners that this is an
anonymous exercise and that they do not need to identify themselves. You can
then filter the questions in advance, and eliminate inappropriate questions, and
also pick up on problem areas, misconceptions and concerns of some of the
learners in the class who may be too shy to ask questions. You can then
attempt to address these anonymous concerns while covering the material in
this section. You can then ask the class in general what they might already
know about human reproduction. Bear in mind that some learners might
already know a significant amount, either from talking to their parents or from
their own explorations, and some learners might not know much at all. You
should point this out and let learners know that this is alright, and by the end of
this section they will all know the basics of human reproduction. By asking them
.
what they already might know, you are also encouraging them to start talking
about it in class and not to be embarrassed or make jokes or tease each other.
You can even ask some more basic questions, such as:
• Why do humans need to reproduce? (To produce children to continue the

existence of our species. This is different to asking why humans have
sexual intercourse, which is also for enjoyment with your partner.)
• Do you know how long pregnancy is before the baby is born? (9 months)
• What is the stage in your life called when you go through physical and
emotional changes as you become sexually mature? (puberty)
Learners have a right to their privacy during this section. Teachers should also
be aware and sensitive about possible victims of sexual abuse. It is also
appropriate in this section to emphasise to girls in the class that is is perfectly
okay to say "NO!" to persistent boys. Teachers should also encourage students
to wait until they are older to become sexually active.
Why do humans need to reproduce?

Humans need to reproduce to have children to continue the existence of our
species. As with angiosperm plants, humans reproduce sexually. This means
that human reproduction requires a male and a female and a new human being
is formed by combining the genetic material (DNA) from the parents. The child
will have half its genetic material (DNA) from its mother and half from its father.
In order for this to happen, the sperm (from the male) has to combine with the
egg cell (from the female) to produce a baby. Our sexual organs are adapted
for these functions.
Our sexual organs need to reach maturity. This takes place during a stage in our
life called puberty.
Puberty
When a boy or girl reaches a certain point of growth and development, the
sexual organs in the body also start to mature. Girls and boys do not, generally,
go through puberty at exactly the same time:
• Girls go through puberty between 10/11 - 14/15 years of age

• Boys go through puberty between 12/13 - 15/16 years of age
...
136 Life and living

During puberty, you will experience different physical and emotional changes as
your body develops towards sexual maturity and adulthood. Let's take a look at
some of these changes that take place during puberty.
ACTIVITY: What happens during puberty?

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Study the images above of a girl at 10, 12 and 17, and of a boy at 10, 12 and
17.
QUESTIONS:
1. Identify the changes that both go through during puberty and fill these
into the table.
Changes in the girl Changes in the boy
Changing body shape and figure

Body fat increases Changing body shape and figure
Breasts start to develop More muscular Penis grows
Facial features more mature bigger Facial features more
Hair growth under arms and on mature Hair growth under arms,
legs legs, face, chest Pubic hair starts
Pubic hair starts to grow to grow (Acne / pimples in some
(Acne / pimples in some individuals)
individuals)
2. Study the following graph and answer the questions that follow.
. .

What type of graph is this?
A line graph (or a growth curve graph)
Note: Make sure that learners are aware that this graph displays an
AVERAGE height. It does not just show a comparison between one girl and
one boy, but rather takes the average height of a large group of girls and a
large group of boys. Ask the learners why they think this is important.
(There will always be a few exceptions
. of older people who are shorter than
younger people, and girls who are taller than boys, but using the average
helps us to see the general trend that occurs in most people.)
3. What information is this graph providing?
The average increase in height of boys and girls between birth and 18 years
of age.
4. In a graph, there are two variables. The independent variable is placed
along the horizontal x-axis. The dependent variable is the variable that
changes according to the independent variable. It goes along the vertical
y-axis. Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable that
was used in this study based on the graph.
Independent variable: the age of the boys and girls
Dependent variable: average height increase
Note: You can explain to learners that the height depends on the age of
the boys and girls and so the height is the dependent variable. As children
grow older, they also grow taller, so height is dependent on age.
5. What is the unit of measurement that height is recorded in? What is the
unit of measurement for age?
Height is measured in centimetres (cm) and age is measured in years.
Note: Point out to learners that the axes of graphs must always have labels
and if there is a unit of measurement, this must always be included in
brackets after the heading.
6. Explain in words what you think this graph is telling us about how boys and
girls grow from 0 to 18 years old. Compare the two different lines for boys
and girls and see what you can tell from the average heights as they grow
older. Answer the following questions to help you interpret this graph.
a) There are two lines on this graph. What does each line represent? Use
the colours in your answer.
b) Why are the graph lines for boys and girls overlapping from 0 to 6
years old? What does this tell us about the height of boys and girls up
...
138 Life and living

until 6 years old?
c) After 6 years old, and until 10 years old, the graph lines for boys and
girls split. Which line is on top? What does this tell you?
d) At what age are boys and girls on average the same height again?
How can you tell this from the graph?
e) At age 18, are boys or girls generally taller? What is the average height
of boys and of girls at 18 years old? Read this off the graph.
Note: Interpreting graphs is a crucial skill in Natural Sciences. Learners
might find it hard to explain what they are seeing in this graph, so go
through the following steps in interpreting a graph.
a) The blue line represents the average change in height of boys as they
grow older. The red line indicates the average change in height of girls
as they grow older.
b) This means that boys and girls are on average the same height up until
6 years old.
c) The graph line for boys is on top. This tells us that between age 6 and
10 years old, boys are generally taller than girls.
d) Around age 10, boys and girls are roughly the same height again. This
can be read from the graph where the two lines cross (we say they
intersect). At around age 14 and a half, boys and girls are the same
height again.
e) Boys are generally taller than girls at age 18. The average height of
boys at 18 years is about 187 cm and the average height of girls is
about 171 cm.
Note: You may need to help learners and show them how to read the
values off the graph. They should use their rulers and draw a line across
from 18 years old to the y-axis to see where it intersects and make an
estimate of the height of boys and girls.
7. A growth spurt is when children grow . quite rapidly over the years, faster
than over other years. Answer the following questions to help you
understand this.
a) What can you use to identify a growth spurt in the graph? Hint: A
growth spurt means that the boys' and girls' height is increasing faster
than at other times.
b) On the graph, we can see that there is a growth spurt for girls and a
growth spurt for boys. Do the growth spurts take place at the same
age for boys and girls?
c) At what ages do the growth spurts take place for boys and girls?
d) Why do you think these growth spurts took place when they did? Hint:
Think back to the ages of puberty for boys and girls and how they
differ.
a) A sharp incline in the line of the graph indicates a growth spurt.
b) No.
c) Boys show a growth spurt between the ages of about 14 and 16. Girls
show a growth spurt between the ages of about 11 and 13.
d) These growth spurts correspond to the ages when girls and boys go
through puberty. Girls go through puberty slightly earlier than boys
and so the growth spurts take place at different phases.
8. Make an X on the graph to indicate where you are in this process according
to your age.
Individual learners to mark this on the graph.
9. Using the data on the graph, what changes in your height can you expect
to experience if you were to follow the typical growth trend?
10. Based on your family history and the height of other members of your
family, predict whether you will 'follow the curve' or whether you will be
shorter or taller than the average person your age?
Learner-dependent answer. ..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If you wish to challenge the students, ask them if they think this trend will
continue between the ages of 25 and 35? .. (No, height should remain stable),
What do they think they trend will look like between 65 and 85 (Older
individuals often lose a bit of height in old age as their vertebra compress (or
curve)).
VISIT
.
Learn more about puberty
The following table summarises some of the physical changes that occur during
for girls bit.ly/13J6Pcd
puberty.
Physical changes in boys during

Physical changes in girls during
puberty
puberty
• The sexual organs (vagina, • The sexual organs (testicles

uterus and ovaries) start to and penis)start to mature.
mature. • Pubic hair starts to grow on
• Pubic hair starts to grow on the genitals.
the genitals. • Fertility: the testicles start to
• Menstruation and fertility: produce sperm that can
girls have their first menstrual fertilise a female egg during
bleeding. Menstruation is a sexual intercourse.
sign that the ovaries have • Body shape: changes occur as
started secreting hormones the bones and muscle increase
and releasing eggs, and is to give the young man a
therefore a sign that the girl is stronger, more muscular look.
now fertile (able to fall • Voice changes occur
pregnant). becoming deeper and lower.
• Body shape: changes occur, • Body odour is typically part of
such as the waist becomes puberty as the skin produces
more defined and hips widen more oils and the smell of
(to make space for childbirth). sweat changes.
There is an increase in body • Acne and pimples can occur
fat. due to changes in hormones
• Breasts start to develop and increased oil secretion
• Body odour is typically part of from the skin.
puberty as the skin produces
more oils and the smell of
sweat changes.
• Acne and pimples can occur
due to changes in hormones
and increased oil secretion
VISIT from the skin.
.
Learn more about puberty
for boys bit.ly/1cNfFZQ
During puberty, many young people have commented that their emotions are
like a roller-coaster. This time in your lives is not only about growing up and
maturing physically, but also emotionally.
...
140 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You should check with the Life Orientation teacher at your school about what
learners are doing at this stage, particularly with reference to sexual maturity,
emotional changes and becoming self-aware. Some of the things which learners
will be experiencing are listed below. If time allows, you may wish to grant
learners 10 minutes for self-reflection. Perhaps send them outside to sit by
themselves in silence. After this self reflection exercise return to class and have
a discussion. You may wish to discuss some of these topics:
• Strong feelings: puberty is for many a time when they move between very
strong emotions; when these emotions last for more than a few minutes we
call these 'moods'. Perhaps they feel excited and happy the one minute
while they chat to friends but then walk home and arrive sombre, down
and sad for no particular reason. This may lead to feelings of anxiety and
frustration, which in turn leads to angry, emotional scenes with loved ones
like parents or siblings. Since young people going through puberty are still
learning how to deal with the many new feelings and emotions they are
experiencing, they find this time particularly difficult. This might be
alleviated as they learn to deal with conflict in a constructive way or they
might choose to remove themselves from situations where they feel that
there might be an emotional outburst that they cannot control.
• More sensitive: linked closely to the many new and perhaps uncomfortable
feelings, young people going through puberty might be more sensitive to
the actions and intentions of those around them and might often misread
facial expressions. This often comes across as being 'over sensitive'.
However, as they mature and learn .to 'read' or interpret facial expressions
and the body language of others more accurately young people soon
become better at interpreting messages and understanding the hidden or
figurative messages and learn how to respond to these in a more
controlled manner.
• More self-conscious: some young people going through puberty and
experiencing the different physical and emotional changes that this brings,
are more self-conscious than others. They become more concerned with
their physical appearance and tend to compare their bodies with those of
famous celebrities, their friends and role models. If they do not look or
sound the way they want to, this can affect the way they look at
themselves and feel about themselves, what we call their self-esteem.
• Looking for new experiences: with the many physical changes being
driven by the hormones in their bodies, young people going through
puberty are more likely to look for new experiences and unknown 'paths'
to explore. This may lead to dangerous, risk-taking behaviour that may put
the young person's life in danger or derail their future plans. As they grow
older, they start to learn to control these impulses and to make wiser
decisions.
• Exploring their sexual identity: during this time young people start to
form romantic relationships or go on 'dates'. Many young people prefer to
wait until they are older to engage in sexual relationships. However, many
others yearn for the thrill of a new experience and want to find out what
sex is all about. It is therefore very important that they first make sure they
know about the risks and take proper precautions to protect themselves
(and their futures) if they do decide to have sex. (Which is one of the aims
of this chapter!)
Many events are taking place in your life, so let's draw a timeline to show this!
. .

ACTIVITY: Draw a timeline of your life
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This can be a very sensitive task for learners to do, especially if they have
suffered trauma in their lives. You must approach
. it sensitively and cautiously,
making sure that learners feel comfortable with doing it. Some learners might
also not want their timelines displayed, so this should be a personal activity for
learners to do, without the pressure of having to display their timelines to the
class.
A timeline shows us a representation of .how time passes and the events which
take place.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Draw a personal timeline of your life so far.

2. You can include photos and pictures.
3. You can possibly include:
4. Your birth - where and when
5. Your first tooth, first word, first first step that you took, etc
6. Your different birthdays - perhaps you have some photos you can stick on
for some of your birthdays.
7. Your first day at school, playing a team sport, on stage as a performer, etc
8. Celebrations and memorable events in your life.
9. Locate puberty on your timeline.
Let us now take a closer look at the male and female reproductive organs that
mature during puberty.
Human reproductive organs

Puberty is a time when the human reproductive organs start to develop,
maturing about 5 - 6 years after puberty started.
In males, the reproductive organs include the penis and two testes hanging in a
pouch or bag of skin called the scrotum.
• At the start of puberty the scrotum starts to grow larger and pubic hair
starts to appear. The penis also grows bigger.
• Inside the scrotum, the testes mature and start to produce sperm.
When the male reproductive organs are mature in an adult, they will look as
they do in the following diagram:
...
142 Life and living

The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, two fallopian tubes
(oviducts) and two ovaries.
• Inside the girl's body the uterus becomes longer and the lining of the
uterus becomes thicker.
• When a girl is born she already carries millions of eggs (also called ova) in
two organs called the ovaries. During puberty, the ovaries mature, and
start to release one mature egg each month. This is called ovulation.
• Two tubes connect the uterus with the ovaries - these are called the
fallopian tubes or the oviducts.
When the female reproductive organs are mature in an adult, they will look as
they do in the following diagram:
We now know more about the male and female sexual organs and how these
organs mature during puberty. Let's take a closer look at human reproduction
and the different stages.
Different stages in human reproduction

Although you are not ready for the responsibility of having a baby and
parenthood, your body starts to prepare itself for reproduction during puberty.
The main purpose of the human reproductive organs is to produce a mature
sperm or egg that can fuse and create a new human baby.
Ovulation
Once a month, one of the ovaries in a girl or woman's body will release a mature
egg into the fallopian tube (oviduct). From here it moves to the uterus. During
this time the uterus develops a thick lining of blood in preparation for the
possible arrival of a fertilised egg.
. .

Fertilisation and pregnancy
In order for a baby to develop in the mother's uterus, the egg needs to be
fertilised. During sexual intercourse, the male ejaculates (releases) millions of
sperm into the woman's vagina. From the vagina, the sperm travel into the
uterus and up into the oviducts and to the egg cell.
The sperm reach the egg cell, and only one of them enters through the outer
layer of the egg cell. The layer then hardens and no other sperm are allowed to
TAKE NOTE enter. This moment, when the male sperm and the female egg cell fuse is
.
You are 100% unique - there referred to as the moment of conception, or fertilisation, and this leads to
is no one like you on Earth!
pregnancy as the baby starts to develop.
Only one sperm will fertilise the egg cell. The other millions will not be able to enter.
Once the egg cell is fertilised, it continues its journey to the uterus. When it
arrives in the uterus, it is safely attached in the thick lining of the uterus. The
foetus starts to grow and develop. An umbilical cord grows between the foetus
and the uterus. A placenta forms to supply food and oxygen to the developing
baby and to remove waste. The developing foetus receives food and oxygen
from the mother through the placenta and umbilical cord.
TAKE NOTE
If the mother consumes
drugs and alcohol while she
is pregnant, these harmful
substances will also pass
through the placenta to the
.
baby. They can cause serious
damage to the baby. For
example, if a pregnant
mother drinks alcohol, the
baby can develop Foetal
Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). A baby developing inside the mother's uterus. Can you see the umbilical cord?
At the end of pregnancy, the mother gives birth to the baby through the vagina.
Sometimes there are complications and the doctors perform a Caesarean
...
144 Life and living

section. this is a surgical procedure where a cut is made in the mother's
abdomen and the baby is removed.
As we have seen, if the egg is fertilised after sexual intercourse, the mother falls
pregnant. But what happens to the egg if it is not fertilised?
Menstruation
After ovulation, if the egg in the oviduct does not fuse with a sperm and
fertilisation does not take place, then the egg cell will still travel down to the
uterus. But instead of implanting into the uterine wall, the unfertilised egg cell
will be discarded through the vagina, together with the thick blood-rich uterus
lining that had developed in case of fertilisation. This is called menstruation.
Do you know what a myth is? A myth is a story that may or may not be true.
Often, myths are quite old stories that are passed down from one generation to
the next. Myths are often told and people believe them even when there is no
proof that they are actually true.
One such Greek myth is about a lady called Medusa. She had hair made of real
snakes and could turn anyone into stone if they looked directly at her. One day,
the hero Perseus fought her and rather looked at her reflection in his shield. He
was protected from her deathly stare and managed to cut off her head and kill
her.
Do you think the myth about Medusa is true?
There are many myths about menstruation and sex which are told by people in
our society. A lot of these myths are not based on proof. Now that you know
more about human reproduction, you need to decide if these stories and myths
are true or not. Let's discuss this some more.
. .

.
ACTIVITY: Conduct a survey

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This should be done as a homework assignment in the lead up to the lesson
about menstruation. The questions can then be answered in class and discussed.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Read some of the following comments people have made about

menstruation and sex.
2. As a homework assignment, read these to at least five separate members
of your family and friends.
3. Make a small cross if the person thinks it is not true and tick if they think it
is true or correct.
Myth Responses (tick or cross)
.
"Women who are menstruating are dirty
and unclean."
"During your period you should never

have cold food or walk with bare feet. If
you get cold your period will be worse."
"Exercise is bad for you when you

menstruate."
"Don't ever swim when you are having a

period!"
"Virgins cannot use tampons - they will

lose their virginity."
"It is unhealthy to have sex at the time of

the month when you are menstruating."
...
146 Life and living

Myth Responses (tick or cross)
"You cannot fall pregnant during your

period."
"You cannot fall pregnant or make

someone pregnant if you have sex in
water."
"Women are always moody and irrational

during menstruation."
"Drinking and drugs make sex more fun."
"If you have a shower after sex, you will

not fall pregnant."
"You cannot fall pregnant if it is your first

time."
.
"Everyone is having sex."
TAKE NOTE
QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION: .
A virgin is someone who has
not had sexual intercourse.
1. How many people in the homework survey believed that the comments
were in fact true?
About half believed
they were true and None believed they
Most believed they
the other half were true
were true
believed they were
not.
2. Discuss with your class which of the comments were most widely believed
to be true by the people you surveyed. Take some notes on the following
lines.
3. Which of these comments had the strongest reaction from the people you
surveyed? (Either positive or negative reaction.) Discuss their reactions
with your class. Take some notes on the following lines.
Learner-dependent answer. ..
. .

4. Did anyone laugh at any of the comments? Which ones? Did they tell you
why they laughed? Share this with the class.
5. Which of these statements do you think are true? Discuss this with your
class and take some notes on the following lines.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You should go through each of the myths to show that they are in fact all myths
- they are NOT true. Read through these explanations and refer back to them
during your discussion with your class.
"Women who are menstruating are dirty and unclean ."
• Women are not dirty and unclean during menstruation as menstruation is a

perfectly natural process. Some people do believe this for religious
reasons and you should be sensitive to their religious beliefs, while still
stating that women are not "dirty".
"During your period you should never have cold food or walk with bare feet. If
you get cold your period will be worse."
.
• This is not true. The uterus is the organ that controls menstruation and
cold feet or food have nothing to do with the uterus.
"Exercise is bad for you when you menstruate."
• Menstruation is a normal, natural function of the body and not in any way a
.
disability. Therefore you should continue with life as if nothing out of the
ordinary is going on.
"Don't ever swim when you're having a period!"
• If using the right protection (tampons) there is no reason why girls should
not be able to swim while they are having their periods.
"Virgins can not use tampons - they will lose their virginity."
• Virginity is about whether a woman has had sexual intercourse or not.

Long ago, a woman's virginity used to be assessed by whether her hymen
was intact, as this breaks during sex. However, nowadays, there are many
times in a girl's life when her hymen can break without having sex, such as
by using a tampon or horseriding, or by doing gymnastics or ballet. This
does not mean she has lost her virginity.
"It is unhealthy to have sex at the time of the month when you are
menstruating."
• Although some people might find it off-putting, there is no medical reason

why sex should be avoided. It is not unhealthy or unclean. It is the personal
preference of the couple.
...
148 Life and living

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
"You cannot fall pregnant during your period."
• There is a chance that you can get pregnant if you have sex during your
period. Once in the vagina, sperm can stay alive for several days. That
means that, even if the last time you had sex was three days ago during
your period, you could now be ovulating and therefore you could get
pregnant.
"You cannot fall pregnant or make someone pregnant if you have sex in
water."
• This is not true. The water does not in any way prevent pregnancy, or the
spread of STDs.
"Women are always moody and irrational during menstruation."
• Many women (not all) experience different pre-menstrual syndrome

symptoms, which can include emotional changes, but this is not always so,
and a woman's mood or emotional state should not automatically be
attributed to PMS. After all, teenage boys can be similarly moody and
emotional. .
"Drinking and drugs make sex more fun."
• If you are drunk or on drugs, it is hard to make good decisions about sex.
20% of 15 to 17 year-olds say they have done something sexual while using
alcohol or drugs that they might not have done if they were sober. At the
time, it may seem like fun and a good idea, but it also means you are much
.
less likely to practice safe sex and could then fall pregnant or contract an
STD. Being under the influence of drugs or alcohol also makes girls more
vulnerable to unwanted approaches.
"If you have a shower after sex, you will not fall pregnant."
• This is not true. The water will not 'wash off' the sperm. The sperm have
already entered the vagina. As with STDs, showering after sex will not
prevent pregnancy nor the transmission of STDs.
"You cannot fall pregnant if it is your first time."
• If you are ovulating, it does not matter if it is the first time you have sex,
you can still fall pregnant. if your body has produced an egg during
ovulation there is no reason why sperm will not fertilise the egg and result
in pregnancy, even if it is the first time you are having sex.
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
"Everyone is having sex."
• To learners it may seem like everyone is having sex, but in reality, less than
half (48%) of all high school students have ever had sex. Point out to
learners that people often lie and exaggerate when it comes to sex. But,
also point out that in the end it does not matter what others are doing and
who is telling the truth or not, it matters what is best for you. Partners may
apply pressure by saying things like "If you love me, you will". However, a
truly loving and committed partner will wait until you are ready.
..
At the end of this lesson, you should make a point of discussing derogatory
words that are used with reference to women and men. It might be useful to
brainstorm bad name choices and to discuss the use of the correct terminology
to avoid this.
If there are different cultural and religious groups in the class, it might be an
opportune time to discuss religious laws and views on menstruation and what
girls in the class experience as part of this group. However teachers should be
very careful to not degrade or embarrass girls that act in accordance to the
religious beliefs of their families but should instead create an open and caring
space where learners can discuss this.
Ways to prevent pregnancy and STDs

As we discussed above, your body prepares itself to reproduce during puberty.
However, you are in control of your body and can make the decision when you
are ready to become a parent and to fall pregnant.
If you decide to become sexually active, it is important to think very carefully of

two risks involved in sexual activity:
1. Pregnancy
2. Being infected by a Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) like HIV/AIDS,
Herpes or Syphilis.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Teenagers may be more frightened by a possible pregnancy than by
.
contracting a STD. This is a sad fact, as some STDs are incurable and
life-threatening. It is useful to point out to learners in this section, that hormonal
contraceptive pills DO NOT protect against STDs and that a mistake made when
they are young may affect the rest of their lives.
There are different things that you can do to prevent pregnancy.
...
150 Life and living

Contraceptives
TAKE NOTE
To avoid falling pregnant, you can use contraceptives. There are different
contraceptives available today. They prevent the sperm from reaching the egg . against, so
'Contra-' means
contraception means against
and thus prevent fertilisation from taking place. Or else, they can prevent the
conception
fertilised egg from implanting in the uterus wall.
Male condoms are rubbery sheaths that are placed over a man's erect penis
before sex, and are worn during sexual intercourse to prevent the sperm from
entering the woman's vagina. Condoms also help to prevent the spread of STDs.
Female condoms also prevent the sperm from reaching the egg. However these
are placed in a woman's vagina to act as a barrier to the sperm, and are much
less commonly used.
Oral contraceptive pills are used by many women today. Many of these prevent
ovulation. Pills need to be taken at the same time every day, otherwise they are
not effective. If the woman has an infection with a high temperature, or is on
antibiotics, this may also reduce the pill's effectiveness. While the pill is
excellent at preventing pregnancy, it offers NO protection against STDs.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
There are various very dangerous and harmful diseases that are spread from
one person to another during sexual intercourse. Some of these are
life-threatening, like the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), while others
cause very painful and long-term symptoms.
You can prevent yourself from being infected with an STD by doing the
following:
• Get the facts: Make sure you know up-to-date information about STDs and
how they are spread, their symptoms and how you can protect yourself
during sexual intercourse.
• Take control of your sex life: The more sexual partners you have, the
higher your risk will be of contracting an STD.
• Be faithful: If you or your partner has sex with someone else you risk
infecting the other person with the STD.
• Using condoms significantly reduces the risk of contracting STDs.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You may want to point out to learners that due to the way that STDs are
transmitted from person to person, when . having sexual intercourse with a
partner you are putting yourself at risk of catching disease from them, or ANY
of their previous sexual partners, who in turn could have contracted an STD
from any of their sexual partners etc.
It is your decision whether you want to participate in sexual intercourse with a

romantic partner or not. There are two very important points to remember here:
1. No one, no matter who they are, has the right to force you or pressure you
to have sex with them or with anyone else. Therefore you are the only one
who should be permitted to decide when you are ready to have a sexual
relationship.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Emphasise to learners that if someone is forcing you to have sex with them or
.
threatening you in any way to have sex with someone else, you have the right to
say no. Our country's constitution protects your right to say no. If this is
happening to you, go and speak to someone you trust and ask them to help you
solve the problem.
2. If you decide to have sex, you should do so in a responsible manner. This

includes protecting yourself against possible pregnancy and against any
STD infection.
TAKE NOTE
.
If you have been a victim of TEACHER'S NOTE
sexual abuse you can receive
guidance and help by Emphasise to learners that when you decide that you want to have sex with
. at 0800
contacting Lifeline someone, go and speak to a medical professional
. like the sister at your local
150 150. The Lifeline website clinic or the health care professional that works at the pharmacy. They will help
for victims of sexual abuse you get the correct contraceptives and protection that you need. Emphasise
can be found at http:// that it is not only boys who can carry condoms. Girls can carry condoms too. If
www.lifeline.co.za/ girls have condoms available, then they can INSIST on using protection.
need-support/rape/.
...
152 Life and living

.
ACTIVITY: Write a letter

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This activity is designed to empower the. learners to take charge of their own
sexual health. This is therefore a very personal activity and should not be for
assessment purposes. Learners may choose to keep their letters entirely private.
So often we make promises to other people and work very hard to keep them,
. we often neglect to honour these.
but when we make promises to ourselves
Write a letter to yourself in which you explain what you want to do with regards
to sexual activity. Do you want to engage in sex or do you want to wait until
you are older? Explain why you made this decision.
Then add to your letter what you promise yourself that you will do to protect
yourself from contracting an STD or from a pregnancy before you are ready to
be a parent. Explain how you see yourself practising responsible choices
regarding sex.
Put your letter in a safe place at home where you can often see it to remind
yourself of your promise to yourself. Remember this is a private letter and you
can choose whether you want to show it to anyone else or not.
. .

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• Sexual reproduction occurs when a sperm and an egg from two people
combine to make offspring which look similar but not identical to the
parents.
• In angiosperm plants, seeds are produced in the flowers.
• The male structures of flowers are the anthers and filaments, making up
the stamens.
• The female structures of a flower are the stigma, style and ovary,
forming the pistil.
• Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther of one
flower to the stigma of another flower of the same species.
• Pollination is assisted by animals (pollinators), the wind and/ or water.
• Pollinators play an important role in the production of crops for humans.
• The pollen grows a pollen tube down the style to deliver the pollen
nucleus to the ovules in the ovary.
• The fertilised ovules become seeds and the ovary may swell to form a
fruit.
• Seeds are dispersed in various ways by animals, the wind, water and
explosive force.
• In humans the main purpose of reproduction is for the sperm and egg
to fuse and develop into a baby during pregnancy.
• Puberty is the stage in the human life cycle when sexual organs mature
for reproduction.
• During puberty, boys and girls experience physical and emotional
changes.
• The male reproductive organs include the penis and testes that produce
sperm.
• The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, oviducts and
the ovaries.
• The ovaries produce one mature egg each month during ovulation
which is then transported to the oviduct.
• If sexual intercourse takes place, the sperm travel to the egg and one
will fuse with it in the process of fertilisation.
• The fertilised egg then moves to the uterus, is embedded in the lining
of the uterus and grows for approximately 9 months before the baby is
born.
• If fertilisation does not take place the egg moves to the uterus from
where it is discarded in the vagina. The uterus lining is broken up and
discarded through the vagina during menstruation.
• Pregnancy and STDs can be prevented mostly by wearing a male
condom.
. Map
Concept
Study the concept map below. Does it make sense to you? Are you starting
to see what concept maps do? To complete the concept map below, fill in
the blank spot. Look at the concept it is linked to in order to find the answer:
'In humans, fertilisation is prevented by …....'
...
154 Life and living

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Study the following diagram of a flower and the reproductive parts.

Provide labels for numbers 1-12. [12 marks]
.
1: petal 7: sepal
2: stigma 8: ovules
3: style 9: ovary
4: filament 10: anther
5: receptacle 11: pollen grain
6: peduncle 4 + 10: stamen
. .

2. Describe the function of the following structures: [5 marks]
Structure Function
petal bright coloured structure that attracts pollinators
the part of the ovary of the flower that contains

ovules the female sex cell and that becomes the seed after
fertilisation
fine powdery substance that contains the male sex cells

pollen that are transported to the stigma, and burrow down the
grains style to the ovules where fertilisation takes place
stalk-like structure of the stamen that holds and

filament supports the anther
tope part of the flower stalk to which all the other flower
receptacle parts attach
3. Look at the following image of a bat busy drinking nectar from the flower.
.
How is this flower adapted for pollination by the bat? [3 marks]
A bat drinking nectar.
Some of the points that learners could note are: The flower is brightly
coloured and probably gives off a sweet smelling smell to attract the bat.
The flower has nectar for the bat to drink so that the bat comes to the
flower. The flower is also probably open at night as the bat is nocturnal.
The flower has a similar shape to the bat's head so that the bat can fit easily
into the flower to reach the nectar. But the flower is still big enough with
the nectar at the bottom so that the bat has to stick its whole head in and
therefore brush against the pollen. The stamens are long and have feathery
ends which brush against the bat as it sticks its head into the flower. This
...
158 Life and living

makes sure that pollen is brushed off onto the bat as it sticks its head in
and the pollen can then be transferred to another flower when the bat visits
that flower.
4. Look at the following image of the seed. How do you think this seed is
dispersed? How is this seed adapted for this kind of dispersal? [3 marks]
A seed.
This seed is dispersed by wind. Learners may point out some of the
following adaptations: This seed is large, but it is very light as the 'wings'
are very thin, so that it can travel on the wind to be dispersed. The seed has
'wings' which help it move through the air like a helicopter. This helps it to
move to a spot away from the parent tree so that it can grow somewhere
else and not compete with the parent tree for space, water, etc. This also
helps it to be lifted up by a draft of air, otherwise if it was just the small
central brown seed without the wings, . it would just fall directly down from
the tree/plant.
5. A Gr. 7 learner was trying to explain the process of the human reproduction
cycle, but they muddled up the order of the cycle. Write numbers 1 - 6 to
place their sentences below into the correct order. [3 marks]
The sperm arrive in the oviduct.

During sexual intercourse, the sperm is propelled from the penis.
One sperm enters the outer cover of the egg to fertilise it.
The fertilised egg is implanted in the uterine lining.
The sperm travel from the vagina, through the uterus to the oviduct.
The egg is released from the ovaries and travels along the oviduct.
4 The sperm arrive in the oviduct.
2 or 1 During sexual intercourse, the sperm is propelled from the penis.
5 One sperm enters the outer cover of the egg to fertilise it.
6The fertilised egg is implanted in the uterine lining.
3 The sperm travel from the vagina, through the uterus to the oviduct.
1 or 2 The egg is released from the ovaries and travels along the oviduct.
6. Explain the difference between ovulation and menstruation. [2 marks]

Ovulation: when the ovary releases a ripe egg cell into the fallopian tube.
Menstruation: when the blood-rich lining of the uterus and unfertilised egg
cell is discarded through the vagina.
7. Once an egg is fertilised, where is it implanted or embedded? [1 mark]
In the blood-rich lining of the uterus.
8. The reproductive organs are structured in a very specific way - to make
fertilisation and pregnancy possible. Explain the function of each of these ..
. .

structures in the male and female bodies. [12 marks]
Reproductive Their function

organs
Ovaries Produces female sex hormones and stores,
matures and releases ripe egg cells.
Oviducts Transports the ripened egg cell from the ovary

to the uterus; fertilisation takes place in the
fallopian tubes (oviducts) so sperm swims
from the uterus into the fallopian tube
(oviduct).
Uterus Once a month the lining of the uterus grows

blood-rich and thick to allow the fertilised egg
to implant in it and to grow an umbilical cord
and placenta; uterus also undergoes strong
contractions during childbirth.
Vagina Muscular, elastic tube that can expand to hold

the erect penis; sperm swim from the penis in
the vagina to the uterus; it also allows the
blood-thick lining of the uterus to be expelled
once a month during menstruation; during
childbirth it is the birth canal through which
the baby travels
. and leaves the mother's body.
Penis Can become erect (stiff and hard) to be

placed into the vagina; ejaculates sperm in a
liquid called semen; urine is also passed via the
urethra.
Testes Produce the male hormone; produces sperm

that travel through different tubes to the penis
from where it is ejaculated.
9. During puberty the penis and testes develop and mature to fulfil their
function in reproduction. Explain what changes occur and why these
changes are necessary. [2 marks]
The penis grows longer and slightly wider; it begins to ejaculate preparing
for reproduction. The testes mature and start to produce sperm which can
fertilise an egg.
10. Explain what changes occur inside the ovaries of a girl during puberty and
why these changes are important for reproduction. [2 marks]
During puberty, the ovaries are stimulated to start maturing and releasing
the eggs on a monthly basis. The fertilisation of a mature egg by a sperm
cell is needed for pregnancy to occur.
11. A Gr. 7 learner was asked to define the terms puberty, menstruation,
fertilisation, pregnancy and conception. First evaluate how well they
defined each of these terms and then correct or improve their definitions
in each case. [10 marks]
...
160 Life and living

Term and definition Evaluation Improvement
Puberty: when you Vague and not Puberty is the time
grow up. accurate; you grow during childhood
up from birth to when the sex organs
adulthood. mature and the body
undergoes various
changes preparing it
for reproduction.
Menstruation: when a Vague, inaccurate - if If there is no

girl bleeds. a girl cuts or hurts fertilisation, the
herself she may also female's blood-rich
bleed but not as is uterus lining and
meant here. unfertilised egg are
discarded through the
vagina once a month.
Fertilisation: when Wrong context - that When a male sperm

you put stuff into the is called fertilise
. the cell fuses with a
garden to make it garden. female egg cell.
grow better.
Pregnancy: when the Inaccurate - it is not The period

mom's stomach the stomach that (approximately 40
grows and a baby grows, but the baby weeks) from
pops out. in the uterus. And a conception to birth,
baby does not 'pop where the foetus
out' develops in the womb
or uterus.
Conception: when Inaccurate - life starts The moment that

the baby starts to for some at different fertilisation takes
come alive. points place when the male
sperm fuses with the
female egg cell and
forms a new
individual.
Total [55 marks]
.
.
. .

4 Variation
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
1 week
In the last chapter for this term, we will be looking at variation within a species
and what this means. Learners have already learnt how to classify organisms
using shared characteristics down to the species level. But, it is important for
learners to understand that even within a species, the individuals are different.
These differences are called variation. As we have not yet learnt about cells and
DNA, this chapter will not look at the genetic basis for variation, but rather focus
on the fact that there are differences between individuals in the same species,
and that some of those characteristics are inherited (passed down from one
generation to the next). We will also introduce the concept of natural selection
in which a particular variation can make an organism better suited (adapted) to
a particular environment. This is crucial to the survival of the species, especially
as environments can change. Learners will be introduced to DNA in Gr. 9, and
only if they carry on with Life Sciences in Gr. 10-12 will they look at DNA,
meiosis, variation, natural selection and human evolution in detail in Gr. 12.
4.1 Variation within a species (1.5 hours)
.
Activity: Small, big,
long-haired, Remembering,
short-haired, black, identifying, describing, Optional (Suggested)
white, brown or explaining,
spotty?!
Measuring, recording,
Activity: The height of plotting graphs,
CAPS suggested
learners in your class comparing, calculating,
discussing
4.2 Inheritance in humans (1.5 hours)

Thinking, observing,
Activity: What is your recording, calculating,
CAPS suggested
inheritance? comparing, drawing,
labeling
Activity: Natural
selection in the Reading, explaining Optional (Extension)
peppered moth
162
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• Are all dogs part of the same species if there are so many different sizes,
shapes and colours?
• What about humans? What does it mean that we have different skin
colours, heights and other differences if we are all part of Homo sapiens?
• What does variation mean?
• What causes variation?
• Why is it important that we study variation?
.
4.1 Variation within a species
In the last chapters we looked at how to classify organisms on Earth. Do you
remember what the classification levels are? What is the smallest group in the
classification system?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The classification system is: Kingdoms, then phyla, then classes, then orders,
then families, then genera and the smallest group is species.
A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed with each other to

produce fertile offspring. In this section you will learn why the ability to create a
fertile offspring is the single most defining characteristic of a species.
Wherever organisms in a species live, they need to survive in those conditions.

We say they are adapted to their environment. Those individuals of a species,
which have characteristics that make them more successful at surviving, will
reproduce more and pass on their characteristics to their offspring. However,
environments change over periods of time. This means that the species needs
to constantly change over time to better survive the conditions of their
changing habitat. If the organisms do not adapt to their environment, they may
not survive, and the species will die out. But how do species adapt? Does it
happen quickly or over a long time?
What does variation mean when we use it in Natural Sciences? Let's take a look
at some animals with which we are all familiar to find out what variation means.
. .
Chapter 4. Variation 163

.
ACTIVITY: Small, big, long-haired, short-haired,

black, white, brown or spotty?!
.
Do you have a dog, or have you seen some dogs in your neighbourhood? Think
of those dogs, and use the following image to answer the questions.
QUESTIONS:
1. What kingdom of animals do dogs belong to?

The animal kingdom.
2. What phylum do dogs belong to? Why . do you say so? Give a reason for
your answer.
Dogs are from the phylum Chordata as they are vertebrates, having a
backbone and internal bony skeleton.
3. What class do dogs belong to? Give three reasons why you would classify
dogs in this class.
Dogs are mammals as they are endothermic (warm-blooded), they have
fur, they have mammary glands, they give birth to live young.
4. Look at the dogs in the above picture and write down some common
characteristics of the animals.
Some common characteristics include: four legs, fur, tail, sharp teeth, snout
(elongated nose), pointy ears, paws with claws, a snout.
5. Do you think these dogs are part of the same species? How would you
know? Discuss this with your class and teacher.
Yes, they are. All the different types of domestic dogs can reproduce with
each other to create offspring. The ability to reproduce and have fertile
offspring is the definition of a species.
6. Although these dogs share many characteristics, there are many
differences between them. What are some of these differences?
Some differences include fur colour, fur length, body shape, body size,
length of legs, length of tails, length of snout, shape of ears, etc.
7. Another example of variation is

horses. Horses all belong to the same
species as they can mate and
produce offspring which are fertile.
This means their offspring are able to
reproduce. But there are many
different colours and sizes of horses.
... A white horse with a brown foal.
164 Life and living

Horses and ponies are from the same species. But what about donkeys?
If a horse and a donkey mate, they

are able to produce offspring, but the
offspring are infertile. They are called
mules or hinnies. Do you think
donkeys and horses are the same
species? Give a reason for your
answer.
.
A donkey
Horses and donkeys are not the same species as they are not able to
produce fertile offspring which can reproduce.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Both belong to the family Equidae and the genus Equus, but they are different
species. The domestic horse is from the .species Equus caballus and the
domestic donkey is from the species Equus asinus. This question was included
to reinforce the concept of a species being organisms which can reproduce to
produce fertile offspring.
.
.
All living organisms that reproduce sexually produce offspring that are different
from the parent organisms. Remember that we learnt about sexual
reproduction in angiosperms and humans in the last chapter. This allows the
new organisms to be different to other organisms within the same species. We
call this difference variation. As we saw in the last activity, all dogs on Earth are
actually the same species, as well as horses, but there are huge differences
between all the individuals. We say there is variation.
Even animals from the same

litter or children from the
same parents have
differences. Take a look at
the kittens in the box below.
They are all from the same
litter so they share the same
parents, but they all look
Three kittens from the same litter different.
but they all look different!
. .

All humans on Earth are from the same species, and yet there is huge variation
among us. Look at the following photos of people from around the world.
A Tibetan girl. A Swedish man. A schoolgirl in Congo.
An Indian lady. A Cambodian boy. A Dutch girl.
A Masai warrior in Kenya. A Chinese soldier. An English boy.
An Iranian woman. An Ethiopian man. A Peruvian woman.
...
166 Life and living

Humans are all one species. Do you remember what the species name is for
humans?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Homo sapiens.
South Africa is an amazing example of diversity amongst our people. Just have
a look at your class and how much variation there is between all of you in one
class. Some learners may be tall and others may be shorter, some have dark
hair, some have blonde or brown hair, and there is a range of skin colours in
South Africa. Since you are all from the same species this is another example of
variation. Let's have a look at how your class varies in height.
ACTIVITY: The height of learners in your class

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As a homework task, outlined in question 4 below, learners need to measure the
heights of some of the adults in their family. First ask learners if this is possible.
You can either get learners to do this the day before you do this activity and
bring this information to class with them. so that you can finish the activity and
discussion off in one lesson, or you can do the activity, then complete the
homework task afterwards.
If measuring adults in their family might be awkward for some learners

(culturally, no adults at home or other difficulties) then you could arrange to
.
measure the height of the Grade 6 and Grade 9 learners as an investigation.
MATERIALS:
• 2 m measuring tape
• pencil, table drawn on scrap paper and clipboard to work on
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Attach a measuring tape or similar apparatus to a wall in your class.

2. Learners who are having their length measured must be barefoot and must
place their heels against the wall, standing up straight against the wall.
3. Learners who are taking the measurement must stand on a chair and place
a ruler or pencil horizontally on the person's head (and flatten the hair)
when taking the measurement.
4. Another learner should record the name and height of each learner.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This activity could be used to introduce the concept of reliability in scientific
investigations. Explain to your learners that sometimes mistakes creep into our
scientific measurements and we record the . wrong results. We overcome this by
repeating the same experiment a few times and if we get the same (or very
similar) results we can trust our results as being reliable. To illustrate this you
can set up a couple of measuring stations where learners can take turns being
measured and taking the measurements. Each learner can be measured 3 times
and then you can calculate an average.
5. Use this method to record the height of each learner in the class.
6. Draw a table to record the measurements.
7. Represent these results on a bar graph in the space provided.
Use the following space to record the heights of learners in your class in a table.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
If you have a big class, you can divide learners up into groups of 10 and they can
just record the heights of their group and use this to draw a graph.
Now use this information to draw a graph to represent the information. You will
need to draw a bar graph. Think about what must go along the horizontal x-axis
and what must go along the vertical y-axis. Remember, the x-axis is for the
independent variables and the y-axis is the
. dependent variable. Give your graph
TAKE NOTE a heading.
Do you remember how to
calculate an average? You .
.
need to add up all the TEACHER'S NOTE
individual measurements,
Guide learners through this activity to draw
. a graph. The learners' names are
then divide by the number of
the independent variables in this activity and so their names must go along the
learners you have measured.
x-axis. The heights are dependent on the learner so the height goes along the
y-axis.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As an extension, you can draw a histogram graph to illustrate the difference
between these two types of graphs. To do
. a histogram graph, you will need to
create ranges of heights and then count how many learners fall into each range.
The height ranges go along the x-axis and the number of learners that fall into
each category goes along the y-axis. Using this graph, you can easily see what
the most common height range in the class is.
QUESTIONS:
1. Who is the tallest and who is the shortest in your class?
Class-dependent answer.
2. What is the average height of all the learners in your class? Use the
following space to show your working for this calculation.
TAKE NOTE Learner-dependent answer.
A correlation is a ...
.
relationship between two or
more sets of measurements
168
or objects (items or things). Life and living
3. What is the average height of the boys and what is the average height of
the girls? Use the space to show your working.
4. As a homework activity, measure the heights of some of the adult
members in your family. Record these heights in the following space to
discuss with your class the next day.
5. Discuss these results with your class.
a) Do the shorter people in your class also have shorter family members
and do the taller people in your class also have taller family members?
b) Is there a correlation (relationship) between the heights of learners in
your class and the adults in their family?
c) What other similarities are there. between family members?
d) Write down some notes from your class discussion below.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This discussion is meant as an entry point into the next section on inheritance.
We will do one more short activity on similar characteristics between family
members, before looking at inheritance in
. more detail. Use this discussion as an
opportunity to introduce the concept of correlation. See if you can find some
examples of correlation between the tallest learner in the class and the heights
of his or her family members and the shortest learner in the class and the
heights of his or her family members to illustrate that height is a trait that is
often passed down in families.
.
.
We have now seen that there is huge variation between all the people on Earth,
and even in your class. But, there are also lots of similarities, especially between
family members, such as height and skin colour. These characteristics (or traits)
are passed down from one generation to the next in a family. We say they are
inherited traits. Let's look at this a bit more.
.
4.2 Inheritance in humans
We say that certain traits are passed down from generation to generation over
many years, from parent organisms to their offspring. This is called inheritance.
There are some traits which are very easy to see how they are inherited, such as
skin colour or height. Did you know that some people are able to wink with one
eye but not with both? Or that others can only see some colours but not all the
colours - this is called colour blindness. Let's find out a bit more about some of
these inherited traits.
ACTIVITY: What is your inheritance?

. .
1. Think about your most recent family event or family photo. Is there
something that you all have in common? It can be something about your
. .

physical appearance, or your behaviour or something that you can each
do. Discuss any inherited traits or characteristics that get passed down
from generation to generation in your family.
2. One of the very interesting inherited traits is the ability to roll your tongue.
Can you roll your tongue?
Can you roll your tongue? Can your family members roll their tongues?
3. There are many other traits and abilities that are inherited from our
parents, that they inherited from their parents, which they inherited from
their parents and so on. Below is a table detailing some of these traits.
4. Count how many people in your class can do each or have each of these
traits or characteristics. .
5. Record the number of learners in your class who have each characteristic.
6. Calculate the percentage of learners that have this characteristic.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You may need to help learners to work out the percentage. To calculate the
percentage, you need to:
.
• Add up the number of learners with a particular characteristic
• Divide that number by the total number of learners tested
• Multiply that number by 100.
• Draw a bar graph to show the percentages of learners who have each of
the characteristics.
Characteristic Illustration Number of Percentage of

learners with learners with
the the
characteristic characteristic
Tongue rolling
...
170 Life and living

Thumb shape Hitchhiker
thumb:
Straight thumb:
Dominant hand Right-handed:
Left-handed:
Attachment of Attached
earlobe earlobe:
Unattached
. earlobe:
Dimples
Second toe Longer second

length toe:
..
. .

Vulcan sign
.
TAKE NOTE
When you have collected all the data and have worked out the percentage of
We can use the word learners that have a certain trait, draw a bar graph in the space provided.
inheritance in different Remember to label your graph and to give it a heading.
ways. When someone dies
they may leave an
.
inheritance of money, a
home, car or other
TEACHER'S NOTE
. physical
belongings to their children A possible homework activity: Use the above characteristics and see what
.
or other people. In Science, family members at home can do and if they share the same characteristics or
inheritance is how parents not. Calculate the percentage of family members that can roll their tongues or
pass on traits or not.
characteristics to their
children.
.
How does variation in a species help it to survive?
Natural selection
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
VISIT
Watch a video that explains This section is extra information and not. crucial for you to go through with your
how natural selection works
bit.ly/17zOR9R .
learners if time does not permit. But it links well with what learners will do in
later grades if they carry on with Life Sciences.
Afterwards, experiment with
.
natural selection by
controlling the environment
Have you ever heard the saying: "survival of the fittest or strongest"? This
and causing changes in
refers to the way in which the organisms are able to survive in their
rabbits. (simulation)
environments because they have adapted the best or they have certain
bit.ly/15zeea9
characteristics which allow them to survive better than others.
Survival refers to the characteristics that allow the members of a species to

thrive and reproduce successfully so their advantageous characteristics are
passed on successfully. Thus over generations the entire species can survive as
the majority of its members happen to have inherited the advantageous
characteristics.
For example, imagine some impala in one group in a game reserve started to
develop a characteristic, which was passed down from the parents to the
offspring, allowing them to run faster for longer. The impala in this group can
then run faster than the impala in another group. Over time, the faster impala
will be able to escape the predators such as cheetahs and lions more often and
...
172 Life and living

so they will live long enough to reproduce and raise their offspring successfully.
They will therefore pass on the swift running characteristic. The slower impala
will get caught more often and so they will not survive to produce offspring.
The slower impala are slowly removed over time. The characteristic making
some of the impala faster allows those impala to survive and pass this trait on to
their offspring. This is the principle of natural selection.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Visit the PhET website for ideas on how to construct a lesson around the
simulation on Natural Selection identified here in the visit box. 1 bit.ly/15zeohI
Let's look at a famous and interesting example of how variation in the peppered
moth allowed for natural selection.
ACTIVITY: Natural selection in the peppered moth

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This is an extension activity that you can do with your learners if they have time,
or get them to do it as a homework activity.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Read the following information about the peppered moth.

The peppered moth's story of evasion
The peppered moth has been studied in a lot of detail over the past 200 years
as it has a very interesting evolution over a short time period. Originally, most of
.
the peppered moths were a light, speckled colour, as you can see in the top
moth in the image.
This colouring allowed the moths to be

camouflaged when they rested upon
the light-coloured trees and lichens in
their habitat. However, not all the
peppered moths were this light colour.
There was some variation and there
were a few which were a much darker,
grey colour. They could not camouflage
themselves as well as the light coloured
one. The darker coloured moth is The light and dark variation in the
shown below the lighter coloured moth. peppered moth.
During the Industrial Revolution in England, there was a huge increase in the
number of factories. These factories mainly burnt coal as an energy source,
which increased the amount of pollution and soot in the air. The pollution
. .

caused the lichen on the trees to die off. The soot coated the trees in the
peppered moths' habitat. These trees now did not have any lichen and they
were a dark grey colour because of the soot covering them.
The light coloured moths were therefore not camouflaged anymore and could
be seen easily by predators when they rested on the trees. As a result, more of
the light-coloured moths were eaten by birds and didn't have a chance to mate
and lay eggs. Therefore the number of light-coloured moths decreased. In
comparison, the few moths that were a dark grey colour were now at an
advantage as they were now the same colour as the soot covered trees and
could hide. These darker-coloured moths could therefore go on to have more
offspring. Over time, this resulted in more and more of the moths being
dark-coloured.
QUESTIONS:
VISIT
. game and
Play the evolution 1. When the moths land on the trees and they are camouflaged, what are
hunt for peppered moths! they hiding from?
bit.ly/178YdKJ The camouflage helps them to hide from predators such as birds which eat
them.
2. Why do you think there were only originally a few of the dark coloured
moths, and there were lots of light-coloured moths?
The light-coloured moths were originally dominant. The dark ones were a
variation which started to develop. But, originally, they could be easily seen
on the light-coloured trees covered in lichen and so the birds could see
them more easily than the light ones and so ate them. This kept the
number of dark moths down.
3. Why do you think the dark grey moths started to increase over time after
the Industrial Revolution?
After the industrial revolution, the dark moths were now better
camouflaged on the dark, soot-covered trees. The birds could not see them
as easily, and the light moths were clearly visible, so the birds started to eat
the light coloured moths more than the dark coloured moths. The dark
moths were able to survive and reproduce more, thereby passing on their
dark trait to their offspring. This increased the numbers.
4. Since the Industrial Revolution, the numbers of light-coloured moths have
started to increase again due to improved environmental standards. Why
do you think this is?
We are now more environmentally aware, and use more electrical machines
and fewer coal-powered machine. As a result, there is less pollution and
...
174 Life and living

soot in the air. This means these habitats are more protected, so the trees
are not covered in soot and lichen is. able to grow. Therefore, the light
moths are once again better camouflaged on the trees and so avoid
predation, whilst the dark grey moths are now clearly visible again. .
.
We have now looked at how variation within a species helps it to adapt to its
changing environment and therefore survive. But, these changes do not happen
quickly. Although small changes can happen within a few generations, big
changes take a very, very long to happen over thousands of years. VISIT
.
10 reasons to love science
(video) bit.ly/1bf3K5r
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• A species is a category within the classification system.
• Living organisms of the same type belong to the same species.
• Organisms from the same species can reproduce sexually and produce
offspring that are fertile and can reproduce.
• People belong to the species Homo sapiens.
• Variation is the difference between individuals from the same species.
• This variation can be inherited from one generation to the next.
• The individuals that are better suited (adapted) to their environment
will survive to reproduce. This is called natural selection.
• Small changes can take place in a species over shorter periods, like from
one generation to the next.
• Over very long periods these small changes can accumulate so that big
changes occur over time.
. Map
Concept
This was a short section and so we have a smaller concept map than in the
previous sections.
. .

.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Are dobermans, terriers and bulldogs from the same species? Give a
reason for your answer. [2 marks]
All these dogs belong to the same species because if they breed, the
offspring are fertile and can breed again.
2. A new breed of cat has been

developed, called the munchkin
cat. Breeders specifically tried to
breed a cat with very short front
legs. Explain how you think they
achieved this. [2 marks]
People observed some cats that were born with shorter than average front
legs and then mated these cats with other cats with shorter front legs until
over time they had cats with increasingly shorter legs.
3. Predict whether you think munchkin cats would be able to hunt as well as
other cats with normal length front legs. [2 marks]
They would probably not be able to jump, catch and claw their prey or be
as fast as other cats, so they would probably not be as good at hunting as
other cats.
4. Do you think it is correct for humans to breed animals in this way? Explain
your answer. [2 marks]
Learners are required to give a value. judgement. Some might agree that it
is the right of humans, but others might feel that humans are being cruel
and that it is wrong.
5. Explain in your own words what you understand by the term "inherited
characteristics". [2 marks]
This means that the characteristics (traits) are passed down from the
parents to the offspring from one generation to the next.
6. Why do you think it takes a long time for a species to adapt and change to
its changing environment? [2 marks]
A species takes a long time to adapt as the individuals which have the trait
which gives them an advantage are usually in the minority when the trait
first starts to emerge. These individuals need to reproduce to pass on their
trait. This takes over many generations. Only after many generations will
the trait start to be dominant in the species as more and more individuals
are born with the advantageous trait. Species which reproduce quickly and
have short generation times (short life spans), such as moths, will evolve
over a quicker time period than species which have long life spans and
reproduce less, such as humans.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an extension question.
Total [12 marks]
. .

.
.
GLOSSARY
abiotic: non-living elements of the environment such as

soil, water and air
adapt / adapted: to change the way that something looks or the way
something is done based on the surroundings /
environment
amphibian: any of a class of vertebrate animals that live on
land and in water at different times in its life-cycle,
are ectothermic and have a naked skin, and that
the larvae hatch in water and has gills, which later
transforms into the adult that breathes with lungs
angiosperm: a plant that has flowers and produces seeds that
are enclosed in a fruit
antenna (antennae): one of two long thin parts on the head of some
arthropods (like insects and crustaceans) used for
touch, smell and taste
anther: the part of the male sex organ of a plant that
contains the pollen
aquatic: being in or near water
arthropod: any of a large group of animals with a hard body,
no backbone and legs that are divided into sections
asexual reproduction: reproduction of plants and fungi that doesn't
require male and female sex cells to fuse in order to
.
make a new organism
atmosphere: the layers of gas that surround the Earth
biosphere: the parts of the Earth's surface, water and
atmosphere in which life can exist (and where
plants, animals and organisms can live)
bulb: a type of underground stem with one or more buds
that are covered by leaves or scales - like onions
and tulips
cartilage: strong, flexible tissue similar to bone
cell: the smallest structural unit or building block of life
that can sustain the seven life processes
cellular respiration: the process in living organisms by which oxygen is
used to release energy from food and carbon
dioxide is given off as a by-product
characteristic: a typical feature or quality that makes one thing
different from another
class: the major taxonomic rank below phylum and above
order that includes groups of vertebrate animals
such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals, and the invertebrate groups such as
insects and arachnids
classify: a systematic grouping of objects, items or
organisms based on characteristics, relationships
and processes
component: one of the parts that something is made of
...
178 Life and living

conception: moment of fertilisation when the male sperm and
the female egg cell fuse and a new individual is
formed
cotyledon: the seed leaf that is involved in the storage or
absorption of food reserves
depend / dependent: to need something or somebody to do their part in
providing a shelter, food, air, etc. for an organism's
survival
dependent variable: the variable of interest that is measured to get the
results
dicotyledon: a plant that has a seed with two cotyledons, nodes
and internodes on its stem, a tap root and generally
leaves on small stalks called petioles; the leaves
have a net-type leaf vein
disperse: spread over a wide area
diversity: the number and variety of species present in an
area and the location of their different habitats
ectothermic: relating to animals that have a blood temperature
that changes if the temperature of their
surroundings change
ejaculate: when a male releases sperm from the penis
embryo sac: structure within the ovule that contains the egg
cell; contains the newly developing plant and
endosperm after fertilisation
endothermic: relating to animals
. that have a blood temperature
that does not change if the temperature of their
surroundings change
environment: the external surroundings, conditions, resources,
stimuli, etc. in which an organisms lives and
interacts
exoskeleton: the hard outer covering that protects the body of
certain arthropods
fair test: an experiment where only one independent
variable is changed each time the experiment is
repeated
fallopian tube a tube lying close to each ovary that receives the
(oviduct): mature ova (egg) and transports it to the uterus
favourable: good, suitable or acceptable
fertilisation: the process when a male sex cell fuses with a
female sex cell to make a new, unique individual
with half the genetic material from the male and
half from the female parent organisms
filament: the stalk-like structure of the stamen that holds
and supports the anther
fuse: to join or blend to form a single entity
genetic information the inherited information coded into the cell that
(DNA): determines what type of cell it is and what it needs
to do
gill: the organ in fish and other water-breathing animals
that allows them to breathe underwater
. .

gravity: the force that attracts a body towards the centre of
the Earth or towards any other physical body
having mass
habitat: the natural place where a plant or animal lives
herbaceous: a plant that has a non-woody stem and which
normally dies at the end of the growing season
hormone: chemical messengers that travel in the
bloodstream to tissues and organs to affect many
different reactions in the body.
hydrosphere: the water on the Earth's surface, including the
oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and dams
hypothesis / a statement that is an educated guess about the
hypotheses: outcome of the experiment; an idea that is
suggested as the possible explanation for
something that has not yet been proved to be true
or correct
independent variable: those variables that will be changed one at a time
to see what effect they will cause in the dependent
variable; variables that are under the control of the
investigator
inheritance: something that is passed on genetically from one
generation to another
invertebrate: an animal without a line of bones (backbone) going
down its back
jointed (segmented) separate parts of the leg is covered in a hard
limbs: exoskeleton with
. clear joints between them
kingdom: refers to five major divisions of living organisms;
plants, animals, fungi, protists and bacteria that is
in turn composed of smaller groups called phyla
larva / larvae: a stage in the development of insects and other
animals where it has come out of the egg and is
mainly concerned with consuming food
leaf vein: little tubes that branch throughout a leaf carrying
water and dissolved substances
lithosphere: the crust or outer part of the Earth
mammary gland: milk producing glands in female mammals
marine: of or relating to the sea
mate: come together for breeding, copulating
matter: the physical substances from which all things are
made, such as rocks, soil, air, water, plants and
animals
maturing: to become physically mature and fully developed
menstruation: a recurring monthly event where the lining of the
uterus breaks down and is discharged as menstrual
blood
microorganism: an organism that is too small to see without a
microscope
monocotyledon: a plant that has a seed with one cotyledon,
adventitious, generally shallow roots and leaves
that forms sheaths around the stem; the leaves
have a parallel leaf vein
...
180 Life and living

natural selection: a process in which organisms with more suitable
features survive and reproduce more successfully
in a particular environment, resulting in more
offspring that carry the same traits
order: a taxonomic rank below class and above family
that classifies organisms based on specific
characteristics, such as diet and tooth structure,
such as herbivores, carnivores and primates
organic: produced by or formed from living organisms
organism: an individual living thing that can react to stimuli,
reproduce, grow, etc, such as a bacterium, protist,
fungus, plant or animal
ovary: the female reproductive organ in which the female
sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone as well
as female sex cells (ova) are produced and stored;
in a flower it is the thickened part at the base of the
flower that contains the ovules
ovule: the part of the ovary of the flower that contains the
female sex cell and that becomes the seed after
fertilisation
ovulating: when a mature egg (ova) is ready and gets
released (and is in the right place) for fertilisation
to take place
peduncle: the stalk or stem of a flower
penis: the male sex organ for the transfer of sperm cells
to the female
.
petal(s): each of the modified leaf sections of a flower that
are typically coloured to attract animals
photosynthesis: the process by which green plants (and some
bacteria) use energy from light to turn carbon
dioxide and water into food and oxygen
phyla: a taxonomic rank in biological classification that is
below kingdom and above class, that divides
organisms according to major body similarities,
such as chordates, molluscs and arthropods
pistil (carpel): the female organs of a flower containing the
stigma, style and ovary
pollen: a fine powdery substance that is often yellow and
contains the male sex cells
pollen tube: a hollow tube that develops from a pollen grain and
grows into the stigma and down the style to deliver
the male sex cells to the ovary of the flower
pollination: the transference of pollen from the anther of one
flower to the stigma of another flower of the same
species
pollinator(s): an agent that carries pollen from one flower to
another (bees, butterflies, birds or the wind for
instance)
puberty: the period between childhood and adulthood when
the sex organs mature causing changes in the body
that prepare the body to be able to reproduce
receptacle: the place where a flower is attached to the
peduncle (stalk or stem)
. .

requirement: something that you need or must have
respire: to take oxygen into the body and release carbon
dioxide; to breathe
rhizome: a horizontal stem underground that has both roots
and shoots
roots: the part of a plant that is (mostly) underground
and responsible for anchoring the plant, and for
absorbing water and minerals from the soil
scientific method: a set way of doing / conducting a scientific
investigation allowing you to gain new knowledge
by collecting measurable evidence based on
observation, measurement and experiment based
on the formulation, testing and changing of the
hypotheses
scrotum: the external sac of skin that encloses the testes in
males
seeds: the reproductive organ formed in gymnosperms
and angiosperms from which a new plant can grow;
it is usually covered by a protective coat and also
contains food reserves for the young plant
sepal(s): small green leaves that protect the developing bud
sexual intercourse: when the male sperm is introduced into a woman's
body
sexual reproduction: the process of producing new individuals of a
species by fusing the genes of two individuals
shoot: a young branch . that sprouts from the main stem of
a plant
sperm: the male sex cell produced by the testes
spore: the reproductive cell of mosses and ferns (and
other organisms) that under the right conditions
can develop into a new individual fern or moss
stamen: the male reproductive organ of a flower containing
the filament and anther
stem: the long thin part of a plant that rises from the
ground and from which smaller branches can grow;
it supports the leaves, flowers and fruit
stigma: the sticky tip of a flower pistil where the pollen is
deposited during pollination
style: the stalk-like slender part of the pistil joining the
stigma and the ovary, and holding the stigma in a
favourable position to receive pollen; the pollen
tube grows through the style to deliver the male
sex cells to the ovules
sustain: to keep things alive or healthy
symbiotic: a type of relationship between organisms in which
one or both organisms benefit
tap root: the main root of a plant that grows deep into the
soil of a plant that has a single, dominant main stem
testes: sperm producing glands of the male body
umbilical cord: the cord- or tube-like structure that connects the
foetus from its abdomen with the placenta of the
mother; it transports nourishment and oxygen to
the foetus and removes waste
...
182 Life and living

uterus: the hollow muscular organ in the pelvic area of
female mammals in which the fertilised egg
implants and develops (also known as the womb)
vagina: an elastic muscular tube or canal that connects the
neck of the uterus (cervix) with the external sexual
opening
variables: any factor that
. can affect the outcome of the
investigation and can be measured, controlled or
varied in some way
variation: differences between living organisms of the same
species
vertebrate: an animal that has a backbone (spine) that holds
the nerve or spinal column
. .

SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider M&M DBE A4.indd 1 2013/12/11 3:59 PM
SB 103_Siyavula NEW Gr7-9 divider M&M DBE A4.indd 2 2013/12/11 4:00 PM
1 Properties of materials
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
2 weeks.
This chapter builds on the chapters about the properties of materials in Gr. 5
and 6 Matter and Materials. Some of the properties learners encountered in the
earlier grades are revisited, but now we start placing greater emphasis on how
properties that may be desirable in a consumer product, may become
undesirable properties when that product turns to waste. New properties
introduced are boiling point and melting point, and these are introduced using
water as example.
1.1 Physical properties of materials (5 hours)

Activity: Thinking Accessing and recalling
about materials and information, classifying Suggested
their properties and sorting
Accessing and recalling
Activity: Advantages information, comparing,
Optional
versus disadvantages identifying problems
and issues, writing
Hypothesising, planning
.
Investigation: Which investigation, doing
type of paper is the investigation, recording CAPS suggested
strongest? information, comparing,
communicating
Activity: Boiling and Identifying problems
Optional
melting and issues, writing
Hypothesising,
accessing and recalling
information, doing
Investigation: What is
investigation,
the boiling point of CAPS suggested
observing, recording
water?
information,
interpreting
information, writing
Activity: Boiling and Reading, plotting data
melting points of other on graph, comparing, Optional/extension
substances writing
1.2 Impact on the environment (1 hour)

Activity: Environmental Accessing and recalling
impact of material information, reading CAPS suggested
production and writing
186
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• Which properties are important when choosing a material for a
particular use?
• How can we measure the strength of a material?
• What does it mean when a liquid boils?
• How can we explain the term 'boiling point'?
• How can we explain the term 'melting point'?
• Why should we always think about the impact on the environment when
we manufacture or use a particular material?
We learnt in Gr. 5 that the properties of a material determine what it can be

used for. Can you remember what properties are?
.
1.1 Physical properties of materials
What are properties and why are they important?

You may remember that properties are distinctive characteristics that describe
an object or material. For instance, we can describe a metal by saying that it is
strong and durable. A metal is is also malleable. This property, malleability,
means that a metal can be formed into sheets which can be used for a variety of
different purposes. For example, metal sheets can be used as roof panels for a
house, or to press body panels for a car.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Here you could also remind learners of a. property they learnt about in Term 2 of
Gr. 5. ductile: the property of a material that allows it to be drawn out into a
wire
The walls and roof of this house are made Can you see some parts of a car hanging up
of sheets of corrugated metal. inside a car factory? These are made of
sheets of metal.
What other properties of metals do you remember? Discuss this as a class.
. .
Chapter 1. Properties of materials 187

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Metals conduct electricity and heat. Learners may also remember that metals
are ductile. (Ductile describes a material which can be drawn out into a wire.)
Let's do a warm-up activity to get us thinking about materials and their

properties.
ACTIVITY: Thinking about materials and their

properties
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Complete the following table by adding the names of different materials

that have the properties listed.
Property Materials
Strong Learner-dependent answer: metals, plastics, leather,

concrete and wood are all examples of materials that
learners could mention.
Flexible Learner-dependent answer: some plastics, rubber,
some metals (especially in thin sheets) are all examples
that learners could mention.
Conducts Metals
electricity
Conducts heat Metals .
QUESTIONS:
1. What does it mean when a material is flexible?

Flexible means supple and bendy; able to flex and bend.
2. Suggest three possible uses of flexible materials?
Flexible materials can be used to make clothing that needs to bend and
fold; tubing or a pipe that needs to bend; coverings for electrical wiring
that need to bend around corners; soles of shoes that need to flex when
walking, etc.
3. Suggest three possible uses of a material that is a good conductor of
electricity.
Transmission cables for electricity, electrical wiring, electronic components
for computers and other electronic equipment, electrical fencing (to
protect property), etc.
4. Suggest three possible uses of a material that is a good conductor of heat.
Good conductors of heat can be used for making pots and pans, heating
elements, etc.
...
188 Matter and Materials

5. Which of the above properties would
be important if you were choosing
a material for making cookware
(cooking pots)?
A metal pot.
Materials for cookware would need to be strong, rigid, and able to conduct
heat.

be important if you were choosing a
material for making the wires used .
for distribution of electricity (shown
in the adjacent photo)?
These electrical wires carried by pylons

are made of metal.
These electrical wires need to be strong, flexible and able to conduct
electricity.

be important if you were choosing
a material to make a barbed wire
fence?
A barbed wire fence.

The material used to make barbed wire fences needs to be strong, but also
ductile so that it can be made into long thin wires, and also flexible so that
the wires can be bent. VISIT .
. An interesting video on a
.
new type of 'concrete
canvas' with varying
properties. bit.ly/147izAO
We can think of certain properties of materials in terms of advantages and

disadvantages. Do you know what those are? Let's find out.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should be encouraged at this stage to start thinking about scientific
processes and products in terms of their advantages and disadvantages. This
.
will create awareness that whatever payoff is created by scientific endeavour,
one always has to consider the cost. Sometimes the cost is purely financial; at
other times the cost may be damage to the individual (as in the case of the
irresponsible use of medicines and drugs), or to the environment (some
examples follow).
Advantages versus disadvantages
We have seen that strength and durability

are desirable properties in some materials.
We want things to be strong and to last
long. Let's think of an example.
Why would plastic shopping bags need

to be strong?
A black, plastic shopping bag.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners could be encouraged to imagine . carrying a shopping bag filled with
heavy items, that would simply fall through a shopping bag that is too weak or
thin.
Why would plastic shopping bags need to be durable?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. terms of reusing shopping bags.
Learners could be encouraged to think in
Encourage them to also think of not-so-obvious uses for old shopping bags, like
making artworks or weaving mats for instance.
We call the desirable properties of materials advantages. Disadvantages are

unfavourable features, as can be seen in the images of plastic in the
environment.
...

A goose about to eat a plastic bag in a These plastic rings from soft drink
river. packaging are very dangerous in the
wild as they can entangle an animal's
neck.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
When we throw a shopping bag away, its durability may mean that it takes
.
years and years to break down, so it pollutes the environment for a long period VISIT
of time. Its strength may mean that, when an animal becomes entangled in a A Hawaiian student looks at
piece of plastic that has been thrown away, the plastic would be too strong for .
plastic objects found in the
the animal to escape from. The animal may eventually die as a result. stomachs of albatrosses.
bit.ly/13PxkJj
The following activity has another example of advantages versus disadvantages.
ACTIVITY: Advantages versus disadvantages

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an optional activity.
.
Can you imagine a car made of solid gold? A car like this would be very
valuable!
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Look at the image of a gold car then answer the questions that follow.
2. Discuss some of the questions with your classmates before writing down
your answers.
. .

QUESTIONS:
1. What are your feelings about the golden car in the picture?
Learner-dependent answer. Encourage learners to write what they think of
the golden car, what their thoughts and feelings are. Do they think it looks
great? Would they like to own one?
2. What are the advantages of having a car made of gold?
A practical advantage is that gold doesn't rust. To some people, it may be
.
important to display their wealth to everyone else.
3. Do you think a golden car would be very strong? Would it perhaps be
safer in the event of an accident?
Allow learners to debate this for a short while. You may want to point out
that gold is actually quite a soft metal, and that driving a golden car would
not offer more protection to the passengers than a car which has an
exterior made mostly of steel would. Avoid the misconception that cars are
made entirely out of steel. Cars have crumple zones to increase safety.
4. What are the disadvantages of a car made of gold?
Gold is very expensive, and so the car would be unaffordable to most
people. Gold is also very heavy (learners may need to be reminded of this),
so the car would be heavy to move around. It would require lots of fuel to
make it move and fuel is expensive. It would probably also scratch easily.
Some learners may also say that because it is so valuable, it might get
stolen. You could add that it could be insured against theft, but that
insurance on a car this valuable would be very expensive. The conclusion is
that although a gold car may seem like a nice idea, it is not practical or safe
or fuel efficient.
.
We always have to weigh up the advantages against the disadvantages when

we choose materials for a particular job.
How would you test how strong a material is? Let's imagine you have different
types of paper. How would you test which paper is the strongest? Discuss this
as a class and write some notes on the lines provided.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Encourage learners to make their own notes as you are talking in class as this is
a valuable skill. They can do it either here in the workbook or in a separate
notebook if you make use of these. Some points to guide the class discussion:
.
• Something that is durable lasts long.
• Learners may say that something is strong when it is difficult to break.
• Allow learners to discuss how to test how strong a material is for a few
minutes and come up with a few ideas.
• Learners may say the paper that is most difficult to tear would be the
strongest.
...

The strength of paper is important because we use paper for many different
things.
All these objects are made from different types of paper

with different properties that suit the function of the object.
In the next activity we are going to investigate the tearing strength of different
types of paper.
INVESTIGATION: Which type of paper is the

strongest?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners can help you prepare for the activity by bringing different types of
paper to school: newspaper, tissue paper, paper towel, or old magazines and
gift wrap. Tell them to bring the biggest pieces they can find.
AIM: To compare the tearing strengths of different types of paper.

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You could let the learners cut the paper into strips of 20 x 5 cm each, or you
could do this beforehand to save time. Learners will compare the force required
to tear the different types of paper. They have not yet encountered force as a
concept (force is covered in Gr 9 Energy and Change) but you could encourage
them to think about what they are doing. when they hang the heavy marbles on
the strip of paper. For example, ask learners: "What do more marbles in the
yoghurt tub mean?" It means the yoghurt tub is heavier, and `pulls' harder on
the strip of paper. (If you cannot get hold of marbles you could try finding small
stones or pebbles that are more or less the same size. You would just have to
explain to the learners that the stones do not all have a mass of 5 grams, but
you will imagine that they do to simplify the calculations.)
. .

HYPOTHESIS:
When you write a hypothesis, you must state what you think will happen in your
investigation.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Possible hypotheses are: 'The thicker and . stronger the paper, the more marbles
it can hold before breaking.', 'Paper X is the strongest', where X is one of the
papers supplied.
• strips of different types of paper (20cm x 5cm)

• hole puncher
• strong paper clips
• yoghurt tub
• marbles
• string
• hand lens (optional)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Make sure to use strong paper clips so that they do not bend under the strain of
the marbles during the investigation. Make sure to use a range of papers, such
as filter paper, tissue paper, crepe paper,. wax paper, newspaper, normal white
paper, harder card, etc. A suggestion is .to also number the pieces of paper so
that learners can easily reference them and then use the number to place them
in order of strength later on in the questions. If you have time you can also test
some other materials such as plastic shopping bags or aluminium foil.
METHOD:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You can introduce the idea of a fair test here. Ask learners why they think they
should punch the holes the same distance from the edge in each type of paper.
. - each piece of paper must be tested
This is because you want it to be a fair test
fairly and equally. If the holes were punched at different distances from the
edge, this might make some papers appear stronger or weaker than they
actually are. You need to control all other variables so that the only thing you
are changing is the type of paper.
1. Punch a hole at both ends of each paper strip. This is so that you can test
the paper twice on each side. Make sure that the holes are in the middle,
and also at the same distance from the end of each strip. This will make it a
fair test.
2. Form the paper clip into an S-shape and hang it from the hole in the paper.
3. Make a handle for the yoghurt tub, using the string.
4. Hang the yoghurt tub from the paper clip and hold it in your hand.
5. Add marbles one-by-one to the yoghurt tub until the paper tears. Count
the number of marbles in the tub. (Tip: Place the marbles very gently into
the yoghurt tub or the shock of dropping them in might tear the paper).
...

6. Repeat steps 1 - 5 using the other end of the strip and count the marbles
again. Take the average of the number of marbles.
7. Repeat this using the other strips of paper, doing each twice and taking
the averages.
8. If each marble has a mass of 5 grams, work out the mass in grams that was
needed to tear each strip of paper and write the number in the final
column of your table.
9. If you have time, you can also test different kinds of materials, such as a
plastic shopping bag, aluminium foil or plastic wrap.
Tip: To calculate the average of a set

of numbers, you add all the numbers
together and then divide by how many
numbers there were in the set.
In this investigation, you will add the

number of marbles together for each
time you tested the paper strength
(this was twice for each strip of paper)
and then divide by 2 to calculate the
average number of marbles that each
piece of paper can hold before it tears.
For example, if you had 5 marbles in

the first attempt, and 3 marbles in the
second attempt, the average will be
calculated as follows:
5 + 3 = 8 marbles .
8 ÷ 2 = 4 marbles on average
Therefore, the paper type could hold

an average of 4 marbles.
Record your results in the table.
Number of Number of Average

Type of Mass of the
marbles marbles number of
paper marbles
(Trial 1) (Trial 2) marbles
Now answer the following questions:
1. Look carefully at the surface of one of the paper strips. Now look carefully
at the torn edge. Can you see anything special? Describe what you think
the paper is made of.
Learners should notice that the paper appears to be made of a layer of
fibers. The fibers cling to each other because they have tiny branches on
them, that become entangled to give the paper extra strength.
2. Which paper is the strongest?
Learner-dependent answer based on the evidence from the investigation. ..
. .

3. Which paper is the weakest?
Learner-dependent answer based on the evidence from the investigation.
4. Arrange the different types of paper in order of increasing tearing strength.
(That means from weakest to strongest.)
ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION:
Let's now analyse and think about the results of the investigation.
1. What do you think causes one paper to be stronger than another?

More than one factor play a role here, but generally paper that is thicker
tends to be stronger. This is because the layer of fibres is thicker, so more
fibres to cling to each other. Papers in which the fibres are longer and more
tightly packed are also stronger, and coating the paper with a super thin
layer of plastic also adds additional strength. Learners could be
encouraged to look for signs of these treatments.
2. How would you modify the investigation to test the strength of different
types of plastic?
Plastics are generally stronger than paper, so for a start, the testing method
should allow for greater weights to be hung from the plastic strips. This is a
good opportunity to introduce the notion of fair testing: As many variables
as possible should be kept the same: length of the plastic strips, method of
fastening the weight to the plastic strips, etc.
3. What did you do to ensure fair testing?
• We used paper strips of the same length and width.
• We punched identical holes in all the different paper strips.
• We punched the hole in exactly. the same place on all the strips.
• We used the same method to hang the marbles from the paper strip
for all the different types of paper.
• We repeated each measurement (by testing both sides of the paper
strip).
4. How would you modify the investigation to test the flexibility of different
types of materials?
Learner-dependent answer. One suggestion might be to cut strips of the
same size of the materials to be tested, and lay them across the edge of a
table, hang a weight on the overhanging edge and find a way to measure
the amount of flexing that occurs. Learners could discuss ways of ensuring
the test is fair.
5. Why did you repeat the experiment for the same type of paper?
It is important to repeat experiments to be sure you get the same/similar
answers every time. Repeating an experiment and calculating an average
value helps to eliminate errors, or results that arise by chance (or luck). We
say it makes the answer more reliable.
CONCLUSION:
What can you conclude from this investigation?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Possible conclusions include: 'The stronger. the paper, the more marbles it can
hold before tearing', or 'Paper X is the strongest as it can hold the most marbles
before tearing and paper Y is the weakest', etc.
...

Strength, flexibility (the ability to flex or bend), electrical conductivity and heat
conductivity are important properties of materials that we learnt about in Gr. 5
and have revised again here.
Can you think of materials that are both strong and flexible? Most people will
immediately think of plastics! Most plastics can easily be melted and moulded
into different shapes for different purposes. Why do you think plastics can be
'melted and moulded' with ease?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Most plastics melt easily because they melt at relatively low temperatures. We
say they have low melting points. Note that this is not true for all plastics.
All of these items are made of plastic in different shapes,

sizes and colours.
We are going to learn about two new properties of materials, namely boiling
point and melting point.
First, let's check if everyone knows that there is a difference between the words
heat and temperature. The two words, heat and temperature, are connected
but they do not mean the same thing:
• Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another. This happens
because of the difference in temperature between the two objects. The
transfer of energy will be from the hotter object to the cooler object until
they are the same temperature. You cannot measure heat directly, but you
can detect its effect on a substance. Changes in heat can usually be
detected as changes in temperature.
• Temperature is used to describe how hot or cold something is.
Temperature can be measured directly with a thermometer.
Adding heat energy usually results in a temperature rise, so people often

confuse heat and temperature. But they are not the same thing! We will look
more at heating as a transfer of energy next term in Energy and Change.
Boiling and melting points

Do you remember learning about the state changes in previous grades? We will
be focusing on boiling and melting in this section. Have a look at the following
diagram to refresh your memories about the different changes of state between
solids, liquids and gases.
. .

1. Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid. Look at this photo of a candle
burning. What is happening to the wax around the flame?
The wax is melting.
2. Discuss with your partner why you

think this is happening to the wax.
Write your answer below.
A burning candle.
Discuss this with your class. The heat energy from the flame on the burning
wick is transferred to the wax causing the temperature of the wax to rise.
When the temperature gets to a certain point (called its melting point), the
wax starts to melt as it changes state from a solid to a liquid.
As you can see in the previous diagram, a liquid can change into a gas by
evaporation. For example if you leave a saucer of water out in the sun, the
water will evaporate. Evaporation can take place at any temperature. But, in
boiling, the liquid needs to be heated to reach its boiling point. Bubbles of
water vapour then form in the liquid and rise up.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
There are some important differences between evaporation and boiling.
Evaporation can take place below the boiling point of a liquid, but boiling takes
place only once the liquid is heated and .reaches its boiling point. Also,
evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid as individual particles gain enough
energy to overcome the forces holding them in the liquid and become individual
particles in the gas state. Boiling occurs within the liquid when enough particles
escape en masse and form bubbles of gas in the liquid. The gas bubbles then
rise to the surface of the liquid and the liquid is said to boil.
...

Can you think of at least three different ways to boil water? Discuss this with
your class and write your answer down.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask your learners this question and get some answers. Encourage them to take
notes: .
• Water can be boiled in the kettle.

• Water can be boiled in a pot on the stove.
• Water can be boiled in a microwave oven.
What would happen if you tried to put the kettle into the microwave or on the
stove? We will soon find out!
ACTIVITY: Boiling and melting

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Look carefully at the picture.

It looks as if something has
gone wrong here!
QUESTIONS:
1. Write a short story to explain what you think happened to the kettle in the
picture.
Just a few sentences are required here. The learners should note that
someone placed the plastic kettle on the stove. When the person tried to
heat the water, the kettle melted as a result of contact with the flame/heat.
The kettle is meant to be plugged in to heat the water.
2. Why do you think the person made the mistake of heating the kettle on the
stove?
Learners can come up with their own reasons here. Perhaps the person was
used to heating water on the stove in a metal kettle. Perhaps the person
did not know that the plastic would melt. Perhaps the person was just
absent-minded and made a mistake.
3. Do you think plastic is a good choice of material for making a whole
cooking pot? Why do you say so?
No. Plastic is not a good choice because it melts when it is heated above a
certain temperature.
. .

4. Why does a plastic kettle not melt when we boil water in it?
The water boils at a temperature that is lower than the temperature needed
to melt the plastic of the kettle.
5. Sometimes, just the handles of the cooking pot are made from plastic or
wood. Why do you think this is so?
This is because wood and plastic are not good conductors of heat, unlike
metal, and so you can pick up the pot
. easily.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This is also an extension question as we have not specifically dealt with heat
conductivity yet in this grade, but it has been covered in previous grades.
At what temperature does water boil? We are going to do an investigation to

find out! Since we have to make temperature measurements in the investigation,
we are going to first check if everyone knows how temperature is measured.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some learners may know that water boils. at a temperature around 100°C (100
degrees Celsius), depending on factors such as altitude above sea level and
atmospheric pressure. Do not answer this question directly, but rather use it to
introduce the next activity.
Have you ever been so sick that you had a fever? Have you ever had your
temperature taken?
Perhaps you have had your temperature taken with a thermometer. A

thermometer can be used to find out how hot or cold something is. A
thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature.
TAKE NOTE
The mercury inside these
.
kinds of thermometers is
toxic and dangerous so they
This is a thermometer used to take your temperature when you have a fever.
must be handled with care.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Here is an optional, extension activity on. how a thermometer works. It links to
what learners will do in Gr 8 Matter and Materials. Next year, learners will look at
the Particle Model of Matter, and within this, cover density and the contraction
and expansion of materials. However, this is a good extension exercise to get
...

learners thinking about how a thermometer works and introduce the idea that
materials expand (when heated) and contract (when cooled) due to the
increase in kinetic energy of the particles (the size and number of the particles
do not change, it is only the spaces between the particles that get bigger or
smaller).
Note: An exception is water which actually expands when it becomes a solid

(ice). This will be covered in detail in later grades.
Activity: How does a thermometer work?
The common glass thermometer that

you see in the image is called a bulb
thermometer. All bulb thermometers
consist of a fairly large bulb, connected
to a long thin tube. The thermometer
usually contains some type of brightly .
coloured liquid. Liquids take up less
space when they are cold and more
space when they are warm; we say
they contract when they are cooled
and expand when they are warmed.
QUESTIONS:
1. What do you think will happen to the liquid level in the thermometer when
the liquid inside expands?
The liquid level will rise when the liquid expands.
2. What do you think will happen to the liquid level in the thermometer when
it is put into the refrigerator? Say why this would happen.
The inside of the refrigerator is cold. This will make the liquid inside the
thermometer contract. The liquid level will drop.
Let's now investigate boiling and melting.
INVESTIGATION: What is the boiling point of water?

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The investigation in the learners books includes
. only that of investigating
boiling point of water, as suggested in CAPS. However, if you would also like to
look at melting point of ice, this second part has been included in the teachers
guide later.
. .

AIM: To observe boiling and to determine the boiling point of water.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
CAPS suggests that this investigation could be performed on òther liquids'
such as orange juice, apple juice and cola. One issue to be aware of is that the
suggested beverages are all solutions of substancesin water. Their boiling
points will be slightly higher than that of pure water, but this is because adding
some substances to water elevates the boiling point of the solution. It is still
water that is boiling in all these instances (the phenomenon is called boiling
point elevation). Sometimes, adding substances (such as ethanol) to water can
bring the boiling point down (refer to Raoult's Law). This is a lot of detail and
not necessary for the learners to know about at this stage.
Here are some suggestions for extensions for this investigation:
1. Determining the boiling point of methanol (methylated spirits) or ethanol

(available as 'surgical spirits' from the pharmacy). The point of this
extension would be to show that different substances have different
boiling points.
Note: Methylated spirits can be used instead of methanol but it only contains
about 9.5 % methanol in more than 80 % ethanol. This means there may not be
a big difference between the experiments carried out with ethanol and
methylated spirits.
Warning: Take care when working with these substances, especially methanol,
since it is dangerous. Wear gloves if possible, and avoid inhaling the fumes.
Furthermore, ethanol and methanol are both extremely flammable and care
..
should be taken when heating them. A safe way of heating ethanol or methanol
to its boiling point is shown in the following diagram. The test tube containing
the ethanol or methanol should be suspended in a beaker of tap water, and
slowly heated. The principle of thermal equilibrium means that the water and
ethanol/methanol will be at the same temperature, so the temperature of the
water can be substituted for the temperature of the ethanol/methanol.
2. Determining the boiling point of water by another method, for instance in a

pot on the stove, or in a kettle. The point of this would be to show that the
boiling point of water is constant (at constant pressure, of course, so it
would make sense to do the extensions concurrently with the prescribed
procedure below).
...

HYPOTHESIS:
What is your hypothesis for this investigation?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Possible hypotheses that learners could give include stating the boiling point of
water that they might know from previous knowledge.
• glass beakers x 2 (or small pot)

• Bunsen burner (or stove plate)
• tripod with gauze
• tap water
• thermometer
• funnel
• ice blocks
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Before starting the investigation, divide .the class up into groups in which they
will perform the investigation and get learners to discuss the following
questions first in their group to revise concepts from Gr 6.
Before you start, discuss the following questions

. in your group:
1. Discuss what you know about gases, liquids and solids; the three states of
matter. Write down your ideas from your discussion.
• The particles in solids are tightly packed into fixed positions, so solids
retain their shape. They cannot be compressed.
• The particles in liquids are also close to each other, but they are not in
fixed positions and can move around, that means liquids can fill the
container they are in. They are not really compressible either.
• The particles of gases are really far apart, they are not ordered in any
way, they can move anywhere they want. Gases are compressible as a
result.
Learners should be encouraged to think about the different states of
matter in terms of the particle model which was first introduced in Gr 6 and
is built upon more next year in Gr 8.
2. What needs to happen to water to make it freeze?
In order for water to freeze, it needs to be cooled down.
3. What needs to happen to water to make it boil?
In order for water to boil it needs to be heated.
4. How do we measure temperature?
We measure temperature with a thermometer.
5. Can you remember the boiling point and freezing/melting point of water?
If you can, write them in the space below.
It is not important that learners remember these temperatures, as they will
be determining them experimentally shortly. This question has been added
to allow you to gauge how many learners know them.
6. Let's make some predictions. Read the two statements below, and indicate
whether you AGREE, DISAGREE or are NOT SURE, by drawing a cross in
the matching column:
Learner-dependent answers. ..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The concept of making predictions in science investigations is introduced here.
Statement AGREE DISAGREE NOT SURE
Water can get hotter than 100°C.
VISIT Water always freezes at 0°C.

This video shows you how to
.
use a laboratory Safety precautions
thermometer.
bit.ly/16ww1kU • Your teacher will demonstrate how to handle the Bunsen burner safely.
• Remember that boiling water can cause painful burns.
• The thermometer is made of very thin glass. Hold it gently, and do not use
it to stir the water. Be careful not to drop it or bump it against the bottom
or sides of the beaker.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
When lighting the burner, always light the match (or lighter) before opening the
gas.
.
It might be best to try this experiment in advance to determine how frequently
water temperature should be measured. Time intervals would depend on the
volume of water. CAPS suggests intervals . of 3 minutes, but shorter intervals will
provide more data points to plot on the graph.
TAKE NOTE METHOD:

Perhaps you measured the
boiling point of the water as 1. Set up your apparatus as shown in
slightly less than 100°C. This the image. Remember that when
does not mean that your you want to take the temperature,
measurements were the thermometer must not be
incorrect. The boiling point touching the sides.
. on the
of water depends 2. Take a measurement of the water
atmospheric pressure. At temperature before you start
sea level (close to the ocean) heating the water. This will be your
water boils at 100°C. Water measurement at time 0.
boils at a lower temperature
at higher altitudes (for
example, on a mountain)
because the air pressure is 3. Light the burner and heat the water.
less. 4. Measure the temperature of the water at regular intervals. Record the
temperature in the table provided.
5. After a while you will notice that the temperature of the water becomes
constant (this is when the temperature stops going up). Continue to take
the temperature three more times (once every three minutes) after this
happens. What do you notice about the water?
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should observe that the water is
. starting to boil. When boiling starts
the temperature of the water remains constant. The best graph is obtained
when the water is stirred gently throughout; this ensures that the water is
heated uniformly.
Record your results in the table.
Elapsed time (minutes) Temperature of the water (°C)
.
VISIT
We are now going to draw a graph of the results recorded in the table. Here are
some guidelines for drawing the graph: . at room
Water can boil
temperature, inside a
1. The title of your graph should be: Determining the boiling point of water. vacuum bit.ly/16ww3cp
2. The independent variable should be 'Time'. Label the axis, and use minutes
as units. Remember that the independent variable should always be
drawn on the horizontal axis of your graph, or the x-axis.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners should be reminded that the independent variable is the one that was
.
`manipulated'; in this case the total amount of energy added to the water
increased with time. Since we have no real measure of the energy added to the
water, but since we do know that the energy was added at a constant rate, we
can use the time that the water was heated as our independent variable.
3. The dependent variable should be 'Temperature'. Label the axis, and use
degrees Celsius (°C) as units. The dependent variable should always be
drawn on the vertical axis of your graph; this is the y-axis.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners could be reminded that the dependent variable is the one that was
'measured' or observed; in this case the temperature of the water as it increased
with time.
..
. .

4. Plot the data on a line graph using the graph paper - each data point must
be marked with a small, neat cross.
.
TAKE NOTE
The boiling point of water .
also depends on the purity TEACHER'S NOTE
of the water. Water which
Learners' graphs should have the following general shape and features:
contains impurities (such as
.
salt or sugar) boils at a
higher temperature than
pure water. This is why
orange juice or apple juice
will boil at temperatures
slightly above 100°C.
...

TAKE NOTE
Different thermometers
from different batches might
ANALYSIS: .
also give slightly different
readings. This is because
1. What did you see when the water started to boil?
they might have been
I saw bubbles in the water.
calibrated differently.
2. What do you think happened to the water when it boiled?
Some of the liquid water turned into gas, that is why there were bubbles.
3. Describe the shape of your graph. Is it a straight line?
The first part of the graph has a positive slope, then the graph becomes a
horizontal line.
4. How did the temperature of the water change over time?
The temperature of the water increased gradually, then it became constant.
5. How does the shape of the graph show the way the temperature changed
over time?
The left part of the graph where the slope is positive, shows that the
temperature of the water increased. The right part of the graph where the
graph is horizontal, shows that the temperature of the water did not
change over time, but stayed constant.
6. What happened to the temperature of the water when it started to boil?
The temperature did not go up anymore, it stayed constant.
7. How long did it take for the water to start boiling?
8. At what temperature did the water boil?
The boiling temperature depends on the elevation above sea level and the
air pressure at the time of measurement. Water boils at 100°C at sea level
and at temperatures slightly below that at elevated altitudes.
.
9. What do we call the temperature at which the water boils? Indicate this
temperature on your graph.
The temperature at which water boils is called the boiling point of water.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The next question refers to a bigger flame. A bigger flame simply means that
energy is added to the water at a higher. rate. This question helps learners to
realise that for a fixed amount of water, a fixed amount of energy will be needed
to bring it to the boiling point. This may help them to understand the concept of
specific heat later on.
10. Suppose we used a Bunsen burner with a bigger flame.

a) Do you think the water would boil at a temperature that is higher,
lower or the same as the boiling point you just measured? Why do you
say so?
The water will boil at the same temperature. The bigger flame gives
more energy to the water but does not affect the boiling point.
b) Do you think the time required for the water to boil would be longer,
shorter or the same? Why do you say so?
The water will boil in a shorter time. The bigger flame gives more
energy to the water per time unit. That means less time will be needed
to heat the water.
CONCLUSION:
Write a conclusion for this investigation. When writing a conclusion, you must
go back to look at your initial aim. ..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.. the boiling point of water that they
Learners should write a conclusion stating
determined from this investigation, for example, "From this investigation, it can
be concluded that the boiling point of water is 100°C.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is the second part of the investigation if you would like to look at melting
point of ice.
Part 2: Measuring the melting point
METHOD:
1. Set up your apparatus as shown in the following picture.
.
Note: It is better to use crushed ice rather than larger blocks of ice,
because it gives better contact between the thermometer bulb and the ice.
2. Leave the thermometer in the ice for a few minutes. Read the
measurement on the thermometer. What do you notice about the ice?
Note: Learners should notice that, even though the ice is starting to melt,
the temperature remains constant.
3. Wait 3 minutes and measure the temperature again. Is the ice getting
warmer or does the temperature remain constant?
Note: The temperature remains constant.
4. Do step 3 one more time.
5. Take some of the ice pieces and drop them into the beaker. Swirl the ice
with a small amount of water for about 20 seconds and then measure the
temperature of the ice-water-mixture in the beaker. Is it different from the
original temperature of the ice?
Note: The temperature of the ice-water-mixture should be the same as the
original temperature of the ice.
6. Place the beaker in a warm spot (you could even heat it carefully over the
Bunsen burner). Measure the temperature of the ice-water-mixture every
three minutes. What do you notice about the temperature when all the ice
has melted?
Note: Once all the ice has melted, the temperature of the water begins to
rise.
...

7. Once all the ice has melted, continue to measure the temperature every 3
minutes, 3 more times.
8. Record your measurements in a table in the space provided.
Use the space provided to draw your own table to record your results. Have a
look at the table that you filled in for part 1 to give you some hints.
Now draw a graph of your experimental data. Here are some guidelines for
drawing the graph:
1. The title of your graph should be: Determining the melting point of ice.
2. Which is the independent variable?
The independent variable is Time.
3. Which is the dependent variable?
The dependent variable is Temperature.
Note: See explanation given for variables within the first part of the
investigation.
4. Plot the data on your graph, and draw a smooth line through the data
points.
. .

Note: Learners' graphs should have the following general shape and features:
Beware that temperatures below 0°C may be recorded, so learners' graphs may
not be identical.
ANALYSIS:
.
1. What did it look like when the ice started to melt?
The ice became wet where it melted.
2. Describe the shape of your graph. Is it a straight line?
The first part of the graph is a horizontal line, then the graph goes up (the
line has a positive slope).
3. How did the temperature of the ice (and water) change over time?
At first, the temperature of the ice-water-mixture stayed constant, then
after all the ice had melted, the temperature of the water started to go up.
4. How does the shape of the graph show the way the temperature changed
over time?
The horizontal part of the graph represents the stage when the
temperature stayed constant. The right side of the graph, where the slope
is positive, shows that the temperature was going up.
5. What happened to the temperature of the water when all the ice had
melted?
Once all the ice was melted the temperature of the water started to go up.
6. How long did it take for all the ice to melt?
7. At what temperature did the ice melt?
The ice melted at 0°C.
8. What do we call the temperature at which the ice melts? Indicate this
temperature on your graph.
The temperature at which ice melts is called the melting point of ice.
9. At what temperature do you think water will freeze?
Water freezes at 0°C.
Note: The purpose of this question is to make learners realise that melting and
freezing are the reverse of each other. The phase transition between water and
ice (liquid and solid water) always occurs at 0°C (in pure water).
...

10. Suppose we used a Bunsen burner to melt the ice.
a) Do you think the ice would melt at a temperature that is higher, lower
or the same as the melting point you just measured? Why do you say
so?
The ice would melt at the same temperature because the melting point
stays the same.
b) Do you think the time required for the ice to melt would be longer,
shorter or the same? Why do you. say so?
The ice would melt in a shorter time, because the burner gives it more
energy in a shorter time.
Note: Once again, this has been included to bring learners to the realisation that
a fixed amount of energy will be needed to melt a fixed amount of ice. Heating TAKE NOTE
the ice with a burner simply delivers the energy at a faster rate, so melting Ice melts at 0°C. Water
occurs sooner. Melting occurs at the melting point which is 0°C. The melting .
freezes at 0°C. Coincidence,
point is not affected. or not?
We will learn more about changes of state in Gr. 8 Matter and Materials. In order
to melt ice, we need to add energy to it to raise the temperature to melting
point. However, if we want to freeze water, we need to remove (take out)
energy from it until the temperature decreases to freezing point.
Does boiling have a reverse process? Boiling is when liquid water changes to
water vapour or steam. The reverse process, when steam turns back to water, is
called condensation. In order to boil water, we need to add energy to it. But if
we want to condense the water vapour, we need to cool it down (take energy
out of it).
. .

The following diagram summarises what we have learnt so far.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
In words, the summary of the diagram is:
• Boiling occurs when a liquid turns to a gas at boiling point.
...

• Water boils at a temperature of 100°C when the air pressure equals 1
atmosphere. This is called the normal boiling point of water.
• When water is heated, its temperature will rise until the water starts to boil.
While the water is boiling the temperature will remain constant.
• Melting occurs when a solid turns to a liquid.
• Ice (the solid form of water) melts at a temperature of 0°C. This is called
the melting point of ice. This is also called the freezing point of water.
• When ice is heated, its temperature. will remain constant until all the ice has
melted. Only then will the temperature of the water (that was ice before it
melted) rise above 0°C.
Ask your learners what 'room temperature' is and if they can find room
temperature on the diagram? Get them to mark where it is on the diagram.
Room temperature is 25°C. Once they have located where this is on the
diagram, ask them what state water will be at 25°C? Water is a liquid at 25°C.
Do all liquids boil at 100°C? No, of course not! Not all substances melt at 0°C
either.
Can you think of a few substances that are solids at low temperatures, but have
low melting points? (Think of things that melt easily when it is hot outside. Ice
cream is an example.)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Discuss this in class and get your learners' input. Some examples are: Ice cream,
butter, and chocolate.
In the next activity we are going to explore the boiling and melting points of a
few substances other than water.
ACTIVITY: Boiling and melting points of other

substances
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Place the boiling and melting points of the substances listed below on the
blank template provided and then answer the questions.
2. The boiling point of nitrogen is - 200°C. Draw a green line at this
temperature on the diagram and label it 'Boiling point of nitrogen'.
3. The boiling point of ethanol is 78°C. Draw a red line at this temperature on
the diagram and label it 'Boiling point of ethanol'.
4. Now draw a blue line at the boiling point of water and also label this line.
. .

5. What is room temperature? Draw a black line at this temperature and label
it.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners' diagram should look like this:
.
Room temperature is normally 21°C. However, it varies in different laboratories

in different countries, and the range between 21°C and 25°C is accepted.
VISIT
QUESTIONS:
. game
Play an interactive
based on the melting points 1. What state would nitrogen be in at room temperature? Why do you say
of solids. bit.ly/16ww5RR so?
Nitrogen would be a gas at room temperature, because room temperature
is higher than the boiling point of nitrogen.
...

2. Suppose you mix some water and some ethanol. They are mixed but they
have not changed into something else. The mixture is at room temperature
to begin with. Now suppose you start heating the mixture. What
temperature would be reached first: 78°C or 100°C?
78°C
3. What do you think will happen when the mixture reaches a temperature of
78°C? Do you think the ethanol will start to boil?
Learners may be unsure, but you could say that the ethanol is still ethanol,
it has not been changed in the process of mixing, so it will most certainly
start to boil at 78°C.
.
4. Will the water boil at the same time?
No. Water only starts to boil at 100°C.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This question was included to prepare learners
. for the concept of distillation
that will be introduced in the next chapter. Boiling point is a property of a
substance. Boiling point can be used to identify a substance. You can explain
this to your learners after you have done this question.
.
.
So far we have seen that materials have different properties such as their
strength, their flexibility and their melting and boiling points. These properties
determine how these different materials are used.
We also briefly mentioned how some materials can conduct heat better than
others. This is called heat conductivity. Think of some objects which you want
to be able to conduct heat well and what material they should be made of.
Write some of your ideas down.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. pots conducts heat well to cook food
Possible answers are the metal of cooking
and boil water, the metals that make up some heaters also need to conduct heat
well.
Why do you think you put a jersey on when you are cold? What can we say
about the wool that the jersey is made from in terms of heat conductivity?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The wool or fabric that the jersey is made of does not conduct heat well. It
therefore acts as a heat insulator, keeping the body warm.
We will learn more about heat transfer later in the year. Another property of
materials is how well they can conduct electricity. This is called electrical
conductivity. We will look more at how different materials can be used as
electrical insulators (meaning they do not conduct electricity well), later in the
year.
. .

.
1.2 Impact on the environment
Earlier, we saw how some of the properties of materials may be advantages
under certain circumstances, but can become disadvantages under a different
set of circumstances, such as plastics and other materials which, if they end up
in nature, can have serious consequences and cause harm to other animals.
Every process used to produce materials for our benefit has an impact on the
environment. Some processes have a small impact and others have a large
impact.
We have already seen how the use of materials, such as plastics and paper, has
a negative impact on our environment, but what about their production?
ACTIVITY: Environmental impact of material

production
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Look at the pictures and answer the questions that follow about the
production of different materials in South Africa.
2. You will need to do some extra research for this activity. Some information
about each of the processes has been provided, but you will need to
research them in more detail and answer the questions that follow.
VISIT Mining:
.
What is fracking? (An Mining in South Africa has been one of the main reasons for our development.
article) bit.ly/16BKP3A South Africa is still one of the top gold mining countries in the world. We also
mine and produce other metals such as chromium, platinum, as well as coal and
iron ore. Although this is hugely beneficial for the economy, it has devastating
effects on the environment.
.
1. This huge hole is
actually a diamond
mine about 40 km
outside of Pretoria.
What effects do you
think this has had on
the environment?
The Premier Diamond Mine outside of Pretoria.

The local habitats are affected by the digging of the hole, the roads that are
built and the other infrastructure put in place. Diamond mines require huge
amounts of diesel which produce greenhouse gases which build up in the
atmosphere.
...

2. In this photograph,
the 2010 World Cup
Soccer Stadium can
be seen in the centre.
In the top left are
huge areas called slag
piles. These are huge
piles of crushed rock
left over from decades
of gold mining. What
impact do you think
this has on this area?
An aerial view of the Soccer City Stadium and

surrounding area.
Note: Learners may battle with this question so you can ask them if they VISIT
think anything can grow or live on these dumps again? .
An article on fracking in
As can be seen, these slag piles do not have anything growing on them as
South Africa. bit.ly/13lJ1Yw
they are not green, and they have been there for decades, so they are
reducing the possibilities for habitats and natural vegetation to grow back.
The rock can contain toxic chemicals (such as cyanide) which seep into the
ground and contaminate soil and water.
3. Coal mining in South Africa also has a major impact on the environment.
Not only the mining, but the use of coal in power stations has negative
impacts. What are some of these? VISIT
Huge amounts of land are destroyed when mining coal. Coal mining also
. Video on the environmental
requires large amounts of water, which reduces the water for surrounding .
impact of coal mining in
areas. Water runoff can also contaminate water supplies. There is air
South Africa. bit.ly/14n2Hyz
pollution in coal mining and in the use of coal in power stations. when coal
is burning, greenhouse gases are released which contribute to acid rain
formation and the greenhouse effect. It also contaminates the air for other
organisms.
Paper making:
Can you imagine your world without paper? Probably not! We use it every day
of our lives. South Africa has a big paper-making industry. Although paper is
important in our lives today, the production has negative impacts on the
environment. VISIT
For a list of the 10 most
serious environmental
concerns of the. 21st century,
visit the website. Each of the
environmental issues is
accompanied by a short
video. bit.ly/147jh0V
A tree plantation for paper. A paper-making factory.
1. Huge areas of land are used to plant the trees that are then harvested to ..
. .

make pulp and then paper. What impact do you think this has on the
environment? Hint: Also think about what you learnt about in Life and
Living about biodiversity.
Plantations take up a lot of space and therefore natural, indigenous
vegetation has to be cleared (deforestation). This destroys habitats for
other organisms. These trees also use a lot of water and prevent anything
from growing underneath them. They . reduce the biodiversity in the area.
2. Look at the photo of the paper-making factory. What effects does this
have on the environment?
There is a huge amount of air pollution from paper-making factories, which
contributes to a build up in greenhouse gases. Paper mills use huge
amounts of water, and the waste water contains many chemicals and
substances which damage the environment.
.
..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• The properties of a material determine the purposes for which it can be
used.
• Some of the properties of materials include strength, flexibility, heat and
electrical conductivity and they have specific boiling and melting points.
• Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boils.
• Melting point is the temperature at which a solid melts.
• The suitability of a material for a certain use is also influenced by other
factors such as its cost, its colour and its texture.
• The ways we use materials and the processes we use to produce them
always have an impact on the environment.
. Map
Concept
Below is a concept map for what we have learnt about the properties of
materials. We discussed several properties of materials in this chapter. Can
you see how we can summarise a lot of information onto one page?
...

.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Below are a number of short sentences. In each case, you must complete
the sentence by filling in the missing words. Write the whole sentences out
on the lines provided. Fill in the missing word. [8 x 1 mark each = 8 marks]
a) The set of characteristics that describe a material are called the
of that material.
The set of characteristics that describe a material are called the
properties of that material.
b) Materials that can be hammered into thin sheets are called
. (Metals have this property.)
Materials that can be hammered into thin sheets are called malleable.
c) Materials that can be bent are called . (Some plastics
have this property.)
Materials that can be bent are called flexible.
d) The boiling point of a material is the at which the
liquid state of that material turns into a gas.
The boiling point of a material is the temperature at which the liquid
state of that material turns into a gas.
e) When we want to measure temperature we use a .
When we want to measure temperature we use a thermometer.
f) The boiling point of water at sea level is .
The boiling point of water is 100 °C.
g) A material that conducts heat well is said to have a high
.
A material that conducts heat well . is said to have a high
heat conductivity.
h) If you want to create a circuit for a bulb, the material that you use in
the circuit to connect the battery to the bulb must have a high
.
If you want to create a circuit for a bulb, the material that you use in
the circuit to connect the battery to the bulb must have a high
electrical conductivity.
2. State whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE. If you
think a statement is FALSE, you have to write a TRUE statement in its
place. [4 x 2 marks each = 8 marks]
a) All liquids boil at 100°C.
FALSE: There are a few alternative true statements possible:
• Not all liquids boil at 100°C.
• Water boils at 100°C.
• Each liquid has its own unique boiling point.
b) Water always boils at 100°C.
FALSE: At sea level, water boils at 100°C. (At higher altitudes water
boils at temperatures slightly below 100°C.)
c) Any given material will melt and freeze at the same temperature.
TRUE
d) When water is boiled over a bigger flame, it will boil at a higher
temperature.
FALSE: Two alternative TRUE statements are possible:
• When water is boiled over a bigger flame, it will boil at the same
temperature, namely 100°C (at lower altitude/at sea level).
• When water is boiled over a bigger flame, it will boil more quickly
(sooner).
...

3. A scientist wants to determine the boiling point of an unknown liquid. She
places the unknown liquid in a beaker and carefully heats it on a hot plate.
The scientist measures the temperature of the liquid at regular time
intervals (every 3 minutes). Afterwards, she draws the the following graph:
a) At what temperature does the unknown liquid boil? Show this

temperature on the graph. [2 marks]
The unknown liquid boils at 65°C. (Learner must indicate this
temperature on the graph.)
b) How long does it take for the unknown liquid to start boiling? [1 mark]
The unknown liquid starts to boil. after approximately 40 minutes.
c) The scientist suspects that the unknown liquid is one of the substances
on the following list. Use the list to identify the unknown liquid. Say
why you think it is this substance. [2 marks]
Substance Boiling point ( °C )
Acetone 56
Methanol 65
Ethanol 78
Isopropanol 83
Water 100
The unknown liquid is methanol. The boiling point of methanol is the

same as that of the unknown liquid, namely 65°C.
d) What was the temperature of the unknown liquid at the start of the
experiment? [1 mark]
21°C
Total [22 marks]

.
.
. .

2 Separating mixtures
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
2 weeks
'Mixtures' was first introduced in Gr. 6, so learners should already be familiar

with these concepts. Learners would have also looked at some of the physical
methods of separating different types of mixtures (including hand sorting,
sieving, filtration), and this year we will explore some additional methods in
more detail (including distillation and chromatography).
2.1 Mixtures (1 hour)

Sorting and classifying,
Activity: Types of
communicating, group Suggested
mixtures
discussions
2.2 Methods of physical separation (4 hours)

Activity: Thinking Sorting and .classifying,
Suggested
about hand sorting comparing
Activity: Thinking about Sorting and classifying,
Suggested
sieving and filtering comparing
Activity: Thinking about Sorting and classifying,
Suggested
magnetic separation comparing
Activity: What if we
Demonstrating
want to keep both the CAPS suggested
distillation
water and the salt?
Activity: How can we
Demonstrating
separate two liquids
distillation using Liebig Optional, extension
with different boiling
condenser
points?
Separating ink by
chromatography,
hypothesising, doing
Investigation: Is black investigation,
CAPS suggested
ink really black? observing, recording
information, comparing,
interpreting
information,
Designing and
explaining, planning
Activity: Separating a
investigation, sorting CAPS suggested
complex mixture
and classifying,
comparing, writing,
222
2.3 Sorting and recycling materials (1 hour)

Communicating, group
Activity: What happens discussions, .writing,
when we throw things identifying problems Suggested
away? and issues, raising
questions
Activity: Careers Discussing,
Optional
research task communicating
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• How can we explain the term 'mixture'?
• What types of materials can be mixed?
• What methods can be used to separate a mixture into its original
components?
• Which factors are important when choosing a method for separating a
mixture into its components?
• Which materials can be recycled?
• Who is responsible for the disposal of waste materials?
• What are the negative consequences of poor waste management?
.
2.1 Mixtures
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
In the first section of this chapter, learners will learn how to identify mixtures.
One of the central ideas in this section is that the components in a mixture are
not chemically joined. They still exist as separate compounds that have not
reacted with each other in any way. For that reason, mixtures can be separated
using physical methods. Physical methods can not be used to separate
elements that are chemically joined.
.
In order to make this section more interesting you could provide small samples
of each of the mixtures discussed and ask learners to draw them, paying close
attention to any features that a particular mixture may have. When they are
faced with a solution (water and sugar, for instance) they might notice that
there are no visible features to draw. This will help establish in their minds that
solutions are mixtures where the substances are so intimately mixed (literally on
the level of individual particles) that we cannot make out separate substances
anymore.
What does it mean to mix something? Can you mime an explanation (that
means you have to explain without saying a single word!)
. .
Chapter 2. Separating mixtures 223

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Get your learners to act out the word 'mix'. Learners might make stirring
. seem trivial but their attention will
motions with their arms. This exercise may
immediately be focussed (and their learning enhanced) if they are engaged in
this way. Using gestures that require learners to move their bodies has been
shown to enhance learning even at university level!
Is it possible to mix water? Discuss this with your class.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some learners may say no, you need two or more things mixed together to have
a mixture. Other learners may answer that. it is possible to mix hot water with
cold water. Point out that the end result would just be water, and not really a
mixture of hot and cold water; once mixed, the water would have the same
temperature throughout.
One substance alone cannot be a mixture. A mixture is made up of two or more

different substances.
A mixture can contain solids, liquids and/or gases. The components in a mixture
are not chemically joined; they are just mixed. That means we do not need to
use chemical reactions to separate them. Mixtures can be separated using
physical methods alone and that is what this chapter is all about: how to
separate mixtures.
There are many different kinds of mixtures. Before we learn how to separate
them, it is worth looking at all the different kinds of mixtures briefly.
Different kinds of mixtures
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is a revision of the types of mixtures. that one can get, which has been done
in Gr. 6 Matter and Materials. If you feel your learners have already grasped this,
you can go through it briefly by just looking at the different pictures provided
and ask learners what types of mixtures they are.
...

A mixture of a solid and a solid
Can you think of an example of a

mixture of a solid and a solid? Soil
is an example of a mixture of solids.
What are the substances found in
soil?
Soil is a mixture of different

components.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Soil can contain clay, sand and small pebbles. Soil can also contain bits of plant
matter. Clay and dust particles are very small, and sand particles are larger.
Pebbles are even larger.
A mixture of a solid and a liquid
What happens when clay or sand is mixed with water? Would you be able to
see through a mixture of clay and water?
The mixture of clay or sand with

water is muddy. The small clay
particles become suspended in the
water. This kind of mixture is called a
suspension. Suspensions are opaque;
that means they are cloudy and we
cannot see through them very well.
What happens when sugar is mixed

with water? Does the mixture
become muddy? Why not? The sugar
Can you see the difference between
an opaque suspension of sand and dissolves in the water and the mixture
clay in water (on the left) and a clear is called a solution. Solutions are
solution of sugar in water on the clear; that means we can see through
right? them.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Keep in mind that some mixtures that we expect to be solutions end up being
suspensions. A good example is table salt. and water that could end up looking
cloudy because of the starch (free-flowing agent). In this case it would be
better to use pure sea salt. (You could also use this apparent paradox as the
basis of an extension activity about what appearances allow us to infer in
certain situations.)
. .

A mixture of a solid and a gas
Have you ever seen smoke from a fire?

What is the smoke made of? Do you
think it is a mixture?
The black smoke from a burning

building.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. of soot and ash and dust that mix
Smoke is actually made of tiny solid lumps
with the air (which is a gas) and water vapour (also a gas). That makes smoke a
mixture of one or more solids and gases.
A mixture of a liquid and a liquid
Milk is not a single substance, but actually a mixture of two liquids! The one
liquid component in milk is water, and the other is fatty oil. The reason milk is
opaque is that tiny droplets of the oil is suspended in the water. Can you
remember what a mixture is called when a solid is suspended in liquid?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
We use milk as an example of a suspension, however, milk is actually more
complex since it also contains solutes. It is a great example of a mixture that has
both solution and suspension (emulsion). components. Flour or maizena mixed
with water also makes a good suspension which settles after some time. This is
also a good opportunity to revise the terms solute, solvent and solution, namely
the solute (for example sugar) is the substance that is dissolved in the solvent
(for example water) to form a solution (for example sugar water).
When some liquids are suspended in liquid, we call the mixture an emulsion.
Like suspensions, emulsions tend to be opaque.
...

Are all liquid-liquid mixtures emulsions?
(One way to recognise an emulsion is
that it is opaque). Are all liquid-liquid
mixtures opaque? Can you think of a
liquid-liquid mixture that is not an
emulsion? Discuss this with your class
and give an answer below.
A clear, transparent solution on the left

and an opaque emulsion on the right
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Firstly, no, not all liquid-liquid mixtures are opaque. Secondly, most solutions
that learners will be able to think of are essentially solid-liquid mixtures at the
fundamental level. It is good enough for learners at this level to offer examples
of liquid-liquid mixtures such as 'a mixture of apple juice and water'.
A better example of a liquid-liquid solution is vinegar, which is a mixture of

.
ethanoic acid (acetic acid) - a liquid at room temperature - and water. This
example might be a sensible inclusion since it would serve as early introduction
to households acids that will feature prominently in the next chapter (Acids and
Bases). If learners are given a vinegar sample to draw, it would be better to
provide a sample of white vinegar, since it contains less solid matter. Once
again they will be confronted with the realisation that the solution does not
have visible features. Another opportunity to establish that solutions are
mixtures where the substances are so intimately mixed that we cannot make
out separate substances anymore.
A mixture of vinegar and water is clear, and that is a clue that the mixture is a
solution.
Solutions are special kinds of mixtures in which the particles are so well mixed
that they are not separated from each other. We cannot make out separate
substances anymore - everything looks the same when we look with the naked
eye.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The particle model of matter will only be dealt with in detail in Gr. 8, but the
following kinds of visual representations may aid understanding of abstract
concepts. You can draw these on the board . with different colours. Learners
were exposed to similar images in Gr. 6. However, it is not critical at this stage
and you do not need to go into detail. Solutions look glassy/translucent, and
the solid particles cannot be seen. The substances cannot be separated by
filtration (dealt with later in this chapter).
. .

.
Particles in a solution. Notice that the blue Particles in a suspension or emulsion.

particles are more or less evenly spaced Notice that the blue particles are present in
amongst the white ones. little clumps or clusters amongst the white
ones.
In a suspension, one of the substance's particles are always clumped together.

Sometimes one can even see little globs of oil (in the case of an emulsion) or
little lumps of solid (in the case of a suspension) suspended in the liquid.
A mixture of a gas and a gas

We learnt in Gr. 6 Matter and Materials that the particles of gases are far apart.
This means that gases can mix very easily, because it is easy for their particles
to move in amongst each other. The air we breathe is not a single gas but
actually a mixture of gases! Do you know what the two most abundant
components are?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Nitrogen gas and oxygen gas. Learners may say oxygen and carbon dioxide;
nitrogen is actually the main component of air (roughly 80%) followed by
oxygen (roughly 18%). Carbon dioxide is present in much smaller quantity.
VISIT
An artists, Berndnaut
Smilde, uses a fog machine
to make small.clouds inside A mixture of a liquid and a gas
a room which only last a few
seconds. A wonderful
example of science as art! Do you remember that we discussed boiling in the previous chapter (Properties
bit.ly/16wwlA6
of Materials)? What happens to a liquid when it boils?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
The liquid turns to a gas.
...

Can you see the water vapour in the
picture of a boiling kettle? Point to it
with your finger. Discuss this with your
teacher and classmates and when you
have agreed on an answer, draw an
arrow onto the picture to indicate the
water vapour.
Can we see most gases? Why do you

think so?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A suggestions is to do a demonstration of this in class if you can get a kettle and
plug it in to show learners the colourless steam at the spout of the kettle.
Learners may point to the cloud in front of the kettle. This is not actually water
vapour, which would be invisible to the human eye. The cloud forms when the
water vapour cools down sufficiently to condense into micro-droplets that are
visible to the human eye.
We will only see the water when it starts to condense. When the water particles
condense, they become liquid water again. That means the particles start
clinging together in tiny micro-droplets, which grow into larger droplets when
they come together. The small cloud of in front of the kettle is actually a cloud
of micro-droplets of liquid water suspended in air. This is an example of a liquid
suspended in a gas. .
The image below indicates where the arrow should be drawn:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Most gases are colourless and cannot be. seen. We cannot see individual
particles as they are too small. However, some gases (such as Chlorine and
Fluorine) can be seen because they are coloured.
Clouds and fog or mist are all examples of tiny water droplets suspended in air.
. .

We have learnt that mixtures can be made of substances in the same state or in
different states. The following activity will help us apply our new knowledge
about mixtures to more examples.
ACTIVITY: Types of mixtures

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Look at the list of mixtures. Discuss in your group, or with your partner,
what each mixture consists of.
2. Identify the type of substances (solid, liquid or gas) that are mixed in each
of the examples on the list.
3. Write the name of each example in the appropriate block on the diagram.
Mixtures:
• air
• smoke
• hair oil (emulsion of oil and water)
• clear fruit juice (eg. apple juice)
• cloudy apple juice
• salty water
• alloys such as brass (used for coins) and stainless steel (used for
rust-resistant metal items)
• foam plastic (like the material used for making mattresses and pillows)
• spray deodorant .
• air freshener (aerosol type)
• paint
• dust cloud
• soil
For instance, sugar dissolved in water would go in the middle block of the
bottom row, to show that it is a solid (sugar) mixed with a liquid (water).
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Gas-gas mixtures: Air
Gas-liquid mixtures: spray deodorant and air freshener
Gas-solid mixtures: smoke, dust cloud and foam plastic

..
Liquid-liquid mixtures: Clear fruit juice, hair oil
Solid-liquid mixtures: Salty water, paint (an emulsion/suspension of solid

pigments particles in water or oil), cloudy apple juice (tiny bits of pulp are solid,
and suspended in the juice)
Solid-solid mixtures: Alloys, soil

.
.
Why do we make mixtures? Mixtures have many uses: perhaps we are mixing
ingredients to bake a cake, or mixing metals to make a really strong alloy.
A cake is a mixture of ingredients, including flour, eggs and milk.
Many things around us occur naturally as mixtures: salty sea water, moist air,
soil, compost, rocks (mixture of minerals) to name a few. Many mixtures are
man made, for instance; Coca Cola, paint, salad dressing and so forth.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You can ask your learners what we use paint for. Paint is used to cover walls and
other surfaces. Sometimes we want to protect these surfaces against water or
wind (for instance when we are painting. an outside wall or roof) and sometimes
we just want to make them look attractive (for instance when we paint an inside
wall, or when we create a beautiful artwork). The water or oil in the paint helps
us to spread the pigments more evenly over the surface that we want to cover
and binds the pigments tightly so that the paint forms a protective layer.
Mixtures are very useful. However, sometimes we need to separate mixtures

into their components. Remember that the substances in a mixture have not
combined chemically. They have not turned into new substances, but are still
the same substances as before - they have just been physically combined. That
is why we can use physical methods to separate them again.
. .

.
2.2 Methods of physical separation
Now that we know about the different kinds of mixtures that are possible, we
are going to learn about some ways of separating them.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As an introduction to this you can ask learners about why they think we would
want to separate mixtures. For example, imagine that our drinking water comes
from a well in the ground and it is muddy.
. Muddy water is not good to drink.
We would want separate the water from the solid material (sand or clay) before
using it! Once separated, we would keep the water to drink and throw the sand
away. Ask learners if they can think of a way to separate the water from the
sand? Learners may suggest filtration (filtering) as a method for separating the
sand and water.
How do we separate mixtures?

Suppose you were given a basket of apples and oranges. How would you sort
them? You would probably pick out all the oranges from the apples by hand.
The same method may not be suitable for all mixtures. You would probably not
consider sorting sugar and sand grains by hand. Why not?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Sugar and sand grains are too small to be sorted by hand, and they look very
much the same. It would not be practical to sort them in this way.
Let us look at some of the most commonly used methods of physical

separation.
Hand sorting
How would you separate the mixture

of beads in the adjacent picture into
the different colours?
A mixture of different coloured beads.
.
VISIT TEACHER'S NOTE
Sometimes people create
.
.
machines to perform tasks The most practical method would probably be to hand sort them into different
for them, like this Skittles colours.
sorting machine.
bit.ly/1cx5078
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The video about the Skittles sorting machine
. is merely for entertainment, but it
could be used to introduce discussions on fun 'explorations' and hobbies that
challenge us as a starting block for innovation and useful applications of
technology.
ACTIVITY: Thinking about hand sorting

.
1. Would hand sorting also be a practical way to sort out the mixture of rice
and lentil beans in the picture below?
A mixture of rice and lentils

.
Yes, as long as there are not too many of them to sort.
2. Would hand sorting be a practical way to sort the pebbles out of a large
pile of sand?
Probably not. It would take way too long!
3. Besides what we discussed in the chapter, think of at least three other
examples of mixtures that could be hand sorted.
Learner-dependent answer. Suggestions may include:
• Sorting thorns from wool
• Sorting lego blocks into different sizes or colours
• Sorting stones from a packet of dried lentils or beans
• Sorting mail
• Sorting fruit or eggs according to size or grade
4. When is hand sorting a good method for separating the components in a
mixture?
When the 'particles' in the mixture are relatively large and when there are
not too many of them to sort.
Sieving
Can you think of a practical way to sort stones or pebbles from sand? Do you
think picking the pebbles out by hand would work?
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
It probably is not a good idea to hand sort as it would take too long.
When we have large quantities of

materials to sort and the different
particles have different sizes, we
can sieve the mixture. The smaller
particles will fall through the
openings in the sieve, while the
larger particles stay behind.
How would you separate the pebbles
from the sand in this pile?
Filtration
When the particles in a mixture are

too small to be caught by a sieve
and when the components of the
mixture are in different states, we
can separate them by filtration
using a filter.
What type of mixture is the muddy

water in the glass an example of?
Muddy water is poured through a funnel

lined with filter paper to remove the
small sand and clay particles.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners did an exercise in Chapter 6 of Matter and Materials in Gr. 6 on cleaning
muddy water. The chapter entitled 'Processes to purify water' required learners
.
to design, make and evaluate their own filter. You can demonstrate the process
again to refresh their memories. To set up a filter (as shown below), place a
folded piece of filter paper in a funnel and place the funnel into a flask. Then,
pour a mixture of muddy water into the filter and let the learners observe that
clean water passes through the filter, whilst the mud/sand/clay remains behind.
...

. TAKE NOTE
TEACHER'S NOTE The clear liquid that has
. passed through the filter
It is a mixture of solid and liquid, it is a suspension. You can get learners to label . the filtrate
paper is called
the suspension, the filtrate and the residue on this diagram. and the particles that are left
behind on the filter paper is
called the residue
Have you ever noticed how, when

people have to work in dusty or
smoky environments, they wear
dust masks or smoke masks? Why
do you think that is necessary?
A firefighter wears a mask to filter

out the smoke.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Inhaling dust or smoke is harmful to our lungs. The masks help to clean the air
before it enters the respiratory tract.
The following diagram shows how a gas mask works. Layers of very fine filters
trap harmful substances and dust or smoke particles, so that only clean air is let
through.
. .

A smoke mask consists of filter layers which clean the dirty air before it is breathed into
the body.
ACTIVITY: Thinking about sieving and filtering

.

mixtures that could be sieved, and write them in the space below.
Sieving flour to remove lumps, husks and other large bits
Pouring tea through a sieve to catch the tea leaves (this is a crude way of
filtering)
.
Rinsing sand or soil from spinach leaves before we cook them
Filtering leaves out of a swimming pool (we call it filtering, but what we are
actually doing is sieving the leaves out of the water)
2. When is sieving a good method for separating the components in a
mixture?
When the components of the mixture have different sizes and there are
many of them to sort.
3. Nowadays most people use tea bags to make tea, but there was a time
when people brewed tea from leaves and then poured the tea through a
sieve into the cup. Why do you think they did this?
...

Tea leaves and bits have collected in the sieve after pouring the tea into the cup.
To remove the tea leaves from the tea before drinking it.
4. Sometimes the particles that we want to remove from a mixture are so
small that they will pass easily through
. a sieve (think of the example of the
muddy water from before). Can you think of a way to overcome this?
Learners may realise that they need to make the openings in the sieve
smaller if they want to catch smaller particles.
mixtures that could be filtered, and list them below.
Filtering coffee grounds through a coffee filter or in a plunger
The vacuum cleaner has a filter for trapping dust particles inside the
machine and letting clean air through. That is how it removes dust particles
from the carpet and furniture.
Air conditioners contain filters to filter out dust before the air from outside
enters a building.
6. When is filtering a good method for separating the components in a
mixture?
When the 'particles' in the mixture are very small, and in different states. .
.
Can you remember the activity from Gr. 6 when Tom used magnetism to
separate different kinds of metals at his uncle's junk yard? The magnetic
properties of the metals allowed them to be separated in this way.
Magnetic separation
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You could demonstrate how, or let the learners
. try, to separate a mixture of
sand and iron filings by using a magnet. It might help to place the magnet in a
small plastic bag so the iron filings are attracted to the magnet, but do not stick
to it.
The following diagram shows how magnetic separation can be used to separate
a mixture of components. In the example, mineral ore that contains two
compounds (one magnetic, and the other non-magnetic) is being separated.
The ore grains are fed onto a revolving belt. The roller on the end of the belt is
magnetic. This means that all the magnetic grains in the ore will stick to the belt
when it goes around the roller, while the non-magnetic grains will fall off the
. .

end. As soon as the magnetic grains move past the magnetic roller, they will
also fall down.
In the above diagram, what colour are the non-magnetic grains and into which
container do they fall? Label this on the diagram. What colour are the magnetic
grains and which container do they fall into?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The non-magnetic grains are yellow-orange and fall into the container on the
left. the magnetic grains are grey-brown and fall into the container on the right.
The diagram should be labelled as follows:
ACTIVITY: Thinking about magnetic separation

.
1. Besides what we discussed in the chapter, can you think of two other
mixtures that could be separated magnetically? Write them in the space
.
provided.
Removing iron filings (magnetic) from sand or sugar (non-magnetic).
Separating aluminium cans (non-magnetic) from steel cans (magnetic).
2. When is magnetic separation suitable for separating the components in a
mixture?
...

When the components in the mixture have different magnetic properties, in
.
other words when one or more components in the mixture is magnetic and
the others are non-magnetic. .
.
How can we separate the components in a solution? Let's find out.
Separating solutions
The substances in a solution are mixed on the level of individual particles. In a
sugar and water solution, the sugar particles and the water particles are mixed
so well that we could not distinguish them with the naked eye. You might think
that mixtures that are so 'well-mixed' are impossible to separate! But as we shall
soon see, this is not true.
Separation by evaporation
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Demonstrate this in a lesson by dissolving some salt in water in front of the class
at the beginning of the lesson. Make sure they take note of the clear solution.
Then pour a little into a shallow aluminium . pan, like those used for baking. Place
this out in a sunny spot for the duration of the lesson and allow the water to
evaporate. The rate of evaporation will depend on how hot and humid it is on
the day you do this. At the end of the lesson, collect the pan and show the dried
salt that is left behind, just as in a salt pan. You might have to leave it out until
the end of the day, depending in how hot it is.
Do you know where most of the salt that we use in South Africa comes from?
South Africa gets it salt from inland salt pans, coastal salt pans and seawater. A
salt pan is a shallow dam in the ground where salt water evaporates to leave a
layer of dry salt.
An aerial view of salt pans. Salt pans in India. A man is busy collecting
the dried salt to be packaged and sold.
When sea water is allowed to stand in shallow pans, the water gets heated by
sunlight and slowly turns into water vapour, through evaporation. Once the
water has evaporated completely, the solid salt is left behind.
. .

Do you think this is a good method for separating salt from water? Do you think
it would work for a sugar and water solution?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Yes, it would.
ACTIVITY: What if we want to keep both the

water and the salt?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If you have time to do this in class, you can demonstrate this practically. Get
learners to taste the salt water before boiling and then getting them to taste the
condensed water afterwards. This way they will realise that only the water has
evaporated and the salt has remained behind
. in the kettle. You could put the ice
in a small plastic bag to ensure that the ice does not slip off the plate, but the
plate is still cold enough for water vapour to condense. Keeping the ice in a
plastic bag will also ensure that the melting ice does not drip into the beaker
collecting condensed water. You can also use a beaker or glass of salt solution
over a bunsen burner and use a cold piece of glass or mirror to condense the
water and collect it in another beaker.
QUESTIONS:
1. Do you think separation by evaporation would be a good method to

separate a salt-water-solution if you
. wanted to keep both the salt and the
water? Why do you say so?
Evaporation by itself is not a good method of separation if you want to
keep both the salt and the water. Once the water evaporates, it is lost.
2. Can you think of a way to modify the method so that the water that
evaporates is not lost? Perhaps the following diagram will help you to
formulate a plan. Write an explanation below.
In the picture, the salt-water solution is heated in a kettle, and a metal plate
(with some ice inside to keep its outer surface cold) is held in the water
...

vapour that is escaping from the spout of the kettle. The water vapour
cools when it touches the cold metal plate and condenses. It then runs off
the plate and into the collection beaker. The salt is left behind in the kettle
once all the water has evaporated. But, you still have the water in the
beaker.
3. What is happening in the kettle?
Salt water is boiling.
4. Can you say what change in state is happening inside the kettle? What is
the process called?
Liquid water is changing to water vapour. The process is evaporation.
5. What change of state is occurring on the cold surface of the metal plate?
What is the process called? (Hint: the change of state from gas to liquid
was covered in the previous chapter, under Physical properties of
materials.)
Water vapour is changing to liquid water.
. The process is called
condensation.
6. Does the salt evaporate with the water? How would you find out?
No. You can taste that the water is salty before evaporation, and not salty
after condensation. If you boil the water until all of it has evaporated, you
can see salt crystals form.
7. What can you tell about the purity of the water after it has evaporated and
condensed?
It does not taste salty after evaporation/condensation so we assume that it
is pure, but it may have other things in it which we can't taste.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Some things we can't detect or taste, for example, if we were using sea water.
.
.
The water that is lost through evaporation can be condensed on a cold surface.
The cold metal plate will do the job, but it would be difficult to recover all the
condensed water, because it will be dripping off the surface of the plate in many
different places. Scientists have a solution for that problem: they use a special
technique to separate mixtures like these without losing any of the components.
The technique is called distillation.
Distillation
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If you have the equipment to set up this distillation process, then you can
demonstrate it in class. Otherwise there are alternative materials and equipment
that you can use. For example, if you do not have a Liebig condenser, you can
use a piece of copper pipe. Here are two links which explain how to build your
own distillation equipment: .
http://www.instructables.com/id/Build-a-Lab-Quality-Distillation-Apparatus
and http://nukegingrich.files.wordpress.com/2009/06/diy-still.pdf. Another
suggestion is to get learners to also do the research to see how to make their
own distillation apparatus, specifically looking at materials which are easy and
cheaper to come by. You do not have to have laboratory equipment to
demonstrate many science experiments - many can just be done by thinking of
the materials which you use in everyday life and making a plan! This also makes
. .

science more accessible to everyone. .
Distillation is the separation of one substance from another by evaporation

followed by condensation. The apparatus used in this technique is called a still.
VISIT
. about the
Find out more
distillation of crude oil in this Experimental setup for distillation
video bit.ly/14n3a3J
Suppose we want to separate the water and salt in seawater. We would place
the seawater in the round flask on the left of the picture (in the distillation flask).
We would then boil the seawater to produce water vapour, or steam. The salt
would not evaporate with the water, because only the water evaporates. The
water vapour rises through the top of the flask and passes into the Liebig
condenser.
Two Liebig condensers which are used in the distillation process
The Liebig condenser consists of a glass tube within a larger glass tube. The
VISIT
condenser is designed in such a way that cold water can flow through the space
. how a
A video describing
solar still can desalinate between the tubes. This cools the surface of the inner tube. The water vapour
(take salt out of) water. condenses against this cold surface and flows into the receiving flask. Since the
bit.ly/14zWJwW
salt has not evaporated, it stays behind in the distillation flask.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The solar still video is short but provides. an interesting topic for discussions:
applications of separating methods; inventions; advantages and disadvantages;
you could even discuss open-source projects and sharing information. The
...

Italian inventor of the Eliodomestico solar still designed it with developing
countries in mind. It is relatively cheap, easy to assemble, and requires no
electricity. It is described as an eco-distiller that runs on solar power. All you
need to do is pour in 5 litres of salty or impure
. water, tighten the cap, and leave
it out in the sun. By the end of a day it can provide bacteria-free, salt-free water
that is suitable for drinking. It is also an open-source project which means that
anybody can use the design and replicate, modify or upgrade it, but not sell it
for profit.
Distillation is also the best way to separate two liquids that have different
boiling points, like water and ethanol for example. Let us have a look.
ACTIVITY: How can we separate two liquids with

different boiling points?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This is an optional activity, or else it could be done as a homework task. It is an
extension of what learners would have learnt about using distillation.
QUESTIONS:
1. Can you remember the temperature at which water boils? Write it down
below.
100°C
2. What is this temperature called?
The boiling point of water.
3. Ethanol boils at a temperature lower than the boiling point of water,
namely 78°C. Suppose you mix some . water and some ethanol. The mixture
is at room temperature to begin with. Now suppose you start heating the
mixture. What temperature would be reached first: 78°C or 100°C?
78°C
4. What do you think will happen when the mixture reaches a temperature of
78°C? Do you think the ethanol will start to boil?
Learners could be reminded that the ethanol is still ethanol, it has not been
changed in the process of mixing, so it will most certainly start to boil at
78°C.
5. Will the water boil at the same time?
No. Water only starts to boil at 100°C. As long as the temperature is below
100°C, the water will not boil.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
These questions are identical to the ones. posed in the original activity. They
were included in the original activity to serve as introduction for the concept of
distillation.
. .

We can use the same distillation method that we used for separating seawater,
to separate the two liquids. The principle is exactly the same, except that we
will distill the mixture more than once. Here is how it works:
The mixture of the two liquids is placed in the distillation flask and heated to the
lowest boiling point. In the case of an ethanol/water mixture, that temperature
would be the boiling point of ethanol, namely 78°C. All of the liquid with that
boiling point will evaporate, condense in the Liebig condenser, and pass into the
receiving flask. The liquid with the higher boiling point will remain in the
distillation flask. Suppose it contains a third substance that we want to
separate. How would you do this?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
We replace the receiving flask with a clean. one and heat the distillation flask
again, but this time to the boiling point of the second liquid. The second liquid
will evaporate, condense in the cooler and flow into the clean receiving flask,
leaving the final component in the mixture in the distillation flask.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The video about distillation of crude oil may be a bit too advanced, but it
summarises the process of fractional distillation quite well and mentions
relevant, real-world examples of products that are produced. Take note that the
video repeatedly mentions 'hydrocarbons'. . You can put the learners at ease and
tell them it is not important for them to know what this means yet. The periodic
table is only dealt with in Chapter 4, but you could help the learners 'decipher'
that the crude oil contains a lot of hydrogen particles and carbon particles put
together in different combinations (ratios). Each of the fractions that are
eventually collected contain one kind of hydrocarbon combination.
There is one more separation technique for us to explore. Have you noticed
how ink on paper will sometimes 'run' when it gets wet?
Can you see how the ink on this sign has run after being wet, probably by the rain?
...

Most inks are a mixture of different pigments, blended to give them just the
right colour. A pigment is a chemical that gives colour to materials. When a
mixture contains colourful compounds, it is often possible to separate the TAKE NOTE
different components using a separating method called chromatography. Let's Chromatography comes
have a look at this next. from from the.Greek words
chroma (meaning 'colour')
and graph (meaning 'to
Chromatography
write').
Chromatography is a method for separating coloured substances into individual

pigments. We are going to explore this in the next investigation.
INVESTIGATION: Is black ink really black?

.
AIM: To separate the pigment components in ink using different liquids.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is a fun activity that can be done quickly. If the class is divided into small
groups and each group gets a different black marker to experiment with, the
chromatograms can be stuck up on the wall afterwards for everyone to see and
compare. By looking for matching chromatograms, learners can say which
group had the same brand of marker, or which markers are filled with the same
ink. If the ink from a certain marker will not
. separate in one liquid, try using
another liquid in the beaker.
You could even build a story around the. investigation: Stage a murder mystery
in which the murderer can be identified by his (or her) black pen. Use three or
four black or blue pens of different brands, and produce the unique
chromatograms associated with each brand. The inks may look the same when
used for writing, but they will behave differently when they are analysed by
chromatography.
HYPOTHESIS:
What do you propose the answer to our investigative question is? This is your
hypothesis.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learner-dependent answer. A hypothesis could be 'Black ink is made up of
different coloured pigments.'
. .

• absorbent paper cut into strips approximately 3 cm wide and 12 cm long
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Laboratory Whatman filter paper no. 1 is ideal for chromatography.
.
Alternatively, you can use coffee filters, watercolour paper or strips of paper
towel. Even ordinary copy paper works, but more slowly and often this makes
the colours separate better. For softer papers you may need longer strips of
paper and taller containers, since the liquid is carried up the paper much faster.
TAKE NOTE
A solvent is a substance that
. resulting
dissolves a solute,
in a solution. A solvent is
• clear drinking glass or beaker
usually a liquid, but can also
• assorted black pens and markers
be a solid or a gas.
• tap water
• pencil
• paper clip or clothes peg
• filter paper
• dropper
• variety of liquid solvents (ammonia, surgical spirits, methylated spirits, and
nail polish remover)
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Possible hazards:
• Ammonia is a dissolved gas and a weak base. It is not likely to cause burns
but ammonia fumes can irritate the mucous membranes of your nose.
• Surgical spirits and methanol contain alcohol. Nail polish remover contains
acetone. Alcohol and acetone are flammable and should be kept away
from heat and flames. You should not inhale the vapours of these solvents.
Safe laboratory practice is extremely important. Take a moment to discuss risks,

precautions and safety with learners. Discuss the fact that scientists often need
to handle dangerous substances and/or equipment to be able to make
observations. .
When working with ammonia, take care to work in a fume hood or in a
well-ventilated space. Leave the door and windows open, so that the fumes do
not linger. Similarly, substances containing alcohol should be used in a
well-ventilated space, but these are also flammable, so avoid using them in the
presence of open flames.
It is always advisable to wear latex/nitrile gloves (available from pharmacies) to

prevent the absorption of hazardous substances through your skin. Wear safety
goggles to protect your eyes from harmful chemicals. Always have clean water
nearby to rinse your eyes or wash your hands if chemicals do splash or spill.
Careful laboratory practice will not only ensure your own safety, it will also set a
good example to learners.
...

METHOD:
To make a strip chromatogram
1. Use a black pen or marker to draw a line across one end of the paper strip,
2 cm from the end.
2. Pour tap water into the beaker to a depth of approximately 1 cm.
3. Wrap the unmarked end of the paper strip around the pencil and secure it
in place with a paper clip.
4. Before putting it into the glass, adjust the strip of paper so that the height
of the inked line is approximately 1 cm above the surface of the liquid by
holding it against the outside of the beaker.
5. Lower the strip into the glass and rest the pencil across the top of the glass
as shown in the diagram. The end of the strip should be in the water, but
the inked line should be above the surface of the water.
6. Allow the liquid to soak up into the paper, rising through the inked line. VISIT
.
Pen colour science.
bit.ly/13Py29D
7. When the migrating pigments approach the top of the strip, near the paper
clip, remove the paper strip and allow it to dry on a flat, non-porous
surface.
8. Make a similar strip chromatogram for each of the black pens you have
collected.
9. Compare the chromatograms. Are they the same or are they different?
10. When you have finished comparing your chromatogram with those of the
rest of the class, you can either stick your chromatogram in the following
space, or draw a picture of it in the space.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
You can also use a clothes peg to hold the strip in place while drying.
..
. .

To make a circular chromatogram
1. Lay a large round piece of filter paper on a smooth non-absorbent surface,

like the surface of your desk, for instance.
2. Use one of the coloured pens to make a 0.5 to 1 cm ink spot in the centre
of the disk.
3. Lay the paper disk flat over the top of a beaker.
4. Place a drop of water in the centre of the ink spot.
5. Add another drop of water every minute or so to make the chromatogram
spread toward the edges of the paper disk.
6. Repeat the experiment with one of the other solvents (ammonia, alcohol or
nail polish remover).
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Do the two chromatograms look the same or different? If they look

different, and you have used the same pen, why do you think that is?
2. Which colour pigments were you able to observe?
3. Draw pictures of your chromatograms in the space on the following page.
CONCLUSION:
1. What can you conclude about the pigments that make up black ink?
Learners should note that black ink is actually made up of a number of
different coloured pigments.
A closer look at how this works:
In paper chromatography, liquid is drawn through the paper fibers. But, why do
the pigments in the ink separate into bands of different colours?
The pigments in the ink are carried along by the liquid, but because they are
different compounds, they get carried upward at different speeds. This causes
them to appear as bands of different colours on the chromatogram.
Look at the picture of the chromatogram on the following page.

...

An example of a strip chromatogram
1. Which colour pigment is moving up the paper at the fastest speed? Why
do you say so?
The yellow pigment is moving the fastest because it has travelled the
longest distance.
2. Which colour pigment is moving up the paper at the slowest speed?
The green pigment is moving the slowest because it has travelled the
shortest distance.
Why are the different pigments carried at different speeds?
Pigments migrate at different speeds because of differences in their properties:

large pigment particles tend to move more slowly. Furthermore, particles that VISIT
.
dissolve well in the liquid will tend to stay in the liquid and be carried to the top Is black really black? (video)
bit.ly/1cMhHJC
quickly, while particles that bind well to the paper will tend to move more slowly.
Now that we have learnt about some of the different ways in which mixtures
can be separated, we are going to apply what we know to separate a mixture
made of many components.
ACTIVITY: Separating a complex mixture

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Some schools also use combo plates for the various practical tasks in Matter
and Materials. This is encouraged and the activities in these workbooks can be
adjusted slightly to work with whichever. equipment and apparatus you have
.
available to you in your school.
Also, if learners find the flow chart too complex at this stage, you can
alternatively get them to write out the steps they would follow to separate all
the materials in the mixture and why they have chosen each method of
separation.
Imagine you are a member of a team of scientists working together in a

laboratory. Your team has been given an important job. You have been given a
beaker that contains a mixture of substances to separate.
. .

The mixture contains the following components:
• sand
• iron filings
• salt
• ethanol
• water
Your job is to design a procedure for separating the mixture into its individual
components. How would you do that? Your procedure should be summarised in
the form of a flow chart.
Before you start, imagine what the mixture would look like. Draw a picture of
the a clear container and the different contents in the mixture in the space.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This may be a difficult task for the learners to accomplish, but it is very
important for the learners to be able to visualise the mixture before they start to
plan the experiment. If they do not, the ideas will remain abstract and the
learners may have difficulty sequencing the different separation steps correctly.
You could guide them by asking the following questions. Alternately, you could
prepare the mixture for them to look at it before drawing it:
• What does the container look like? Draw it on your page.

• Which liquids are in the container? .(Ethanol and water). Now draw the
container with a mixture of ethanol and water in it. Would you be able to
see the ethanol AND the water when they are mixed? (No, they would just
look like liquid in the container.) .
• Now add the sand. Would it mix with the water or sink to the bottom?
(Most of it would sink to the bottom.)
• Now add the iron filings. Would it mix with the water or sink to the
bottom? (It would sink to the bottom.)
• Now add the salt. Would the salt sink to the bottom or dissolve in the
water? (It would dissolve in the water.) Would we be able to see it if it was
dissolved in the water? (No.)
To help you design your procedure, here are a few guiding questions and a
template for your flow chart:
1. What is the physical state (solid, liquid or gas) of each of the components
in the mixture? Fill these into the table.
Component State (solid liquid or Dissolved or

(substance) gas) undissolved?
Iron solid undissolved
Sand solid undissolved
Salt solid dissolved
Ethanol liquid dissolved (in solution
with the water and
salt)
Water liquid dissolved (in solution
with the ethanol and
salt)
...

2. Name the solids that will not dissolve in the mixture. These are the
undissolved solids.
The sand and iron filings are undissolved.
3. Name the dissolved solids in the mixture.
Salt is the only dissolved solid.
4. What would be the best method for separating the undissolved solids from
the liquids in the mixture? Write the name of this method in the block
numbered 1 of the flowchart below.
Learners should write FILTRATION in block 1.
5. Write the names of the undissolved solids in block 2 of the flowchart.
Learners should write SAND and IRON FILINGS in block 2.
6. What remains after the undissolved solids have been removed from the
mixture? Write the names of these compounds in block 3.
Learners should write SALT, ETHANOL and WATER in block 3.
7. How could we separate the undissolved solids? (Hint: look at the flow
chart for some ideas.) Write the name of this process in block 4.
Learners should write MAGNETIC SEPARATION in block 4.
8. Write the names of the two undissolved solids in blocks 6 and 7.
Learners should write IRON FILINGS in block 6 and SAND in block 7.
9. How could we separate the liquids from the dissolved solid? We could
evaporate them, but then they would be lost. What other option is
available if we want to separate the components in a solution? Write the
name of this process in block 5.
Learners should write DISTILLATION in block 5.
10. Which liquid would be distilled first? (Hint: which liquid has the lowest
boiling point?) Write the name of this liquid in block 8.
Learners should write ETHANOL in block 8.
11. What remains in the solution when the first liquid is removed? Write the
names of these components in block 9. VISIT
.
Learners should write WATER and SALT in block 9. Summary of. separating
12. How can we separate the liquid from the dissolved solid? (Hint: this mixtures in short slideshows
bit.ly/1cMhKVY
process is the same as the one in block 7.) Write the name of the process
in block 10.
Learners should write DISTILLATION in block 10.
13. Write the names of the final two components in blocks 11 and 12.
Learners should write WATER in block 11 and SALT in block 12.
..
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Completed flowchart should look as follows:
..
So far, we have been discussing materials, their properties, how to mix them
and how to separate them if they are mixed. The final section of this chapter
deals with waste materials and what we can do to reduce their impact on the
environment.
.
2.3 Sorting and recycling materials
Over time, some of our things get old and break and we need to throw them
away. When we buy food or other items, the packaging used for wrapping
these items is also thrown away. But what does 'away' mean? Does it mean
these waste items just disappear? Where do you think our rubbish goes once
we 'throw it away'?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Allow learners to discuss this for a while.. Some may know that rubbish
eventually ends up on a rubbish dump somewhere, and this is a good starting
point for the next activity that will require learners to think about the
implications of dumping.
...

.
ACTIVITY: What happens when we throw things

away?
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Work in groups of 3 to 4.
2. In your group, spend 5 minutes discussing the posters and what you think
they mean. .
QUESTIONS:
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
'There is no away' and 'There is no Planet B' refers to the same issue, namely
that everything that we throw away remains part of our environment. We
should be thinking of ways to reintegrate . our waste by making it part of the
environment in ways that will not harm the environment; reusing, recycling and
repurposing waste items and materials in creative and innovative ways. 'There
is no Planet B' is also a play on words that refers to the well-known notion of a
'Plan B' that can be reverted to if the original plan (plan A) fails.
1. Write a paragraph to explain the messages on the posters. What do you

think they mean?
2. Do you think it is possible to stop throwing things away altogether?
Many things can be reused or recycled. Many of the waste that is not
recyclable can be turned into compost for the garden. Learners may have
interesting opinions about this question, and hopefully it will get them
thinking about creative ways of reusing and repurposing waste.
3. Can you suggest ways to reduce the amount of trash that is thrown away
in your home?
Learner-dependent answer. Learners should generate suggestions centred
on reusing, recycling and repurposing.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
An optional additional activity for this section is to get learners to assess how
poor waste management techniques impact the environment.
For this activity, learners must use materials that would ordinarily go into the
rubbish bin in your home (cereal boxes, cardboard, plastic wrappers etc) to
make a poster that will create awareness for the environmental problem that
concerns them the most. The poster should also contain suggestions for solving
the problem. Here are a few ideas, but they only need to choose one:
• Cigarette butts can start veld fires. .

• Broken glass bottles can start fires.
• Discarded plastics ensnare animals.
• Discarded plastic pollutes rivers and other natural habitats.
• Waste causes health hazards and spreads disease.
• Land is wasted when it is used to dump or bury garbage (landfills).
• Materials and other resources are wasted when it could have been
recycled.
Once learners have created their posters, you can stick them up around the
classroom and they can also do a short report back to the class. There is also
potential to do this activity as a group.
How is household waste managed by local authorities?

VISIT
Have you ever heard of the In some suburbs, recycling is actively encouraged and special transparent
Great Pacific Garbage
. Patch? recycling bags are provided for this purpose. Do you have recycling in your
Millions of tonnes of plastic
waste end up in the ocean, community? Is the recyclable waste collected from your home or do you have
and stay there. to drop it off at a container or a depot? Did you know that some people even
bit.ly/1950eda
make money selling recyclable waste that they collect?
Do you know which materials from household waste can be recycled? What are
the four main categories?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask your learners this question before moving on to the next section where this
will be discussed. The answers are:
• paper and cardboard .

• glass
• metal (tins and cans)
• plastics
Items that have to be disposed of with care and not dumped in regular trash,
include batteries, and fluorescent light bulbs.
...

Have you seen colourful bins similar to If you ever need to dispose of objects, like
these around your school or in shopping batteries and fluorescent light bulbs that
areas? They are for recycling. contain harmful substances, be sure to use
the correct recycling bin.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Here is an additional, optional activity, which you could get learners to do as a
homework task.
Activity: Other things we throw away
In this short activity, we are going to think about creative ways of dealing with
household waste items that are not in the 4 categories discussed above. For
each item in the table, some recycling ideas have been given.
Can you think of other ideas to add to the table? Discuss this in a group and
write them into the table.
Item Recycling ideas

Garden waste and other organic
waste such as vegetable peelings • These items can be turned into
and foods that have spoiled. compost.
• Cooked food, spoiled meat
or fish and bones should
. preferably be buried because
they can attract flies and other
pests. In this way they can
decompose underground and
provide nutrients to growing
plants in the garden.
Old clothes and other textile items;

old shoes. • Clothes, shoes, curtains, and
blankets that are still good
enough to be used can be
donated to shelters for the
homeless.
• Clothes that are too worn
can be turned into cloths
for washing the car or the
windows.
• Old jerseys can be sewn into
blankets or other items.
. .

Old and expired medicine
• Medicine that is old or expired
should never be repurposed. It
should be dropped off at your
. nearest clinic or pharmacy,
where they have methods for
destroying it.
Careers in chemistry
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Invite a chemist/scientist: Do you know someone who is a chemist or a
chemical engineer? Perhaps you live near a university? If you do, you could
invite a chemist to come to your school and talk to your class about the work
that chemists do. Alternatively, you could visit the chemist at their workplace
.
and ask them to show you around. You can get learners to prepare a few
questions beforehand; for instance, you could ask them about their work, their
training and what they think are the qualities needed if one wanted to become a
chemist. Just remember to make an appointment first!
This activity could be turned into a small group project and learners could be
required to write a short report on the information they have gathered.
Do you know what chemists do? Let's discover the possibilities of chemistry!
Chemists study various chemical elements and compounds, their properties and
how they react with each other. We will learn about elements and compounds
in the next chapter. Chemists are also responsible for developing new materials
with specific properties; such as new medicines; innovative materials for
building buildings and other structures; materials that could be used for making
fuels from renewable sources and many others.
If you study chemistry after you have finished school, you can work as a
researcher, a laboratory technician, a science teacher and many other important
and stimulating jobs! Be curious and discover the possibilities! Science can help
us solve problems in the world around us.
...

.
ACTIVITY: Careers research task

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This is not for assessment purposes and is aimed at getting learners to start
.
thinking about the possibilities for their futures. The emphasis should be on
discovering the possibilities that science, technology maths and engineering
give us, not just work opportunities, but using them to solve problems in the
world.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Below is a list of different careers that all use chemistry in some way. Have
a look through the list and then select one that you find most interesting.
2. Do an internet search to find out the . career involves.
3. Write a short description of this career. Find out what level of chemistry
you will need for this particular career.
4. There are many other careers besides the ones listed here which use
chemistry in some way, so if you know of something else which is not listed
here and it interests you, follow your curiosity and discover the
possibilities!
Some careers involving chemistry: VISIT

A useful site to.find out more
• Chemical education/teaching about some
• Chemistry researcher chemistry-related careers.
bit.ly/19cXkqe
• Environmental chemistry
• Mining industry
• Oil and petroleum industry
• Pharmaceuticals and drug discovery
• Space exploration
• Waste management
Your descriptions of the career you are interested in:
. .

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• A mixture consists of two or more components that have different

physical properties.
• The components in a mixture are not chemically joined; they do not
change their chemical identities and they retain their physical properties
as well.
• When we want to separate a mixture, we can use the differences in the
physical properties of the components of the mixture to separate the
components from each other.
• Hand sorting is a suitable separation method for a mixture that contains
a relatively small number of large items.
• Sieving is a suitable separation method when the pieces to be separated
are sized differently.
• Filtration is a good method for separating an undissolved solid from a
liquid.
• Components with different magnetic properties can be separated using
magnetic separation.
• Evaporation is a suitable separation method for removing a liquid from
a solid.
• Distillation is a suitable method for separating two liquids with different
boiling points.
• Chromatography is a good method for separating coloured pigments
from each other.
• Waste disposal should be managed in a responsible way so that the
negative impact on the environment is as small as possible.
• Metals, plastics, paper and glass can be recycled.
• Organic waste can be turned into compost.
• Responsible waste disposal is everyone's responsibility, but it is usually
managed by the local authorities, who have systems for sorting and
recycling waste.
• Poor waste management leads to negative consequences for humans,
animals and the environment. Some of these are:
– pollution of the soil, water resources and the environment;
– health hazards and the spread of disease;
– blockage of sewers and drainage systems;
– land wasted when it is used to dump or bury garbage (landfills);
and
– materials and other resources wasted when they could have been
recycled.
. Map
Concept
We looked at physical methods to separate mixtures and these are shown
in the concept map. Give an example of the types of mixtures you could
separate using three of these methods. What negative consequences does
human waste have on the environment? Fill these in the concept map.
...

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. Two important words have been left out of the following paragraph. The
missing words are chemical and physical. Rewrite the sentences and fill in
the missing words in the paragraph by placing each one in the correct
position:
The components in a mixture have not undergone any changes.
They still have the same properties they had before they were mixed. That
is why mixtures can be separated using methods. [1 mark]
The components in a mixture have not undergone any chemical changes.
They still have the same properties they had before they were mixed. That
is why mixtures can be separated using physical methods.
2. In the diagram below, iron filings and sulfur have been mixed. Write a short
paragraph (2 sentences) to explain how the mixture can be separated
using magnetic separation. [2 marks]
Learner's answer should contain the following elements:

• Iron filings are attracted to the magnet, but sulfur is not.
• If the magnet is held in the mixture the iron filings will cling to the
magnet, but the sulfur will stay behind in the bowl.
3. A vacuum cleaner creates a suspension of dust in air as it sucks up the dust
on the floor. Clean air comes out of the vacuum cleaner. How does the
vacuum cleaner separate the dust from the air? [2 marks]
The vacuum cleaner has a fine filter in it which traps the dust particles. The
clean air is able to get through the filter, but the dust is left behind. Some
more modern vacuum cleaners also filter the air through water which
cleans the air even further. Some very fine dust particles may be able to
get through the fine filter, but if the air is passed through water, then even
very fine particles are trapped.
4. Write a short paragraph (3 sentences) to explain how salt is produced
from seawater. [3 marks]
Learner's answer should contain the following elements:
• Seawater is allowed to stand in shallow pans.
• Sunlight heats the water and it evaporates.
• Solid salt is left behind, that can be dried and put into packages to be
sold.
5. Choose the correct word to complete the sentence from the following list:
colours; boiling points, tastes. Write the word below.
. .

Suppose we want to separate two liquids using distillation as separation
method. This will only be possible if the two liquids have different... [1
mark]
boiling points
6. The diagram below shows a strip chromatogram that is being prepared
from a spot of black ink. The strip on the left shows the chromatogram at
the start of the experiment, the strip in the middle shows the
chromatogram halfway through the experiment, and the strip on the right
shows the chromatogram at the end of the experiment.
a) How many different pigments does the black ink consist of? Explain
your answer. [1 mark]
b) Which pigment is moving up the paper at the fastest speed? Arrange
the pigments in order of increasing speed of movement. [2 marks]
a) Three different colour bands mean there are (at least) three different
pigments in the ink.
b) The blue pigment moves the fastest. Arranged in order of increasing
speed (from slowest to fastest moving pigment): yellow, then pink,
then blue. .
7. The table on the next page contains a list of mixtures. In the right hand
column, next to each mixture, write the best method for separating the
mixture into its components. [8 marks]
Mixture Separation method

Salt and water Distillation or evaporation
Sand and iron filings Magnetic separation
Sand and water Filtration
Colour pigments in ink Chromatography
Stones and sand Sieving
Ethanol and water Distillation
Oranges and apples Hand sorting
Sugar and iron filings Magnetic separation
8. Name the 4 classes of materials that can be recycled. [4 marks]
Glass, metal, plastic, paper.
9. Write a sentence to say how you would dispose of each of the following
non-recyclable materials: vegetable peels; old running shoes; expired
medicine. [3 marks]
Vegetable peels can be buried in the garden or turned into compost.
Old running shoes can be donated to someone who needs them, or to a
shelter.
Expired medicine should be taken to the pharmacy.
TOTAL: 27 marks
.
...

3 Acids, bases and neutral substances
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
2 weeks
This is the first time learners are introduced to acids and bases. The approach is
to start from the known and introduce the topic through learner's experiences
with everyday acids and bases. We will also first look at how we experience
acids and bases in foods. This links to Life and Living and the senses. We will
then look at acids and bases in the laboratory and the basic properties of acids,
bases and neutrals. They will look at acids and bases again in Gr. 9 in more
detail, also covering the pH scale, and the reactions of acids and bases.
3.1 Tastes of substances (1 hour)

Activity: Have a look
Observing, comparing Suggested
at your own tongue
3.2 Properties of acids, base and neutrals (2 hours)

Activity: True or Accessing and
Suggested
false? recalling information
Accessing and.
Activity: Acids and recalling information,
CAPS suggested
bases in our homes observing, comparing,
sorting and classifying
3.3 Acid-base indicators (3 hours)

Activity: Preparing
Following instructions,
and testing red
practical skills, Suggested
cabbage juice with
observing, comparing
acid and base
Activity: Making red
Following instructions,
cabbage indicator Optional
practical skills
paper
Hypothesising, doing
investigation,
Investigation: How
recording information,
does litmus respond CAPS suggested
comparing,
to acids and bases?
interpreting
information
Investigation: Is red Doing investigation,
cabbage paper recording information,
Optional
suitable as acid-base interpreting
indicator? information
264
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• Which tastes can we sense with our tongues?
• How does our sense of taste ensure our survival?
• What are the unique properties of:
– acids;
– bases;
– neutral substances?
• Which household substances are (or contain):
– acids;
– bases;
– neutral substances?
• How can we tell if something is an acid, a base or a neutral substance?
What do you know about acids? Would you touch an acid? Have you ever
tasted an acid? Do you think it is possible to taste an acid without burning your
tongue? What do you think it would feel like when an acid burned your tongue?
Before we talk more about acids, let us first examine the human tongue. It is a
most fascinating organ, and plays an important role in our sense of taste.
3.1 Tastes of. substances

What is your favourite food? What do you like most about your favourite food?
You will probably say that you just LOVE the taste of it! The taste of our
favourite foods make us feel good. How do we taste our food?
We taste food with tiny structures on our tongues!
Look in the mirror, and stick out your tongue. Look for small, round bumps.
These are called papillae. Most of them contain taste buds. The taste buds are
very small structures which have sensitive hairs. The chemicals in the food that
you eat dissolve into your saliva in solution. The chemicals then stimulate the
tiny hairs within the tastebuds and turn these signals into impulses. These
impulses travel to the brain allowing us to experience the sensation of taste.
. .
Chapter 3. Acids, bases and neutral substances 265

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners will study the nervous system in . more detail in Gr. 9 Life and Living, as
well as in Life Sciences if they carry on with the subject in Gr. 10. For now, this is
just interesting information about how we taste foods and distinguish between
different tastes.
ACTIVITY: Have a look at your own tongue

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
As a homework exercise, learners can do. the following activity. Otherwise, if
you have some mirrors available in the classroom, learners can have a look at
their tongues. If you do this in class, try bringing some lemons to class for
learners to taste and then describe their experiences.
MATERIALS:
• mirror
• pencil
• sugar water
• lemon juice
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Look in the mirror at your tongue.

2. Stick it out as far you can and try to. see the papillae. Are they larger in
some areas?
Close your eyes and imagine

biting into a slice of lemon. Can
you describe the experience?
What does the lemon taste like?
Sweet, sour, salty or bitter?
Have you tasted a lemon before?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Sour
If you have sugar solution and lemon juice available in the class, taste these
different substances. See if you can identify where on your tongue you taste the
two different tastes.
.
...

Your tongue can only sense four flavours
You can only sense four different tastes with your tongue. Can you name them?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Sweet, sour, bitter and salt.
The tongue map.
TAKE NOTE
The four main tastes that are most common, are sweet, sour, salt and bitter. .
A flavour is a combination of
These tastes combine to make up the different flavours of our foods.
tastes and smells.
How would you classify the taste of Many people really enjoy the
apples? Sweet or sour? Bitter? sour-salty taste of salt and vinegar
Perhaps a combination? chips!
There is a good reason for why we like certain tastes, but not others.
Our sense of taste protects us
Just as we like and seek out foods that taste good, our bodies have also been
programmed to avoid food with strong bitter or sour tastes. This helps to
protect us against poisons, which often have a strong bitter taste. 'Bitter' is also
the basic taste that our tongues are most sensitive to. Spoiled food often tastes
sour and it may also have a bad smell. Our instinct will be to avoid it, which will
protect us from becoming ill from ingesting the organisms that have spoiled the
food.
. .

Sweet almonds, such as these, are Cocoa beans come from cocoa
edible as they do not contain toxic pods. Chocolate is made from
chemicals, unlike the wild bitter cocoa, but cocoa is very bitter.
TAKE NOTE almonds. Lots of sugar is added to chocolate
to make it sweet.
When we want to say
something has the
Soon the link between the tongue and chemical substances will become clear.
. acid, we use
properties of an
the adjective acidic. When
we want to say something .
3.2 Properties of acids, bases and neutral substances
has the properties of a base,
we use the adjective basic.
In the previous section you had to imagine what it would feel like if an acid
burned your tongue. In the next section we are going to learn more about acids.
We will learn that they taste sour (and also why it is not a good idea to taste
them!).
We will also learn about other substances that have a special relationship with
acids. They are called bases. Finally, we will also learn about substances that are
neither acids or bases, but neutral substances.
Acids
Do you know the names of any acids? Think about this as a class and make a list
of all the acid names you have heard.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You can do this on the board and ask learners for their answers to write down.
Some examples might be vinegar (which. contains acetic acid), citric acid (found
in citrus fruits such as lemons, oranges and grapefruit), ascorbic acid (also
known as Vitamin C, which comes in tablets, capsules or chewable sweets, and
it occurs naturally in citrus fruit, tomatoes, strawberries), tartaric acid, etc).
There are many different acids. You might have already tasted an acid in class.
Was it the sugar water or the lemon juice?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Ask your learners these questions. The answers are: The lemon juice contains an
acid. The lemon juice was sour. Encourage. learners to write in their workbooks
and make notes in the margins and empty spaces! They should not be afraid of
scribbling and taking notes during class whilst you are talking or explaining a
concept. Taking notes is a very important skill to learn.
...

Do you like sour sweets, such as sour The juice of lemons is rich in ascorbic acid
worms? The sour taste comes from fumaric (vitamin C) and citric acid, which makes it
acid. Fumaric acid is a natural acid with a taste sour.
sour taste, that is often added to foods.
All acids taste sour. Does this mean that all acids are safe to taste? Definitely
NOT! Next, we will learn which acids should not be tasted under any
circumstances.
Laboratory acids
Some acids are very dangerous and

must be handled carefully. These acids
are corrosive. They can cause serious
burns on your skin. Scientists always
wear protective clothing when
handling these acids. It would be very
dangerous to taste them. These acids
are most often found and used in
laboratories and certain industrial
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is very processes. We will refer to them as
corrosive and dangerous. laboratory acids.
TAKE NOTE
The chemical.formula of a
substance tells us which
elements it contains.
This scientist is handling an acid. Can you Look out for this label on bottles which
see he is wearing protective clothing, contain corrosive substances, such as
gloves and safety glasses? strong acids.
. .

Name of the acid Formula of the acid
hydrochloric acid HCl
nitric acid HNO3
sulfuric acid H2 SO4
The above table contains the names and chemical formulae of the three most
common laboratory acids. Even though you have not learnt how to write
chemical formulae yet, we have included them here. You should handle
containers with these formulae printed on them with care.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. in detail in Gr. 9 Matter and Materials,
Learners will only study chemical formulae
however, this is a good opportunity to introduce them to the concept especially
so that learners are able to recognise dangerous chemical substances.
There are many other laboratory acids that we have not listed. These are only
the most common ones.
Other acids in the foods we eat are not dangerous. In fact, some are even vital
for our health and well-being. Let's now have a look at acids that are safe to
handle.
Natural and household acids
Not all acids are dangerous. One such acid is called ascorbic acid, or vitamin C.
Vitamin C helps our immune system. Which foods contain vitamin C? Have a
look at the pictures.
Kiwi fruit. Strawberries.
Broccoli. Bell peppers.
...

We will call the acids that we find in food natural acids. Many of these natural
acids are found in the kitchen. For this reason they are also sometimes called
household acids.
One very well-known

household acid is acetic acid.
Vinegar is a mixture of a small
amount of acetic acid dissolved
in water. So vinegar is a
solution of acetic acid in water.
Spirit vinegar and balsamic vinegar.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
. of the concepts learnt in Gr. 6 about
This is a good place to briefly revise some
solutions and mixtures, and to refer back to Chapter 2 about separating
mixtures.
ACTIVITY: True or false?

.
INSTRUCTIONS:
• Let's briefly revise some of the concepts we have learnt so far.

• Below are some statements. You need to state whether they are true or
false. If they are false, explain why.
True or false?
1. We can sense three tastes with our tongues.

False, we can sense four tastes, namely salty, sweet, sour and bitter.
2. Acids taste sour.
True
3. If we want to know if something is an acid, we can just taste it.
False, not all acids are safe to taste,. such as laboratory acids.
4. All acids are dangerous.
False, there are many household acids which are not dangerous, such as
acetic acid and acids in foods.
5. Vinegar is a mixture of a small amount of acetic acid dissolved in water.
True.
6. Laboratory acids must be handled with care and using protective clothing.
True
7. The following symbol means you can wash your hands using this
substance.
. .

False. This symbol means that the substance is corrosive, it is a warning.
8. Formic acid is commonly referred to as Vitamin C.
False, ascorbic acid is commonly referred
. to as Vitamin C.
9. Oranges are the food which contain the highest amount of ascorbic acid.
False, there are many other foods with higher ascorbic acid (Vitamin C),
such as strawberries and chillies.
.
Do you think that it would be possible for acids to lose their strength? There is
one class of compounds that can make acids lose their strength. These
compounds are called bases.
Bases
Bases can neutralise acids and vice versa. What does it mean to neutralise
something?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
At this level, learners can think of neutralisation as a process in which something
potent (and potentially harmful) is changed. into something harmless (or at least
less harmful). Later on (in Gr. 9) they will learn the proper scientific definition of
neutralisation: "the process in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt
and water". It is important to note that a neutralisation reaction does not
necessarily result in a neutral solution.
Bases and acids have chemical properties that are the opposite of each other.
We can think of bases as the chemical opposite of acids.
As with acids, there are some bases that are extremely dangerous. The same
hazard symbol that is used to warn people of the dangers of acids, is also used
for these bases. Strong bases react corrosively with other materials and can
burn your skin. They must be handled carefully and always while wearing
appropriate protective clothing, such as lab coats, gloves and safety glasses.
Other bases are mild enough to

be used as cleaning materials in
and around the home. This
does not mean that they are
completely harmless. It just
means that they have been
mixed with other substances so
that they are not so corrosive.
Sodium hydroxide is a strong base used in
laboratories. Do you see the yellow corrosive
warning symbol?
...

.
ACTIVITY: Acids and bases in our homes

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
For this activity, learners must first identify the products in the photograph
provided. All of these household products contain bases. The next part of the
activity is a demonstration which you can set up beforehand in the front of your
classroom. Instructions and materials for the demonstration are supplied here:
MATERIALS:
•
five bowls
•
water
•
washing powder
•
handy andy
•
bicarbonate of soda or baking powder
•
lemon juice
•
vinegar
•
labels for each bowl showing the product that is in them
.
•
a towel for drying hands
.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Place the bowls in a row on a desk in the front.

2. Mix each of the bases (washing powder, handy andy, baking powder) in
separate bowls with some water.
3. Pour some lemon juice into another bowl and some vinegar into the last
bowl.
4. Arrange the bowls in a row, alternating between a base and an acid.
5. Once the learners have filled in the table to identify the products, get them
to come up to the front in groups to put their fingers in the bowls to feel
the different substances.
6. They must take note of what they are feeling and should dry their hands
between each substance.
7. After feeling the difference between the acids and bases, the learners can
go back to their desk to complete the activity.
As an extension, you can also let learners take note of the difference between
the dry powder for washing powder and then how it feels when it is mixed with
water. Bases which dissolve in water are called alkalis.
. .

1. All of the products in the picture below contain bases. Which of the
products do you recognise? Write their names and what they are used for
in the table.
Some household products which are bases.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Many household products (such as certain apple-scented shampoos and

dishwashing liquids) contain apple .or lemon scents or essences as
additives. It has been noted that some of these products may be more
acidic than basic. Make sure to test all the products you will be using in the
class beforehand, to make sure the bases all react as expected.
Product What is it used for?
Stain remover (Vanish) Removing stains from clothes
Windowlene Cleaning windows

Cleaning surfaces (stove,
Handy Andy bathroom, kitchen tops, etc.)
Baking powder Ingredient in baked goods

Ingredient in baked goods, also a
Bicarbonate of soda mild disinfectant
Bleach Disinfecting and removing stains

Cleaning dishes, cutlery and
Sunlight liquid crockery
...

2. Next, your teacher will let you come up to feel different substances which
are either bases or acids. All of these substances are safe to touch. Take
note of how they feel between your fingers and then come back to fill in
the table.
TAKE NOTE
How did it feel
Substance between the Is it an acid or a When an acid and a base are
fingers? base? mixed together in the

correct ratio, they will
Washing powder Slippery Base
neutralise each other. This
Lemon juice Feels slightly rough Acid means that the solution
between the fingers made up of the acid and the

.
Handy andy/soap Slippery Base base becomes something
that is neither an acid nor a
Vinegar Leaves a rough Acid base, but neutral. In the
feeling on the skin process, both the acid and
Baking powder Slippery Base the base will lose their
unique characteristics.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
. mostly feel quite slippery between

The bases will be easy to describe as they
the fingers. Acids generally leave a "rough" feeling on the skin and are not
slippery like bases.
QUESTIONS:
1. What can you conclude about how bases feel?

Bases feel slippery. TAKE NOTE
2. What can you conclude about how acids feel?
Bases that can dissolve in
Generally, acids feel rough on the skin.
water are called alkalis. For
3. What did your teacher have to do to the dry washing powder before you
this reason, the terms base
could feel it in the bowl? Do you know what we call the solution which .
and alkali are sometimes
forms? If so, write it down, otherwise your teacher will help you.
considered to have the same
She/he had to add water to make it slippery. A solution of a base and
meaning. (Words that have
water is called an alkaline solution.
the same meaning are called
4. Although we have spoken about acids and bases as being chemical
synonyms.)
opposites, what property do many of them have in common?
Many acids and bases are dangerous to touch or taste - they are corrosive. .
.
Finally, there is a class of substances that are neither acids nor bases. They are
called neutral substances. We will explore them next.
Neutral substances
We have learnt that when an acid and a base are mixed (in the right amounts),
they will neutralise each other. That means that, together, they will change into
something that is neither an acid nor a base. So the acid will lose its properties
and so will the base. And the new substance that forms from the two
substances will be neither an acid nor a base. We call it a neutral substance.
Some neutral substances are formed when an acid is mixed with a base and a
neutralisation reaction occurs. Other substances are neutral to begin with. They
are not the product of a neutralisation reaction. The neutral substances that are
the most well known are: water, table salt, sugar solution and cooking oil.
. .

Cooking oil is a neutral substance.
TAKE NOTE We have learnt about three classes of substances: acids, bases and neutral
.
To indicate means to show. substances. But, we cannot tell whether a substance is an acid, base, or a
neutral substance, just by looking at it. We know that acids taste sour, but we
have also learnt that it is never a good idea to taste chemicals.
Let's imagine we have an unknown substance. It is colourless and looks just like
water. It is also odourless (that means it has no smell). There are no physical
signs to show whether it is acidic, basic, or neutral. How can we tell what it is?
.
3.3 Acid-base indicators
What do the indicators on a car do?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Ask your learners this question to highlight the meaning of the word "indicate",
which is to show. When the indicators on a car light up, they show other
motorists that the driver of the car intends to turn left or right.
Acids and bases can change the colour of some substances. In the next activity,
we are going to investigate a substance that changes colour when we mix it
with an acid or a base.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
It has been noted that some household indicators that appear on the list above
are not very effective, such as tea and beetroot.
. Some are more sensitive,
including curry powder and turmeric. If you explore other indicators with the
class, make sure to test a few to determine which ones produce the best results.
Here is a table of other naturally occurring indicators which you could use in
class:
...

.
Have you ever eaten red cabbage? It is not only tasty, but also very healthy. We
are going to see how red cabbage juice changes when we mix it with different
substances.
ACTIVITY: Preparing and testing red cabbage

juice with acid and base
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
You will need to buy a red cabbage prior to this activity. Red cabbages are
available during winter and spring. One cabbage should make enough extract
for an entire class of learners. You can prepare the extract in the class, or you
could make it ahead of time and simply demonstrate
. the method (cutting the
cabbage, boiling and straining it) to the learners without boiling the cabbage in
class.
If you are not able to get red cabbage, you can try using some of the other
foods listed in the previous table which .are also natural indicators. Another
example which is easy to use and obtain is black tea.
MATERIALS:
• one large, red cabbage

• pot with water for boiling
• hot plate (or stove)
• strainer
• sharp knife
• container for red cabbage juice (ice cream tub or large yoghurt tub will
work well)
• white plate
• vinegar
• baking soda solution
INSTRUCTIONS:
. .

Prepare the cabbage juice:
1. Cut the cabbage into thin slices and place it in the pot.
VISIT
This website has a list of
other household products
that will also change colour
.
when mixed with acids or
bases. Make sure you ask 2. Add just enough water to cover the cabbage slices.
your parents if you may 3. Boil it over low heat for approximately 30 minutes, adding water to keep
experiment before you start! the cabbage covered if necessary.
bit.ly/195o6gF
4. Remove the pot from the heat and let it cool completely.
5. Strain the juice off the cabbage slices into the ice cream tub. The boiled
cabbage slices can be eaten (or placed in the compost).
VISIT
Video on red .cabbage and
black tea as indicators
bit.ly/19PBmsJ
6. If kept in the fridge the red cabbage juice will last about 3 days.
Test the cabbage juice indicator
1. Carefully place three large drops of the cabbage juice on a smooth, white
surface (a white plate or tile will work well).
2. Pour a few drops of vinegar into one of the drops of cabbage juice. What
do you see?
3. Pour a few drops of baking soda solution into one of the remaining drops
of cabbage juice. What do you see?
...

.
Red cabbage juice mixed with baking soda (left) and with vinegar (right). The blue drop
at the top is the unmixed juice.
.
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
These demonstration videos extract the .red cabbage juice by blending it with
some water in a blender instead of boiling it. Both methods are equally effective
in extracting the juice from the cabbage leaves.
In the next activity we are going to preserve the red cabbage juice by absorbing
it on some filter paper, and drying it, so that we can use it later.
ACTIVITY: Making red cabbage indicator paper

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
If time permits, you can make these indicator strips in class with your learners
using the cabbage juice from the previous . experiment. If you do not have time,
do this yourself outside of class and then just go through the steps below
explaining to your learners what you did.. If you do not have time to do it in
class, you can also encourage learners to do it at home with their parents if they
have capacity and resources.
MATERIALS:
• pieces of absorbent paper

• red cabbage juice from the previous activity in a container
• scissors
• container
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Filter paper is best, or paper used for painting
. with watercolours (available from
stationery or art supply shops); coffee filters or even paper towel would also
work. The cabbage juice should not be too dilute; you can concentrate it by
heating it over low heat for 20 minutes and allowing it to cool.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Place the absorbent paper in the cabbage juice.
2. After 30 minutes, remove the paper and leave it in a warm place to dry.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
You can also dry the paper with a hair dryer, but do not leave it in direct sunlight.
3. When the paper has completely dried, cut it into strips (approximately 1
cm wide). You can keep the strips for a long time if you store them in a dry
place.
We will use the red cabbage paper strips later, as part of an investigation.
.
Some other substances also

change colour when an acid or a
base is added to them. By
changing their colour, they show
that they have reacted with an
acid or a base. That is why we call
them acid-base indicators.The
most well-known acid-base
indicator is a substance called
litmus.
Blue and red litmus paper.
...

Litmus comes from pigments in the lichen which are found growing in many different
places, mostly on rocks.
Litmus solution is most commonly soaked into paper, the paper is then dried
and cut into strips we then call "litmus paper". It is just like the red cabbage VISIT
paper we made earlier. Litmus paper is available in two colours: blue and red. Colourful chemistry with
.
acids and bases using
How does litmus paper indicate whether a substance is an acid or a base? In the
household products (video)
next activity, we will investigate how litmus responds to some household acids
bit.ly/15QjCfd
and bases.
INVESTIGATION: How does litmus respond to acids

and bases?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
CAPS suggests that you also test various beverages to see whether they are
acids, bases or neutrals. A suggestion is .to do this investigation presented here
first where learners first determine how litmus responds to acids and bases, and
then if you have time as an extension, get learners to test various drinks, such as
water, Ceylon tea, rooibos tea, orange juice, milk, coffee and any fizzy drink to
see whether they are acids, bases or neutrals.
.
AIM: To determine how litmus responds to some household acids and bases.
HYPOTHESIS: What is your hypothesis for this investigation?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Learners may not yet know how litmus reacts to acids and bases, so they may
have to come back to propose a new hypothesis when they are writing their
conclusions. They should not be encouraged
. to come back to this space, cross
out the hypothesis and write a new one which they know to be true. This is an
important concept in science investigations - a hypothesis is a proposed
explanation, which needs to be tested further using the scientific method. One
can then verify whether the hypothesis was true (and it is accepted) or it is false
(and it is rejected) and you come up with a new proposed hypothesis.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
It would be advisable to label the containers to prevent learners from confusing
the substances.
• small containers (test tubes or yoghurt tubs) filled with the following
substances:
– water
– soda water
– vinegar
– lemon juice
– sugar water (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– baking soda (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– Handy Andy (1 tablespoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– aspirin (Disprin) (1 tablet in 2 tablespoons of water)
– dishwashing liquid (1 teaspoon dissolved in a cup of water)
– any other substances commonly used at home that are not dangerous
• litmus paper (blue and red)
• glass or plastic rods (plastic teaspoons will also work well).
METHOD:
1. Cut a small piece (1 cm long) of blue and red litmus for each substance that
you will be testing.
2. Use the plastic teaspoon or rod to place just 1 drop of water on the blue
litmus. Do the same with a piece of red litmus.
.
3. Did the blue litmus change colour? Did the red litmus change colour?
Write the new colours in your table, in the appropriate place.
4. Repeat the procedure to test all the substances you have been given. You
must rinse the teaspoon or rod with water in between substances.
5. Save all your test substances, because you will need them for another
investigation later.
Record your observations in the table. If you did not use some of these
substances, cross them out and write headings for your substances in the
empty rows.
Substance Colour with blue litmus Colour with red litmus
Water
Soda water
Vinegar
Lemon juice
Sugar water
Baking soda
Handy Andy
Aspirin
Dishwashing liquid
...

ANALYSIS:
Let us now have a look at our observations to see what we can conclude.
1. How does the litmus paper indicate when a substance is an acid?

In an acid, the blue litmus changed to red and the red litmus remained red.
2. Which of the substances you tested are acids?
Depending on the substances you use, but according to those listed here,
the acids are: soda water, vinegar, lemon juice and aspirin.
3. How does the litmus paper indicate when a substance is a base?
In a base, blue litmus remains blue and red litmus changes blue.
4. Which of the substances you tested are bases?
Depending on the substances you use, but according to those listed here,
the bases are: baking soda, handy andy, dishwashing liquid.
5. How would you describe a neutral substance?
6. How does the litmus paper indicate when a substance is neutral?
Neither the red or the blue litmus paper will change colour when a
substance is neutral.
7. Which of the substances you tested were neutral?
Water and sugar solution.
8. Why do you think you had to rinse the glass rod or teaspoon in between
testing each substance?
You need to do this to avoid contamination and mixing of the substances
otherwise, for example, there might. be some acid left over when testing a
base which would change the litmus paper resulting in an incorrect result
for the base.
CONCLUSION:
Write a conclusion based on your results in response to the initial aim for this
investigation.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
A conclusion must respond to the aim and hypothesis for the investigation. In
this case the aim was to determine how litmus paper responds to some
household bases and acids. Therefore a .conclusion is: In response to some
household acids and bases, red litmus paper turns blue in bases and remains red
in acids, and blue litmus paper turns red in acids and remains blue in bases.
Both red and blue litmus paper will remain red or blue, respectively, in the
presence of neutral substances. Learners can see whether they reject or accept
their hypotheses.
Extension: If you have time in class with your teacher, use your knowledge of
how litmus responds to acids and bases to test some of the beverages that you
drink every day. You can use litmus paper to indicate whether beverages such
as ceylon tea, rooibos tea, orange juice, milk, coffee and fizzy drinks are acids,
bases or neutrals. If you do so, record your findings here:
.
.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
The first five minutes of this video (http://bit.ly/17zszF4) contains a very clear
demonstration of acids and bases using .a universal indicator. The entire video is
more than an hour long and touches on a range of chemical experiments and
demonstrations. The demonstrations are very well designed and executed and
the video can be used as a very useful tool to illustrate many concepts of
chemistry in the classroom, though only the first part is relevant to this chapter.
We can say the following about litmus:
• Blue litmus is used to test for acids:

– acids turn blue litmus red.
– Bases and neutral substances do not change the colour of blue litmus.
• Red litmus is used to test for bases
– bases turn red litmus blue.
– Acids and neutral substances do not change the colour of red litmus.
What about the red cabbage paper that we made earlier? Can these paper
strips be used to tell if something is an acid or a base? Let's find out.
INVESTIGATION: Is red cabbage paper suitable as

acid-base indicator?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an optional, extension activity.
AIM: To determine whether red cabbage is a suitable acid-base indicator.
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Learners can use the saved substances from the litmus investigation they did
earlier. Top up the solutions if necessary.
• small containers with the same substances as in the previous investigation

• red cabbage paper strips
• glass or plastic rods
METHOD:
1. Use a small strip (2 cm long) of red cabbage paper for each substance that
you will be testing.
2. Dip a fresh piece of paper into each of the test solutions. Does the paper
change colour? Write the colour of the paper with each substance in your
table in the appropriate place.
...

Record your observations in the table.
Substance Colour with red cabbage paper
Water
Soda water
Vinegar
Lemon juice
Sugar water
Baking soda
Handy Andy
Aspirin
Dishwashing liquid
.
QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the test substances are acids? (Check the results from the litmus
investigation that you did earlier.)
2. What colour did the red cabbage paper turn in the test substances that
were acids?
The red cabbage paper should turn a red-pink colour in an acid.
3. Which of the test substances are bases? (Check the results from the litmus
investigation that you did earlier.)
4. What colour did the red cabbage paper turn in the test substances that
were bases?
The red cabbage paper should turn a blue-green colour in a base.
5. Did the red cabbage paper change colour with all the substances? If there
were some substances that did not change the colour of the paper, write
their names below.
6. Are these substances acidic, basic or neutral (also check your litmus test
results)?
7. Do you think red cabbage paper makes a good acid-base indicator? Why
do you say so?
Learner-dependent answer. They should note that a good indicator is
something which can tell you if it is an acid or a base, in that the same
paper turns different colours whether in an acid or a base. .
.
. .

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• Our tongues can sense 4 different flavours namely, sweet, salty, sour
and bitter.
• Our sense of taste protects us from eating foods that are harmful and
stimulates us to eat foods that are nutritious and energy-rich.
• Acids and bases are chemical opposites of each other.
• Though it is not a good idea to taste chemicals, acids have a sour taste
and bases taste bitter.
• When they are in solution with water, acids feel rough and bases feel
slippery.
• Some acids and bases are present in foods and in household items.
These are relatively safe to handle. Others are often very corrosive and
should only be handled when you are wearing protective clothing.
• Substances which are neither acidic nor basic, are called neutral
substances.
• When an acid is mixed with a base in the right quantities, they neutralise
each other. That means they lose their power.
• Some substances change colour when they react with an acid or a
base. These substances are called acid-base indicators. One household
example of an acid-base indicator is red cabbage juice.
• Litmus is the best known of all acid-base indicators. It does not change
colour in the presence of a neutral substance, but responds to acids and
bases in the following way:
– litmus is red in the presence of an acid; and
– litmus is blue in the presence of base.
. Map
Concept
The human tongue can taste 4 main different tastes. What are these? Fill
them in the spaces below. You also need to complete the section of the
concept map about indicators. Can you work out how to do this? You need
to fill in the colour that litmus turns (or remains) in each either an acid or a
base (or neutral).
...

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. The box below is filled with ideas relating to acids and bases.
Ideas
• Sour taste
• Bitter taste
• Tartaric acid
• Bicarbonate of soda
You must sort the ideas into
• Feels slippery
two columns in the table. One
• Feels rough
column is labelled 'Acids' and
• Vinegar
the other is labelled 'Bases'.
• Soaps
Write each idea inside the
• Lemon Juice
correct column. If an idea fits
• Citric acid
into both columns, you must
• Formic acid
write it in both. [16 marks]
• Bleach
• Turns red litmus blue
• Turns blue litmus red
• Corrosive
.
Acids Bases
Sour taste
Tartaric acid Bitter taste
Feels rough Bicarbonate of soda
Vinegar Soaps
Lemon juice Feels slippery
Citric acid Bleach
Formic acid Turns red litmus blue
Turns blue litmus red Corrosive
Corrosive
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
To mark this question, the first 9 items in the acids column should be
marked, and the first 7 in the bases column. This is to discourage learners
simply putting the whole list into both columns.
. .

2. Here is another box; this one is filled with words.
Words
• Indicator
• Sour
• Red cabbage
You must use the words to
• Bitter
complete the sentences that
• Poisonous
follow. Write out the
• Corrosive
sentences in full. Each word
• Neutralise
can be used only once. [11
• Sweet
marks]
• Neutral
• Litmus
• Salty
a) The most well-known of all acid-base indicators is called .

b) A substance that can eat away at other substances is called
c) Foods that are often taste bitter.
d) Some scientists believe the human tongue can taste 4 flavours. These
flavours are: , , , and .
e) An acid-base is a substance that changes colour when it
reacts with an acid or a base.
f) substances are neither acids nor bases.
g) An acid will a base (and vice versa).
h) The juice of the makes a very good acid-base indicator.
a) The most well-known of all acid-base indicators is called litmus.
b) A substance that can eat away at other substances is called corrosive.
c) Foods that are poisonous often taste bitter.
.
d) Some scientists believe the human tongue can taste four basic
flavours. These flavours are: salty, sweet, bitter and sour (in any order).
e) An acid-base indicator is a substance that changes colour when it
reacts with an acid or a base.
f) Neutral substances are neither acids nor bases.
g) An acid will neutralise a base (and vice versa).
h) The juice of the red cabbage makes a very good acid-base indicator.
3. Give an example of a strong acid and a strong base, commonly used in the
laboratory. [2 marks]
Strong acids include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and a strong base is
sodium hydroxide.
4. Write one or two sentences to explain what is meant by the term
neutralise. [2 marks]
Learner's answer should contain at least 2 of the following ideas:
• When an acid reacts with a base, the acid and the base will neutralise
each other.
• That means they will both lose their strength/potency.
• The acid will not be an acid anymore, and the base will not be a base
anymore.
• They will combine to form a neutral substance.
5. Write a short paragraph to explain how laboratory acids should be
handled. Your paragraph should contain the following words: corrosive;
taste; clothes. [3 marks]
Learner's answer should contain at least the following ideas:
• Laboratory acids should be handled very carefully because they are
corrosive.
• Laboratory acids should never be tasted.
• You should protect yourself by wearing protective clothes, safety
goggles and gloves when handling these acids.
...

6. Would all acids burn your tongue or is it OK to taste some acids? Explain
your answer. [2 marks]
Some household acids can be tasted. Some household acids are in our
food. Laboratory acids should never be tasted. (optional)
7. Give 2 examples of acids that are safe to taste. [1 mark]
Examples of acids that are safe to taste are: vinegar, lemon juice, ascorbic
acid (vitamin C), citric acid (any other acceptable examples; learner should
name 2).
8. How you would be able to recognise an acid when you taste it? [1 mark]
We recognise them as acids by their taste; acids have a sour taste.
9. How does our sense of taste warn us when food is not good to eat? [2
marks]
Learner's answer should contain at least 2 of the following ideas:
• Most people don't like bitter food; that is because poisonous
substances often have a bitter taste.
• When food tastes sour, it may be a sign that the food has spoiled.
• When food tastes strange (different from the way we remember it to
taste) it may be a warning that the food has spoiled.
10. Have you heard of acid rain before? Read the following information and
study the diagram. Then answer the questions that follow.
a) Which two gases are mentioned in the text and on the diagram which
contribute to forming acid rain? [2 marks]
b) Where do these gases come from? [2 mark]
c) The gases then combine with water droplets in the atmosphere to
make acids. What are some of the environmental impacts of acid rain?
Study the diagram for some clues. [3 marks]
a) They are sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide.
b) They come from factories, power stations and car exhausts.
c) The impacts include:
• damage of plant life, both wilderness areas and also crops,
depending on where the rain falls
• the rain goes into soil, polluting it and making it more acidic
• the rain can fall into various water sources and pollutes it.
11. Acid rain can also damage buildings as it 'eats away' the stone. What
property of acids allow it to do this? [1 mark]
Acids are corrosive and so they can corrode surfaces over time.
Total [48 marks]
.
.
. .

4 The Periodic Table of Elements
.
.TEACHER'S
. ... NOTE
Chapter overview
2 weeks are allowed for this chapter. In this chapter learners are introduced to
the Periodic Table of elements for the first time. They will learn about the main
features of the Periodic Table and where the three categories of elements -
metals, non-metals and semi-metals (also called the metalloids) - can be found.
They will also learn that elements are arranged on the table according to their
atomic numbers, starting with hydrogen (atomic number 1) at the top left hand
corner and continuing from left to right across the table. We will deal with
atomic number from the point of view that it shows the position of a given
element on the Periodic Table. In reality the atomic number determines (rather
than shows) the position of a given element on the table.
Some important issues to note at this stage, namely:
1. The atom is only introduced in Gr. 8 in CAPS, whereas it was felt that some
information on the atom was crucial at this stage to understand atomic
numbers. Therefore, some information on the atom has been included as
an introduction. However, the approach here has been to look at the
Periodic Table as a means of classifying the elements. We are approaching
it in the same way scientists did historically, namely, that they observed
similarities and differences in elements and then used this information to
arrange the elements in the table. Only later on when the model of the
.
atom was further developed were scientists able to explain why elements
are arranged as they are on the table. This same empirical approach has
been used here to introduce the Periodic Table.
2. The meaning of the term atomic number (the number of protons in an
atom of a given element). This is because the subatomic particles protons,
neutrons and electrons will only be introduced later (in Gr. 8 Matter and
Materials). This is when they will formally learn that the atomic number
indicates the number of protons in an atom. However, as indicated in point
1 above, we have included some information on the atom and subatomic
particles here in Gr. 7.
3. The detailed arrangement of the heavier atoms at the bottom of the table
is not dealt with at this stage. This is considered too complex for learners
in Gr. 7.
4.1 Arrangement of elements on the Periodic Table (2 hours)

Activity: Comparing Accessing and recalling Suggested
Mendeleev's table with information, comparing,
the modern version of
the Periodic Table
Activity: Periodic Table Accessing and recalling Suggested
treasure hunt information, observing,
292
4.2 Properties of metals, semi-metals and non-metals (4 hours)

Activity: What do some Sorting and classifying, Suggested
of the elements look observing, identifying
like? elements and
properties, comparing
Activity: Blitz revision Sorting and classifying, Optional revision
of the properties of identifying properties, (suggested)
metals and non-metals comparing
.
Activity: Classifying Accessing and recalling Suggested
element X information, reading,
observing, identifying
properties
Activity: The regions of Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
the Periodic Table information, sorting and
classifying, comparing
Activity: Uses of the Accessing and recalling CAPS suggested
elements information,
communicating, group
work, making a poster
..
KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is an element?
• How can we classify the elements in our world?
• Which table helps us to make sense of the patterns we observe in the
chemical properties of the elements?
• How are elements arranged on the Periodic Table?
• What does the position of an element on the Periodic Table tell us about
its expected properties?
• What information can we use to represent the identity of an element?
• What are the typical properties of the
– metals;
– nonmetals; and
– semi-metals?
VISIT
.
A video to introduce us to
elements and to the Periodic
. Table bit.ly/16C5ZyC
TEACHER'S NOTE
The video in the above link is an entertaining and simple way to introduce
.
learners to the subject matter of this chapter about elements and the Periodic
Table. It briefly explains what an element is, introduces Dmitri Mendeleev and
his arrangement of the Periodic Table and also explains some of the concepts
discussed later on in the chapter.
People have been interested in science from the earliest times. Early man
discovered how to process natural ores into metals for ornaments, weapons and
. .
Chapter 4. The Periodic Table of Elements 293

tools. At least 3000 years ago, ancient people were already using embalming
fluids (chemicals) obtained from plants to preserve the bodies of dead people
and animals!
Mankind has been studying and experimenting with materials to try to

understand matter for thousands of years. Scientists especially, wanted some
understanding of all the different substances that they were working with.
VISIT
An interesting video that
. scientists
tells us about how
solved the puzzle of the
Periodic Table.
An ancient Egyptian mummy that has been embalmed to preserve it.
bit.ly/1cMGnSw
Over time, many different elements were discovered by scientists all over the
world. These elements make up all the materials around us. But what do we
mean by the word element? An element is a pure substance which cannot be
broken down any further. We will find out more about elements in this chapter.
VISIT
Over time, our knowledge about the elements and
This video tells us more their behaviour increased and scientists recognised
about how Dmitri Mendeleev the need to organise this information. They began
listed and arranged the to observe patterns and similarities in the way some
.
elements on the Periodic groups of elements behaved and recorded these
Table and why this was such observations. Scientists wanted some way to
an important event in the classify the elements according to their properties
history of science as we that they were observing.
know it. bit.ly/147Ql9f
The version of the Periodic Table that we use today
was first proposed by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
in 1872. Mendeleev was a brilliant Russian scientist.
While other scientists made many contributions to
the design of the Periodic Table, Mendeleev was the
one who first showed that the table could predict
the existence and properties of elements that were
Dmitri Mendeleev. still undiscovered at the time.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Mendeleev's original table is not part of what learners are required know, but
has been included to give learners a sense. of the pace of scientific discovery. In
order to make learners aware that scientific discovery can sometimes be a slow
process, you could point out the gaps that are evident on Mendeleev's Periodic
Table (e.g. elements 44, 68 and 72). These gaps represented elements that
were not known at the time, but have been discovered since.
...

Alchemists, experimenting with materials in their laboratory.
.
4.1 Arrangement of elements on the Periodic Table
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This website contains an interactive version of the Periodic Table. It is a
wonderful tool to show some of the trends and information that the Periodic
Table contains. This website can also be used in the later grades when the
.
Periodic Table is covered again, in more detail. For now, it is a useful teaching
tool to give an overview http://rsc.li/195tO2e.
Another interesting website which contains mostly photos of the elements is

http://bit.ly/1euHmVi. This is a very useful site to illustrate to learners what
elements actually are.
The Periodic Table is a classification system for the elements that make up the
matter and materials in our world. Today, there are more than 100 different
elements known! Each element has its own name, symbol, atomic number and
position on the Periodic Table.
Element names
What is your name? Perhaps it is Thando. Or David. Or Megan. Perhaps you are
lucky enough to be the only person in your class with that name. Perhaps you
are lucky enough to be the only person in the world with that name! That would
make your name unique.
Each element has a unique name. We can think of each name as a unique 'label'
we can use to identify the element. There are two other unique labels that we
can use to identify elements. They are the chemical symbol and the atomic
number. We will learn more about these in the next section. Each element has
some of its own unique properties and later on we will see that those with some
similar properties can be grouped together.
. .

.
VISIT
TEACHER'S NOTE
There are TWO songs to help
you remember the elements The video above includes a bit more history about Dmitri Mendeleev, reviews
.
Mendeleev's organisation of the period table and then moves on to relationships
of the Periodic. Table. Which
one is your favourite? Can of elements on the Periodic Table. Just before the end of the video, the host
you learn one (or both) of mentions the importance of electrons (to be discussed in another video).
them? bit.ly/18d0bLl and Atoms, electrons and protons are concepts that are only discussed in Gr. 8.
bit.ly/11OuoPM
VISIT
.
A tour of the Periodic Table
bit.ly/147Qzgx
TAKE NOTE
There is a bigger version of
. Table of
the modern Periodic
elements on the inside cover
of your workbook. You can The Periodic Table of elements as it is today.
use it for easy reference.
...

Chemical symbols
If you are a scientist and you work with elements every day, writing out the
names can become very tedious. To make writing about elements easier,
scientists have given each element a short symbol. To make sure we do not
become confused with different elements when we write about them, the TAKE NOTE
symbol for each element must be unique, just like its name is.
. the names
You need to know
and symbols of these
The names and symbols for some common elements are shown in the following
elements listed here.
table.
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminium Al Magnesium Mg
Bromine Br Nitrogen N
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
Carbon C Phosphorus P
Chlorine Cl Potassium K
Copper Cu Silicon Si
Gold Au Silver Ag
Hydrogen H Sodium Na
Iodine I Sulfur S
VISIT
Iron Fe Tin Sn
. about the
A game to learn
Periodic Table
Lead Pb Zinc Zn
bit.ly/15QkMHn
The symbol for carbon is C, the symbol for sulfur is S and the symbol for
nitrogen is N. It is easy to see why these symbols were chosen: they simply
represent the first letter of each name. This letter is always capitalised (upper
case).
What happens when the different elements all start with the same letter? For
example: calcium, carbon, chlorine and copper all start with the letter 'C'! To
ensure they all have a unique symbol, a second letter was added to their
symbol. This letter is always a small letter (lower case).
Some chemical symbols are more difficult to understand. Na, for example, is the
symbol for sodium. The Na comes from the Latin name for sodium, which is
natrium. These symbols were chosen very long ago, when many subjects were
studied in Latin. Can you imagine how difficult that must have been?!
Some simple rules to remember when using chemical symbols:
1. Every element has its own, unique symbol.

2. The symbol is usually (but not always) the first one or two letters of the
name of the element.
3. The first letter of the symbol is always a capital letter.
4. If the symbol has two letters, the second letter is always a small letter.
5. Some elements have symbols that come from their Latin names.
. .

Atomic numbers
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This site contains an interactive explanation of the history of the Periodic Table
and the atom and explains how the concepts are related. It contains more
information than learners need at this level, but you can read through it as an
extension: http://bit.ly/132Nzbh.
Important note: We have briefly introduced the atom here, (although it was not
specified in CAPS), so that the idea of the atomic number makes sense and is
not just an abstract number. However, these concepts will be explored further
in Gr. 8. For now it is important the learners understand that each element has a
unique atomic number and that the Periodic Table of elements is a way of
classifying the elements so that they are grouped together in terms of similar
properties.
When introducing the subatomic particles, you can draw the model of the atom
on the board if you would like to show this to your learners. However, it is not
crucial that learners understand the arrangement of the subatomic particles at
this stage. Here is a simple model of the atom which you can illustrate on the
board:
.
(This model here illustrates nitrogen atoms as there are 7 protons. Take note
that there are equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Together they make up
the nucleus of the atom. Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a
negative charge, and neutrons are neutral. If the number of electrons equals the
number of protons, then the atom is neutral and does not have a charge. The
atom can gain or lose electrons resulting in a charge, and it is then called an ion.)
If you look at the Periodic Table, you will see that each element also has a
unique number. This is called the atomic number. To properly understand what
the atomic number is, we need to know what an atom is. We will learn more
about atoms in Gr. 8, but for now, let's briefly go back to our history lesson!
Do you remember we said Mendeleev developed the first periodic table in 1869?
TAKE NOTE Well before that, at the beginning of the 1800's, a man by the name of John
Dalton said that all matter is made up of very small particles called atoms.
You do not need to know
. These atoms vary in mass and size. Do you remember we said an element is a
about the atom in detail for
pure substance? We can now also say that an element is a substance that
now. We will learn more
contains only one particular type of atom. The atoms of one element are
about this in Gr. 8!
different from the atoms of any other element.
...

All atoms are made up of even smaller particles which we call subatomic
particles. These are protons, neutrons and electrons. All you must remember for
TAKE NOTE
now is that the protons, electrons, and neutrons of one element are exactly the
same as the protons, electrons, and neutrons of any other element. It is their When things show a regular,
number and arrangement that make the elements different. repeating pattern, we say it
is periodic. When the
The atomic number of an element refers to how many protons that element has elements were arranged in
in its atoms. Since each element has a different number of protons in its atoms, order of increasing mass,
each element also has a unique atomic number. Mendeleev observed a
. properties,
pattern in their
Have a look at the Periodic Table. What is the atomic number of hydrogen? which allowed him to
How many protons are there in its atoms? arrange the elements into
rows and columns in a table,
. the Periodic Table. Elements
TEACHER'S NOTE . in the same rows and
columns in the table, have
Hydrogen has atomic number 1 and therefore has 1 proton. similar properties to each
other.
What is the atomic number of carbon? How many protons are there in its
atoms?
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Carbon's atomic number is 6. It has 6 protons in its atoms.
Mendeleev's Periodic Table from 1872. The spaces marked with blank lines represent
elements that Mendeleev thought existed, but they were not yet discovered at the time,
so he left places for them.
Can you see how the elements are arranged so that their atomic numbers
increase from left to right across the Periodic Table? This is not a coincidence!
When Mendeleev first created the Periodic Table, he arranged the 60 elements
that he knew of at the time in order of increasing mass. He then saw that there
was a regular pattern in other characteristics of these elements. Mendeleev then
grouped them into columns and rows according to their properties. These were
physical and chemical properties which the scientists had observed from doing
many different experiments. This resulted in the arrangement of the elements
on the Periodic Table.
. .

The Periodic Table that we use today looks a lot more modern than Mendeleev's
original version. You will notice that there are no empty blocks in the modern
version of the table. That tells us that all the elements that were still
undiscovered in Mendeleev's lifetime, are now known.
In the next activity, we will compare Mendeleev's original Periodic Table with
the version that we use today. This will help show us how scientific discovery is
sometimes a slow process.
ACTIVITY: Comparing Mendeleev's table with the

modern version of the Periodic Table
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
This is an optional, extension activity.
When Mendeleev first arranged the elements according to their mass and their
properties, it resulted in there being some gaps in the rows. But, as a good
scientist, Mendeleev did not see this as a problem! Instead, he thought it simply
meant that there were elements that had not been discovered yet. And he was
right!
Mendeleev put a blank line and the atomic number to show that he thought
there is an element which should go there, but it had not been discovered. Look
carefully at Mendeleev's original table. See if you can find where it says ' = 44'
in the table.
TAKE NOTE
See if you can find the 2 other elements that had not been discovered at that
In Life and Living, we looked time. Write their numbers down in the space below.
.
at the classification of living
. world. Now
organisms in our
.
in Matter and Materials, we
are looking at the
TEACHER'S NOTE .
classification system for
They are 68 and 72.
elements!
Now look at the modern version of the Periodic Table. Can you find the
elements with these numbers? What are their symbols? What are their names?
Write your answers in the table provided.
As an extension of this activity you could look up the names of these elements,
and research when they were discovered, and add this information to the table.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
This final task could be shared in groups of 3 or 6 learners, who could then bring
. If the dates for each element do not
their data to class where it can be pooled.
correspond exactly, it provides an opportunity to discuss the validity of
information. When is data 'the truth'? Can we always believe what we read?
When is a source of data reliable?
...

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
When was this

Number of the Symbol of the Name of the
element
element element element
discovered?
..
44 Ru Ruthenium 1844
68 Er Erbium 1843
72 Hf Hafnium 1923
.
.
In the next activity we are going to use our new knowledge of element symbols
and atomic numbers to hunt for a very valuable 'treasure'. We will find the
treasure by following some clues about the Periodic Table.
ACTIVITY: Periodic Table treasure hunt

.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
This is a fun activity aimed at getting learners to interact with the Periodic Table
and learn the names and symbols of the first 20 elements.
Your job is to follow the clues, in order to find the treasure. The instructions will
help you to spell out the name of the treasure in the blocks below.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
C H O Co La Te ..
It is important to point out to learners that this is not a 'formula' for chocolate,
but simply a fun activity aimed at finding elements on the Periodic Table. Later
we will learn how to put element symbols together into formulae that represent
actual compounds.
1. Clue 1: What is the symbol for carbon (atomic number 6)? Write this
symbol in the first block above.
C
2. Clue 2: Hydrogen is the lightest element. Can you find it on the Periodic
Table? Write its symbol in the second block.
Very first element on the Periodic Table (top left). The symbol for
hydrogen is H.
3. Clue 3: Which element represents the gas that we breathe to stay alive?
Here is a hint: It is represented by atomic number 8. Write its symbol in the
third block and give the name of the element below.
O (oxygen)
. .

4. Clue 4: This element is in the fourth row and the ninth column of the
Periodic Table. It is a metal that is used in magnets. Write its symbol in the
fourth block. Do you know its name? Write its name below.
Co (cobalt)
5. Clue 5: This element is represented by atomic number 57. Write its symbol
in the fifth block. See if you can find out the name of this element and write
it down below.
La (lanthanum)
6. Clue 6: This element is represented by atomic number 52. It is a
semi-metal that is used in the manufacture of solar panels. Write its
symbol in the last (sixth) block. See if you can find out the name of this
element and write it down below.
Te (tellurium)
7. What is the 'treasure' that you have found?
Chocolate
Complete the following sentence by replacing the names of the elements with
chemical symbols. You would have to look up some of the symbols!
SCIENCE...Fluorine Arsenic Carbon Iodine Nitrogen Astatine Einsteinium... ME!
.
TEACHER'S NOTE .
Science... F As C I N At Es (fascinates)... me!
Complete the following table to see how many of the names and symbols of the
elements you remember. Try to do this without referring to the Periodic Table.
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminium Al Magnesium Mg
Bromine Br Nitrogen N
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
Carbon C Phosphorus P
.
Chlorine Cl Potassium K
Copper Cu Silicon Si
Gold Au Silver Ag
Hydrogen H Sodium Na
Iodine I Sulfur S
Iron Fe Tin Sn
Lead Pb Zinc Zn
.
...

.
4.2 Properties of metals, semi-metals and non-metals
The Periodic Table is an amazing tool! Did you know that the position of an
element on the Periodic Table can tell a scientist what properties the element
can be expected to have? This is because the elements have not just been
arranged randomly! But, rather, they are grouped and arranged according to
similar properties. Let's find out what this means.
ACTIVITY: What do some of the elements look

like?
.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
We suggest doing this activity when you start to look at the arrangement of
elements into metals, non-metals and semi-metals on the Periodic Table. This
kind of activity is important to learners at this stage so that they understand
that elements are actual substances that they can see. Often, learners battle to
grasp the concept that elements are substances in the world around us that we
can see.
Instructions for you to do this activity:
1. If possible, collect actual samples of the elements in this activity. You do

not need all of the elements, but at least some of them listed here in the
activity. You can use materials that you find around you such as a piece of
coal or graphite stick (for carbon), a piece of copper piping, a tube with
sulfur powder, a bottle of iodine solution from the chemist, a piece of
aluminium foil, an iron/steel nail, etc.
.
2. Once you have collected your samples, preferably in little containers,
arrange them on the table up front.
.
3. Next, stick up a blank cardboard cut out of the Periodic Table. You will
need to create this yourself. You can draw out the table large on a sheet of
cardboard, or else you can print one on a large piece of paper. There are
many different websites where you can download blank Periodic Tables,
such as this one: bit.ly/132NDb7. A blank Periodic Table has also been
provided in the workbook for learners to write the symbols of the elements
you discuss if you are not able to obtain samples and produce a large
cardboard print out. They can still do this even if you do have the print out
at the front of the class.
4. Then, go through the different elements that you have. Pass the sample
around the class, or get learners to come up to your desk to look at them.
5. Ask for a volunteer from the class to come select an element and find its
place on the Periodic Table by looking at the one in their workbooks. They
must then stick the sample into the correct square on the blank cardboard
table. Use adhesive tape or Prestik.
6. Do this for as many samples as you have. You can also print out some
colour photos of different elements to do some more. Here is a website
where you can download public domain images of the elements and print
them: bit.ly/19PEEw3.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
7. If you do not have actual samples, or colour print outs, some images have
been provided in the workbooks which you can refer to, and then just write
the symbols on the cardboard cut out.
8. Once you have done this for as many samples as you have, ask learners to
describe what the elements on the .left hand side of the table look like, and
what those on the right hand side look like. This is the introduction to
metals and non-metals. They should be able to see that those on the left
are generally shiny and metallic (as they are metals), and those on the right
are generally in powder form, brittle, dull, colourful, etc (as they are
non-metals.
9. Learners must then answer the questions that follow at the end of the
activity.
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Your teacher will guide you through this activity. You will either look at
real samples of some of the elements, or else refer to the photos below of
some of the elements.
2. Your task as a class is to identify the different elements and find their place
on the Periodic Table. You will either stick the real samples onto a large
blank Periodic Table, or use the blank one here in your workbook, or both.
3. You must then look at what the different elements look like and see if you
can identify any similar properties. The questions at the end will help guide
you through this.
.
Here are some photos of the different elements:
Aluminium foil. Carbon (graphite).
Copper. Magnesium.
...

Sulfur. Bromine in tube.
Chlorine gas. Calcium.

.
Phosphorus. Potassium.
Nitrogen gas. Iron.

..
. .

If you do not have a large cardboard Periodic Table to work with at the front of
the class, write the names of the elements you discuss on the blank table
provided here:
After completing this activity, either by sticking actual samples onto a

cardboard cut out, or looking at the photos provided here in your workbook and
seeing where they are positioned on the Periodic Table, answer these questions.
QUESTIONS:
. .
TEACHER'S NOTE
These questions should also be discussed in class. The aim is for learners to see
that there is a difference in the elements on the left (and middle) and those on
.
the right of the Periodic Table. In later grades, the concepts of periodicity and
the patterns evident in the Periodic Table in the chemical and physical
properties of the elements will be explored in much more detail. For now, the
emphasis is on the main distinctions between metals and non-metals, and then
also semi-metals.
1. How would you describe the elements that are mostly on the left side of
the Periodic Table?
Learners should note here that these elements look mostly like metals.
They have looked at metals in previous grades, and so should be familiar
with the properties of metals. They are mostly shiny and hard. Learners
could also note the state of these elements, namely that at room
temperature they are solids.
2. How would you describe the elements that are mostly on the right side of
the Periodic Table?
Learners should note that these elements look distinctly different to the
metals on the left and middle of the Periodic Table. They are not shiny and
metallic, but rather dull or have a colour. If you are able to use actual real
samples, learners might also note that these elements are not as hard and
durable as the metals, for example you can show learners how the graphite
is brittle, or show them the various powder forms of these elements.
Learners should also be able to see that these elements are not all solids,
some are liquids and also gases.
.
...

You probably saw from the last activity that there is a difference in the elements
on the left and right of the Periodic Table. Were you able to identify what these
elements are classified as. You have learnt about them before in previous
grades. They are metals and non-metals.
Let's do a quick revision of what we have already learnt about metals and
non-metals in previous grades.
The properties of metals and non-metals

Metals and non-metals have distinct properties. That means their properties are
unique and different from each other. Can you remember what the unique
properties of metals and non-metals are? The next activity will refresh your
memory.
ACTIVITY: Blitz revision of the properties of

metals and non-metals
.
Here is a block with different Properties

properties of metals and • shiny
non-metals in it. They have • lustrous
been jumbled and are not • dull
sorted. You need to decide • brittle
whether these properties • malleable
describe metals or • ductile
non-metals and sort them • conducts electricity
into the columns in the table • conducts heat
which has been provided. • usually a solid
Make sure that all the • can be
properties in the block are in solid/liquid/gas
your table. If you can think • electrical insulator
of properties that are not . • thermal insulator
listed in the block, you may • (other)
also add them to the table.
Do the activity as quickly (but also as neatly) as you can, and time yourself!
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Properties of metals Properties of non-metals
shiny dull
lustrous brittle
.
malleable can be solid/liquid/gas
ductile electrical insulator
conducts electricity thermal insulator
conducts heat
usually a solid
. .

Most elements fall into one of
these two categories: metals and
non-metals. We use the
properties of an element to
categorise it as a metal or a
non-metal.
Think of chromium, for example,

which is shiny (lustrous), bends
easily (malleable) and conducts
heat and electricity well. A piece of chromium.
1. What are the properties of chromium?

Chromium is lustrous, malleable and conducts heat and electricity.
2. Based on these properties, would you categorise chromium as a metal or a
non-metal?
Chromium is a metal.
3. Can you find chromium on the Periodic Table? (Hint: It may help to find its
symbol first.) What is its atomic number?
24
.
Now think of sulfur.
Sulfur is usually a dull, yellow powder.
It does not conduct electricity or heat

well and large crystals of sulfur break
easily when they are dropped.
Sulfur crystals forming on a rock wall
inside a volcano.
1. What are the properties of sulfur?

Sulfur is dull, brittle and does not conduct electricity or heat well.
2. Based on these properties, would you categorise sulfur as a metal or a
non-metal?
Sulfur is a non-metal.
3. Can you find sulfur on the Periodic Table? (Hint: It may help to find its
symbol first.) What is its atomic number?
14
.
We have now looked at the properties of metals and non-metals. But, when
scientists were doing their experiments to observe the properties of the
elements, they sometimes found some elements which were difficult to classify
as either a metal or a non-metal.
The properties of semi-metals

Some elements are not quite metals, but they are not quite non-metals either.
They just don't fit into either category! Does this sound strange to you? Let us
explore.
...

.
ACTIVITY: Classifying element X

.
Pretend that you are a member of a team of scientists that has just discovered a
new element. The element has not been named yet, so it is simply referred to as
'element X'.
The team has a sufficient amount of element X to make several disks of the
material. They create a file about element X. In the file, they place the following
picture of one of the disks.
A disk of element X.
TAKE NOTE
Look carefully at the picture. How would you describe the appearance of .
element X? Room temperature is 25o C.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
The material (element X) has a shiny, lustrous appearance. It also looks as if
there are parallel ridges on the disk.
The team performs experiments on element X and adds the following data to
the file:
1. In an attempt to bend a disk of element X, the disk shattered, like glass. The
same result was observed when a second disk was dropped from a height.
2. The material is found to be a poor conductor of heat and electricity at
room temperature. Element X was then cooled down significantly by
placing it in a freezer. At very low temperatures, it becomes a good
conductor of electricity.
Fill out the following checklist for element X by placing crosses next to each
property that was observed.
. .

.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Metallic properties YES NO
Is the material shiny (lustrous)? X

X
Is the material malleable and ductile?
Does the material conduct electricity at room X

temperature?
X
Does the material conduct heat?
. NO
Non-metallic properties YES
Is the material brittle? X

X
Does the material have a dull appearance?
X
Is the material an insulator? .
Additional comments (what else did you observe?):

The material does not conduct electricity at room
temperature. It does conduct electricity at very low
temperatures.
QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the properties of element X are typical of metals?

Element X is shiny and lustrous. It has the appearance of a metal.
2. Which of the properties of element X are typical of non-metals?
Element X is brittle. It does not conduct heat and it does not conduct
electricity at room temperature.
3. Would you classify element X as a metal or a non-metal?
Learners may say that they don't know how to categorise element X,
because it looks as if it might fit into both categories.
Element X does not quite fit into either category. Some of its properties are
metallic and others are non-metallic. Element X is a real element, and its name is
tellurium (chemical symbol: Te). Can you find it on the Periodic Table?
There are other elements, like tellurium, that are difficult to classify as either
metals or non-metals. This is because they have some properties that are
TAKE NOTE typical of metals and some properties that are typical of non-metals. A special
category was invented for these elements: they are called semi-metals.
. are also
The semi-metals
sometimes referred to as
There are not many semi-metals. They are all listed in the following table. You
metalloids.
do not have to remember all their names.
...

Names and symbols of the semi-metals:
Name Chemical symbol Atomic number
Boron B 5
Silicon Si 14
Germanium Ge 32
Arsenic As 33
Antimony Sb 51
Tellurium Te 52
Polonium Po 84
Now that we have looked at some of the elements and where they are found on
the Periodic Table, you might have already recognised that there is a trend in
where the metals, semi-metals and non-metals are positioned on the Periodic
Table. We are now going to do a colouring activity to see where on the Periodic
Table we will find each of the categories of elements.
ACTIVITY: The regions of the Periodic Table

.
We are going to colour areas on the following version of the Periodic Table.
This will help us identify the regions on the table where the metals, non-metals
and semi-metals are located.
MATERIALS:
For this activity you will need coloured pencils or kokis or crayons in the
following colours:
• Blue
• Yellow
• Red
INSTRUCTIONS: .
1. Semi-metals:
Find all the semi-metals on the Periodic Table. You will need to consult the
table (names and symbols of the semi-metals) to help you remember
which elements are semi-metals. Colour the block representing each of the
semi-metals yellow.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
Any colour other than yellow should . be fine, as long as all the semi-metals
have the same colour. The purpose of this activity is that learners must
identify regions on the period table for each category, but the different
regions do not have specific colours associated with them.
. .

2. Metals:
Colour all the blocks to the left of the semi-metals blue. Do not colour
hydrogen (H), as it is not strictly a metal. All these elements are metals.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
Once again, any colour other than blue should be fine, as long as all the
metals have the same colour.
3. Non-metals:
Colour all the blocks to the right of the semi-metals red. All these elements
are non-metals. Now you can also colour hydrogen (H) red. On most
versions of the Periodic Table hydrogen is placed with the metals, even
though it has physical properties similar to those of the non-metals (it is a
gas at room temperature). Hydrogen is placed with the metals, because it
tends to behave like the other members of its column in chemical reactions.
.
TEACHER'S NOTE
.
.
Now answer the following questions, using your colourful Periodic Table.
QUESTIONS:
1. Which category contains the most (biggest number of) elements: metals,
non-metals or semi-metals?
Metals
2. Which category contains the least (smallest number of) elements: metals,
non-metals or semi-metals?
Semi-metals
3. State which category of material (metal, non-metal or semi-metal) each of
the following elements belongs to:
Category: (Metal, non-metal or

Element Chemical symbol
semi-metal?)
Iron Fe Metal
Silicon Si Semi-metal
Fluorine F Non-metal
Titanium Ti Metal
Nitrogen N Non-metal
.
...

We have learnt that the Periodic Table can be divided into regions where
metals, non-metals and semi-metals can be found. This is useful information
because the elements in different regions share similar properties. Their
properties help us to decide what we can use them for. For example, metals are
durable, malleable and shiny so they are suitable for making jewellery, pots and
pans and motor car parts.
Let's look at some more examples. Where can we find all these elements in the
real world? Where do they occur, and what are they used for?
We all know that oxygen (O) is one of the elements in the air we breathe. Rings
and other jewellery are often made of gold (Au), silver (Ag) or platinum (Pt).
But what do we know about calcium? And what is nickel used for?
1. Think about how long coins are used for. How are properties of metals
useful to us when making coins?
Our South African coins are made from various metals and mixtures of metals, such
as copper, nickel and stainless steel.
Metals are strong and durable which is what is needed for coins as they are
used for many years in a country. They need to be strong so that they do
not break and last a long time. Metals can also be melted and then harden
again in a fixed shape. This is useful when making the coin shape and also
creating the pattern on the faces.
2. Why do you think we make jewellery out of the metals gold, silver and
platinum, and not for example out of a non-metal such as sulfur? What are
the properties of these metals?
Jewellery is made from metals such as gold, silver and platinum.
Gold, silver and platinum are shiny, whereas non-metals are not. This makes
these metals appealing to make jewellery. They are also hard and strong so
they can be shaped, but they retain their shape and do not break.
. .

3. Why do you think these electrical wires are made out of copper? What
property of copper is useful in this situation?
These electrical wires are made out of copper.
Metals, such as copper, conduct electricity, which is what is needed in an

electrical wire.
4. Do you think you could make electrical wires out of a non-metal such as
bromine or phosphorus? Why or why not?
No, you could not, as non-metals do not conduct electricity.
What do we use some of the non-metals for? We use carbon (coal) as a fuel, we
VISIT use chlorine as a disinfectant to purify water, iodine is used as an antiseptic for
wounds and helium is used to fill balloons. Arsenic, a semi-metal, is poisonous
These websites of the
and therefore used as a pesticide for insects, bacteria and fungi. Another
. highlight
Periodic Table
semi-metal, antimony, is used to make an alloy with lead which is very hard and
some of the uses of the
has many applications. As you can see, the elements have many uses all around
elements: bit.ly/1euHmVi
us! In the final activity of this chapter, we will explore some of the uses of the
and bit.ly/17zr35Q .
elements in more detail.
ACTIVITY: Uses of the elements

.
Your teacher will divide the class into small groups. Your group must choose
one element from the Periodic Table (if you are unsure, your teacher will help
you choose) and research the following .questions about this element:
1. Where is this element found?

2. What do we use this element for?
3. What are some of the properties if the element?
Your group must make a poster to present all the information you found about
your element.
...

..
SUMMARY:
.
Key Concepts
• All the elements that are known, can be arranged in a table called the
Periodic Table.
• The discoveries of many scientists over many years contributed to the
information in the Periodic Table, but the version of the table that we
use today was originally proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1800s.
• Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements
are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, with the lightest
element (hydrogen: H) in the top left hand corner.
• An element's position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal,
a non-metal or a semi-metal.
– metals are found on the left hand side of the table;
– non-metals are found on the far right hand side of the table; and
– semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and
non-metals.
• An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
– each element has a unique name;
– each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
– each element has a unique atomic number.
• Metals are usually shiny, ductile and malleable. Most are solids at room
temperature, and have high melting and boiling points.
• Non-metals can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature. They
have a great variety of properties that usually depend on the state they
are in.
• The semi-metals are all solids at room temperature. They usually have
a combination of metallic and non-metallic properties.
. Map
Concept
We learnt that the elements in the Periodic Table fall into 3 main categories.
What are these? Fill these in the concept map by looking at the concepts
which come after each category.
. .

.
.
.
REVISION:
.
1. What information can we tell from an element's position in the Periodic

Table? In other words: [2 marks]
a) What does it tell us when an element occurs on the left hand side of
the Periodic Table?
b) What does it tell us when an atom occurs on the right hand side of the
Periodic Table?
a) It tells us that the element is a metal (hydrogen is an exception here).
The metals occur on the left hand side of the Periodic Table.
b) It tells us that the element is most likely a non-metal. The non-metals
occur on the right hand side of the Periodic Table.
2. There are 3 unique 'labels' that can be used to identify an element. The first
is its name. What are the other two? [2 marks]
The chemical symbol of the element and the atomic number of the element.
3. What is the relationship between the atomic number of an element and its
place on the Periodic Table? [1 mark]
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
4. Which element has the lowest atomic number? Write both its name and its
symbol. [2 marks]
Hydrogen, H.
5. Extension question: What does the atomic number of hydrogen tell us
about it? [1 mark]
It means it has 1 proton in its atoms.
6. Write the chemical symbols of all the elements that are in the same column
as the element with the atomic number . 9. (Note: The columns on the
Periodic Table are called Groups.) [2 marks: 1/2 mark each]
F, Cl, Br, I, At
7. The following table contains some Chemical symbols

names of elements. There is also a
• C
box of chemical symbols. You should
• Na
place the chemical symbols in the
• Si
right hand column of the table so that
• N
they match the names in the left hand
• He
column. [8 marks]
• Cl
• S
• O
Names of elements Chemical symbols

Sulfur S
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Sodium Na
Oxygen O
Silicon Si
Chlorine Cl
Helium He
...

8. Write a short paragraph to explain what a semi-metal is. Also give an
example of one semi-metal and say where in the Periodic Table the
semi-metals can be found. [3 marks]
Learner's answer should contain at least the following information:
• Semi-metals are elements that have some properties of both metals
and non-metals.
• They are found in a diagonal strip that separates the metals form the
non-metals, towards the right hand side of the Periodic Table.
• Learner should give one example from the following list: boron (B),
silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium
(Te) or polonium (Po). .
9. Name two properties of metals and two properties of non-metals.
[4 marks]
Metals: Any two of the following properties:
Usually solid, shiny (lustrous), ductile, malleable, have high melting and
boiling points, good conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals: Any two of the following properties:
Most often gases and liquids (but can be solid), dull, brittle, poor
conductors/good insulators.
Total [25 marks]

.
.
. .

.
.
GLOSSARY
abundant: when something exists, or is available, in large

quantities; plentiful
acid: a substance which is corrosive, has a sour taste and
feels rough (grippy) between your fingers
alkali: a base that is dissolved in water
alloy: a mixture of two or more metals (stainless steel is
an example of an alloy)
altitude: the height of a place above sea level; places that
are inland, or on mountains, are said to be at a
higher altitude than places on the coast
ascorbic acid: a natural acid that occurs in some fruits and
vegetables; also known as Vitamin C
atomic number: a unique number that represents a given element
and shows its position on the Periodic Table
base: a substance that can also be corrosive, has a bitter
taste, and feels slippery between your fingers
boiling point: the temperature at which a particular material
changes from the liquid to the gas state (boils)
capillary action: the process by which liquid is drawn up in a narrow
tube
chemical formula: a representation of chemicals using symbols that
tell us which elements a compound contains and in
.
what ratio
chemoreceptor: a sensory nerve cell or sense organ that detects
chemical signals
chromatogram: the pattern formed on the paper by the
components separated by chromatography
chromatography: a process in which a mixture carried by a liquid is
separated into components
citric acid: a natural acid that occurs in citrus fruit
clear: transparent; see-through
concern: (noun) something that you are worried about
condensation: the process of changing a gas to a liquid
condense: when particles come together; to change from the
gaseous state to the liquid state
constant: a variable, or physical quantity, that is constant or
does not change over time
contract: (verb) the physical size of an object gets smaller
controversial: controversial issues are issues that people do not
agree about; issues that people argue about
because they hold different opinions
corrosive: a corrosive substance damages ('eats away') other
materials by chemical action (the related verb is
corrode)
dependent variable: a dependent variable is one that we do not directly
choose values for, but can only measure as we go
along
...

disperse: to spread evenly throughout
distillation: a technique for separating the components of a
liquid solution through evaporation and
condensation
ductile: the property of a material that allows it to be pulled
and stretched out into thin wires
durable: a material that is durable can last for a long time
without breaking down
element: a pure substance which cannot be broken down
further
emulsion: a mixture of two or more liquids that usually do not
mix, such as tiny oil droplets in water
environmental worries about the negative effects on habitats and
concerns: ecosystems in our environment, caused by humans
and their activities
essential: necessary and important; required
evaporation: the process of changing a liquid to a gas
expand: (verb) the physical size of an object gets bigger
filtrate: the liquid that has passed through a filter is called
the filtrate
filtration: the process of passing something through a filter
flavour: the taste and smell of food in the mouth
flexible: a material that is flexible will change shape easily
without breaking when it is bent, and will return to
its original shape
. when it is released
formic acid: a natural acid found inside the bodies of some ant
species
grain: a very small piece of something
heat: is the transfer of energy, from a hotter object to a
colder object
immune system: the biological system inside our bodies that
protects us from disease and infection
impact: to have an effect on something else
independent variable: an independent variable is one whose values we
can choose (manipulate); we still have to be able to
measure it
indicator: a substance that changes colour in the presence of
another substance, showing that that substance is
present
instinct: a natural or inborn way of responding to something
litmus: a well known acid-base indicator that turns red
when mixed with an acid and blue when mixed with
a base
magnetic: a property of some materials that allows them to
be attracted to a magnet
malleable: the property of a material that allows it to be
shaped by flattening with a hammer or squeezing it
between rollers
melting point: the temperature beyond which a particular material
changes from the solid to the liquid state (melts)
. .

mixture: matter consisting of two or more components
(substances) that retain their own properties
moulding: a process that involves melting a substance and
then pouring it into a specially shaped hollow
container (mould) that will give it that particular
shape when it cools down and returns to the solid
state; clay can also be moulded
neutral substance: a substance that isneither acidic nor basic
neutralise: to make something chemically neutral
opaque: something that we cannot see through is opaque;
opaque is the opposite of transparent
Periodic Table: a table in which the chemical elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number
pigment: a substance that gives colour to other materials
property: a distinctive attribute, characteristic or quality (of a
certain material)
residue: the substances that are left behind in the filter after
filtering
savoury: refers to salty or spicy food (not sweet)
semi-conductor: a material that conducts electricity only under
special conditions, for instance at very low
temperatures
semi-metal: an element that has properties of both metals and
non-metals
sense: to become aware. of something (specifically
through our sense organs, e.g. by smelling tasting,
feeling, hearing or seeing something)
sieve: a device with small holes through which finer
particles of a mixture may be passed to separate
them from coarser ones
solute: the substance that is dissolved in a solvent to make
a solution, for example sugar (solute) dissolved in
water (solvent)
solution: when a solid, liquid or gas dissolves in a liquid, we
call the resulting mixture a solution; a mixture that
has no cloudiness
solvent: the substance that the solute is dissolved in to
make a solution
soot and ash: small particles of burnt material that are the solid
components in smoke
still: the apparatus used for distillation
suspension: a mixture in which the tiny clumps and pieces are
mixed in a liquid but they are undissolved; all
suspensions are milky/cloudy in appearance
symbol (or element a unique letter (or letters) that represents a given
symbol): element
taste buds: taste buds are very small structures contained
within papillae on the surface of the tongue
responsible for taste
temperature: a measurement of how hot or cold something is
...

thermometer: a device for measuring the temperature of an
object or a material
tongue map: a map of the human
. tongue, showing which areas
on the tongue are sensitive to which flavours; some
scientists do not believe that the 'tongue map' is
accurate
Here is your chance to discover the possibilities. What else can this beaker be?
. .

A Assessment rubrics
The assessment guidelines for Gr 7-9 Natural Sciences are outlined in CAPS on
page 85. Provided here are various rubrics as a guideline for assessment for the
. . ...
different tasks which you would like to assess, either informally (to assess
learners' progress) or formally (to record marks to contribute to the final year
mark). These rubrics can be photocopied and used for each learner.
The various rubrics provided are:
• Assessment Rubric 1: Practical activity

• To be used for any practical task where learners are required to follow
instructions to complete the task.
• Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
• To be used for an investigation, especially where learners have to write
their own experimental report or design the investigation themselves.
• Assessment Rubric 3: Graph
• To be used for any graph or translation task you would like to assess,
either on its own or within another activity.
• Assessment Rubric 4: Table
• To be used when learners have to draw their own table and you would like
to assess it.
• Assessment Rubric 5: Scientific drawing
• To be used when learners have to do a drawing, particularly in Life and
Living.
• Assessment Rubric 6: Research assignment or project
• To be used when learners have to do a research assignment or project,
either outside of class or in class time, and either individually or in groups.
• Assessment Rubric 7: Model
• To be used when learners have to design and build their own scientific
models.
• Assessment Rubric 8: Poster
• To be used when learners have to make a poster, either individually or in a
group.
• Assessment Rubric 9: Oral presentation
• To be used when learners have to give an oral presentation to the class on
a selected topic.
• Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
• To be used to assess any work where learners are required to complete the
task as a group. This rubric is designed to assess the group as a whole.
324
. 1: Practical activity
A.1 Assessment Rubric
Name:
Date:
Task:
Assessment 0 1 2 Comments
criteria
Following Unable to Instructions Able to work
instructions follow followed with independently
instructions guidance
Observing Unable to Sometimes Able to follow
safety observe safety does not safety
precautions precautions follow safety precautions
precautions completely
Ability to Cannot work Can work
work tidily tidily tidily
Cleans up Does so once Does so
afterwards reminded without
reminding
Organisation Disorganised Fairly Organised and
organised efficient
Use of Always used Sometimes Apparatus
apparatus, incorrectly used correctly and materials
equipment and materials and aware of used correctly
and materials wasted material usage and efficiently
Results or No result or Partially Results or
final product final product correct results product
or product correct
Answers to No answers Can answer Can answer
questions provided or questions and application
based on most are at least 60% and questions
activity incorrect are correct correctly
Total /15
. .
Appendix A. Assessment rubrics 325

.
A.2 Assessment Rubric 2: Investigation
Name:
Date:
Task:
Assessment 0 1 2 3 Comments
criteria
Aim Not stated Not clearly Clearly
or incorrect stated stated
Hypothesis Not able to Able to Clearly
or hypothesise hypothesise, hypothesises
prediction but not
clearly
Materials Not listed Partially Correct
and or incorrect correct
apparatus
Method None Confused, Partially Clearly and
not in order correct correctly
or incorrect stated
Results and No results Partially accurately Correctly
observations recorded or correctly recorded and
(recorded incorrectly recorded but not in accurately
either as a recorded the most recorded in
graph, table appropriate the most
or or specified appropriate
observations) way or specified
way
Analysis or No Some Understands Insightful
discussion understand- understand- the understand-
ing of the ing of the investigation ing of the
investigation investigation investigation
Evaluation No attempt Partially Correct, but Critical
correct superficial evaluation
with
suggestions
Neatness of Untidy Tidy
report
Logical Not logical Some of Report is
presentation report is logically
of report logically presented
presented
Total /25
...

A.3 Assessment . Rubric 3: Graph
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Correct type of Not correct Correct
graph
Appropriate Not present Present, but Complete
heading, incomplete
describing both
variables
Independent Not present Present
variable on or incorrect
x-axis
Dependent Not present Present
variable on or incorrect
y-axis
Appropriate Incorrect Correct
scale on x-axis
Appropriate Incorrect Correct
scale on y-axis
Appropriate Not present Correct
heading for or incorrect
x-axis
Appropriate Not present Correct
heading for or incorrect
y-axis
Units for Not present Correct
independent or incorrect
variable on
x-axis
Units for Not present Correct
dependent or incorrect
variable on
y-axis
Plotting points All incorrect Mostly or All correct
partially
correct
Neatness Untidy Tidy
Graph size Too small Large
Total /15
. .

A.4 Assessment. Rubric 4: Table
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Appropriate Not present Present, but Complete
heading, incomplete
describing both
variables
Appropriate Not present Mostly Correct
column headings or incorrect correct and
descriptive
Appropriate row Not present At least half All correct
headings or incorrect correct
Units in headings None present Present but Present
and not in body in the body and in the
of table headings
Layout of table No horizontal Some lines All vertical
or vertical drawn and
lines horizontal
lines drawn
Data entered in Not correct Partially All correct
table correct
Total /12
...

. 5: Scientific drawing
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Appropriate, Not present Present, but Complete
descriptive incomplete
heading
Appropriate size Incorrect (too Correct
of drawing small)
(sufficiently large
on page)
Accuracy of Incorrect Somewhat Correct
drawing (correct correct
shape and
proportion of
parts)
Structures or Mostly Mostly All correct
parts placed incorrect correct, but
correctly in some
relation to each misplaced
other
Diagram lines are Not clear or Clear and
neat, straight and neat or blunt neat
done with a sharp pencil
pencil
Label lines do not Incorrect Correct All correct
cross over each
other
Parts are labelled Mostly Mostly All correct
incorrect correct with and
some labelled
missing or
incorrectly
labelled
Total /12
. .

A.6 Assessment Rubric 6: Research
.
assignment or
Project
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Group work (if Conflict Some Worked
applicable) between conflict and efficiently
members or some as a group
some did not members
participate did not
always
participate
Project layout No clear or Some parts Clear and
logical are clear logical
organisation and logical, layout and
while others organisation
are not
Accuracy Many errors A few errors Content is
in content in content accurate
Resources used No resources Some or A range of
(material or used limited resources
media) resources used
used
Standard Poor standard Satisfactory Of a high
standard
Use of time Did not work Worked Worked
efficiently and fairly efficiently
ran out of efficiently and
time finished in
time
Total /12
...

A.7 Assessment . Rubric 7: Model
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Scientifically Model Mostly Accurate,
accurate inaccurate or accurate, complete
incomplete but with and
some parts correct.
missing or
incorrect
Size and scale Too big or Correct size, Correct
too small, but some size and
parts not in parts too proportional
proportion to big or too scale
each other small
Use of colour or Dull, with Somewhat Creative
contrast little use of colourful and good
contrast use of
colour and
contrast
Use of materials Inappropriate Satisfactory Excellent
use or only use of use of
expensive appropriate materials
materials materials and
used and recyclables
recyclables where
where appropriate
possible
Use of a key or Not present Present but Clear and
explanation incomplete accurate
or vague
Total /10
. .

A.8 Assessment .Rubric 8: Poster
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Title Absent Present, but Complete
not title
sufficiently
descriptive
Main points Not relevant Some points All points
relevant relevant
Accuracy of facts Many Mostly All correct
incorrect correct, but
some errors
Language and Many errors Some errors No errors
spelling
Organisation and Disorganised Organisation Excellent,
layout and no logic partially logical
clear and layout
logical
Use of colour No colour or Some use of Effective
only one colour colour
colour
Size of text Text very Some text Text
small too small appropriate
size
Use of diagrams Absent or Present but Present,
and pictures irrelevant sometimes relevant
irrelevant and
appealing
Accuracy of Inaccurate Mostly Completely
diagrams or accurate accurate
pictures
Impact of poster Does not Makes Eye
make an somewhat catching
impact of an impact and makes
a lasting
impact
Creativeness Nothing new Some signs Original
or original of creativity and very
and creative
independent
thought
Total /22
...

. 9: Oral presentation
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Introducing Did not do Present, but Present, and Interesting
the topic with no links to and
clear links to content catching
content being introduction
covered
Speed of Too fast or Started off Good speed
presentation too slow too fast or throughout
too slow but
reaches
optimal
pace
Pitch and Too soft or Started off Speaks
clearness of unclear unclear or clearly and
voice too soft, but optimal pitch
improved throughout
Capturing Did not Interesting Sustained Sustained
audience's make an at times interest and interest and
attention and impact or no stimulating stimulating
originality attempt to throughout
capture with
interest originality
Organisation Illogical or Clear and Clear and
of content unclear mostly logical
during logical throughout
presentation
Factual Many errors Some errors All correct
content in content in content
Concluding No Made a Insightful/
remarks conclusion satisfactory thought-
or not conclusion provoking
appropriate conclusion
Answers to Was not Was able to Was able to
educator and able to answer answer recall
class's answer recall and
questions questions or questions application
gave only questions
incorrect
answers
Total /18
. .

.
A.10 Assessment Rubric 10: Group work
Name:
Date:
Task:
criteria
Member Very few Only some In the Full
participation members members beginning participation
participated participated only some throughout
or one or two members
members did participated
most of work but then full
participation
Discipline Lack of Some Most All members
within the discipline members members disciplined
group disciplined disciplined
Group Unmotivated Some Most All members
motivation or lack focus members members motivated
motivated, motivated and focused
but others and
lack focus focused
Respect for Show Some All
each other disrespect to members members
each other showed are
disrespect respectful
Conflict Considerable Some No conflict
within the conflict and conflict or any
group disagreements which was issues were
which were either resolved
unresolved resolved or maturely
unresolved
Time Disorganised Mostly able Effective
management and unable to work use of time
to stick to within the to
time frames given time complete
the task
Total /15
...

. .

Image Attribution
1 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biosphere_2_Habitat_%26_Lung_2009−05−10.jpg . . . . . 27
2 http://www.flickr.com/photos/cheezepix/1733216613/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 http://www.flickr.com/photos/sidelong/542808053/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 http://www.flickr.com/photos/71888644@N00/6310931034/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5 http://www.flickr.com/photos/dodo−bird/477583981/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6 http://www.flickr.com/photos/dodo−bird/477499086/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7 http://www.flickr.com/photos/87328375@N06/8434096665/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9 http://www.flickr.com/photos/kankan/19828575/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10 http://www.flickr.com/photos/kkoshy/8576660148/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Great_white_shark_south_africa.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12 http://www.flickr.com/photos/diamondglacieradventures/5737115639/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:False_Morel.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
14 http://www.flickr.com/photos/scott_darbey/7472656286/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
15 http://www.flickr.com/photos/tessawatson/384591931/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
16 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nitzschia−kerguelensis_hg.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
17 http://www.flickr.com/photos/tristrambrelstaff/231188253/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
18 http://www.flickr.com/photos/haemengine/3982256034/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
19 http://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibrary/7064505883/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
20 http://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibrary/7064433129/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
23 http://www.flickr.com/photos/biodivlibrary/7064464957/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
25 http://www.flickr.com/photos/zappowbang/5043221443/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
26 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spotted_Eagle_Ray_%28Aetobatus_narinari%292.jpg . . . . 71
27 http://www.flickr.com/photos/zappowbang/5043846856/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
28 http://www.flickr.com/photos/hermanusbackpackers/3343254977/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
29 http://www.flickr.com/photos/scobleizer/3458608999/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
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1 18

Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Distributed by the Department of Basic Education

For more information about the Creative Commons

Siyavula Coordinator and Editor

Teacher's Guide Overview 12

Teacher's Guide Overview 12

Life and living 22

3 Sexual reproduction 106

Matter and Materials 184

1 Properties of materials 186

2 Separating mixtures 222

3 Acids, bases and neutral substances 264

4 The Periodic Table of Elements 292

A Assessment rubrics 324

Image Attribution 336

"Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood. Now is the

"The glory of science is to imagine more than we can prove."

Learners must be encouraged to 'doodle' themselves, take notes during your

We have aimed to present the content in an investigative, questioning way. At

Albert Einstein certainly did this when he observed:

"The most beautiful experience we can have is the mysterious - the

Natural Sciences Knowledge Strands www.thunderboltkids.co.za

Life and Living

Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 13

• 10 weeks per term with 3 hours per week

Life and Living

Chapter Time allocation

Matter and Materials

Chapter Time allocation

Energy and Change

Chapter Time allocation

14 Teacher's Guide Overview

Chapter Time allocation

Speciﬁc Aim 1: 'Doing Science'

Learners should be able to complete investigations, analyse problems and use

Speciﬁc Aim 2: 'Knowing the subject content and making connections'

Learners should have a grasp of scientiﬁc, technological and environmental

Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 15

Speciﬁc Aim 3: 'Understanding the uses of Science'

Learners should understand the uses of Natural Sciences and indigenous

There is a strong emphasis in these workbooks to show that science is relevant

You are legally allowed to copy this book.

We encourage you to photocopy it, download it from our website, save it on

16 Teacher's Guide Overview

With OERs, you are free to:

• Reuse - the right to reuse the content in its unaltered form

Structure of the book

The A book covers term 1 and 2:

• Life and Living

The B book covers terms 3 and 4:

• Energy and Change

These books are an amalgamation between workbooks and textbooks. They

The content and various ACTIVITIES and INVESTIGATIONS follow:

Chapter . Teacher's Guide Overview 17

Going through the content

An example of a teacher's note:

18 Teacher's Guide Overview

• the number of weeks allocated to the chapter, as suggested in CAPS