1

CHAPTER 2
FUNCTIONS

Learning Outcomes of the Chapter

At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:
1. define function and find the value of a function at a real number.
2. define the sum, diference,product, and quotient and find their respective
domains.
3. define the composite of two functions.
4. solve problems involving a function as a mathematical model.
5. find the domain and range of algebraic functions.
6. define properties of algebraic functions.
6. sketch the graphs of some algebraic functions.

2.1 Definition and Examples

In this section, we limit our discussion to Cartesian product of real
numbers R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}. We will define function as ordered pairs
of real numbers.

Definition 2.1.1 A function is a set f of ordered pairs in R × R = {(x, y) :

x, y ∈ R} such that no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first elements.

Example 2.1.2 The following sets are examples of functions in R × R.

1. f = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0), (4, 0)}.
2. f = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25), (6, 36)}.
3. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : 2x − y = 4}.
4. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : x2 −√y = 1}.
5. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x − 1}.
6. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : 2x −√xy + y = 0}.
7. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = 3 x − 1}.
8. f = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : y = x3 }.

In the above definition, a function f is defined as a set of ordered pairs

(x, y) of real numbers. The numbers x and y are called variables. Since the
value of y is dependent on the value of x, we call x the independent variable
and y the dependent variable.
 2

If (x, y) is an element of f , it is customary to write y = f (x) instead

of (x, y) ∈ f . We often refer to y as the value of f at the real number x, or
the image of the real number x under f .

Example 2.1.3 The functions in Example 2.1.2 can be written in the notation
y = f (x).
1. y = f (x) = 0, x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
2. y = f (x) = x2 , x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
3. y = f (x) = 2x − 4.
x2 + 1.
4. y = f (x) = √
5. y = f (x) = x − 1}.
2x
6. y = f (x) = x−1 .
√3
7. y = f (x) = x − 1}.
8. y = f (x) = x3 .

Example 2.1.4 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f (x) = x2 − 3x + 4.

Find: (a) f (−1); (b) f (0); (c) f (2); (d) f (3a); (e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h)

Solution: (a) f (−1) = (−1)2 − 3(−1) + 4 = 1 + 3 + 4 = 8;

(b) f (0) = (0)2 − (0) + 4 = 4;
(c) f (2) = (2)2 − 3(2) + 4 = 4 − 6 + 4 = 2;
(d) f (3a) = (3a)2 − 3(3a) + 4 = 9a2 − 9a + 4;
(e) f (2x−1) = (2x−1)2 −3(2x−1)+4 = 4x2 −4x+1−6x+3+4 = 4x2 −10x+8;
(f) f (x + h) = (x + h)2 − 3(x + h) + 4 = x2 − 2xh + h2 − 3x − 3h + 4. 
√
Example 2.1.5 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = x − 1. Find:
(a) f (1); (b) f (5); (c) f (9); (d) f (3a + 5); (e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h)
√ √
Solution: (a)
√ f (1) = √ 1 − 1 = 0 = 0;
(b) f (5) = √ 5 − 1 = √ 4 = p2; √ √ √
(c) f (9) = √ 9 − 1 = 8 = √4(2) = 4 2 = 2 2;
(d) f (3a) = 3a√+ 5 − 1 = 3a√+ 4;
(e) f (2x − 1) =√ 2x − 1 − 1 = 2x − 2;
(f) f (x + h) = x + h − 1. 
(
x + 4, if x ≤ −4
Example 2.1.6 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = ;
4 − x, if −4 < x
find (a) f (−6); (b) f (−4); (c) f (0); (d) f (4).
 3

Solution: (a) If x ≤ −4, then f (x) = x + 4. Thus, f (−6) = −6 + 4 = −2;

(b) If x ≤ −4, then f (x) = x + 4. Thus, f (−4) = −4 + 4 = 0;
(c) If −4 < x, then f (x) = 4 − x. Thus, f (0) = 4 − 0 = 4;
(d) If −4 < x, then f (x) = 4 − x. Thus, f (4) = 4 − 4 = 0.

x + 3, if x < 2

Example 2.1.7 Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = 4, if x = 2 ;

2x − 1, if 2 < x

find (a) f (0); (b) f (2); (c) f (3); (d) f (−2).

Solution: (a) If x < 2, then f (x) = x + 3. Thus, f (0) = 0 + 3 = 3;

(b) If x = 2, then f (x) = 4. Thus, f (2) = 4;
(c) If 2 < x, then f (x) = 2x − 1. Thus, f (3) = 2(3) − 1 = 5;
(d) If x < 2, then f (x) = x + 3. Thus, f (−2) = −2 + 3 = 1.

Sample Problem 2.1.8

1. Given f (x) = 3x − 4, find (a) f (1); (b) f (−5); (c) f (9); (d) f (3a + 5);
(e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h).
2. Given f (x) = 3x2 +2x−4, find (a) f (1); (b) f (−1); (c) f ( 21 ); (d) f (3a+5);
(e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h).
x
3. Given f (x) = , find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f ( 21 ); (d) f (3a + 5);
x−1
(e) f (2x − 1); (f)
√f (x + h).
4. Given f (x) = 9 − x, find (a) f (−2); (b) f (9−x); (c) f ( 21 ); (d) f (3a+5);
(e) f (2x − 1); (f) f (x + h). (
x + 2, if x ≤ 0
5. Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ,
3x − 2, if 0 < x
find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f (0); (d) ( f (2).
x2 + 1, if x < 1
6. Let f be a function defined by f (x) = ,
3x − 1, if 1 ≥ x
find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f (0); (d)  f (2).
2
x ,
 if x < −1
7. Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 0, if x = −1 ,

2x − 1, if −1 < x

find (a) f (−2); (b) f (−1); (c) f (0); (d) f (2).
 4

2.2 Domain and Range of a Function

Definition 2.2.1 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the domain of f ,
denoted by D(f ), is the set of all real numbers x that occurs as first member
of the elements of f and the range of f , denoted by R(f ), is the set of all real
numbers y that ocuurs as second member of the elements of f .

To find the domain of a function y = f (x), solve D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}.

To find the range of a function y = f (x), solve R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R},

where
y = f (x) ⇔ x = f −1 (y).

Example 2.2.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 − 1. Find D(f ) and

R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

f (x) = x2 − 1 ⇒ y = x2 − 1
⇒ x2 = y + 1
p
⇒x=± y+1
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± y + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈R:± y+1∈R
= {y ∈ R : y + 1 ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ −1}
= [−1, +∞). 

Example 2.2.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 4 − x2 . Find D(f ) and

R(f ).
 5

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : 4 − x2 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

f (x) = x2 + 4 ⇒ y = 4 − x2
⇒ x2 = 4 − y
p
⇒x=± 4−y
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± 4 − y.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈R:± 4−y ∈R
= {y ∈ R : 4 − y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : 4 ≥ y}
= {y ∈ R : y ≤ 4}
= (−∞, 4]. 

2x
Example 2.2.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x−3
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
x−3
= {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 6

2x 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−3 x−3
⇒ xy − 3y = 2x
⇒ xy − 2x = 3y
⇒ x(y − 2) = 3y
3y
⇒x=
y−2
3y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−2

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
3y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−2
= {y ∈ R : y − 2 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞). 

√
Example 2.2.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x − 4. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: x−4∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 4 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 4}
= [4, +∞).

√ √
f (x) = x−4⇒y = x−4
⇒ y2 = x − 4
⇒ x = y2 + 4
⇒ f −1 (y) = y 2 + 4.
 7

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

√
= y ∈ R : y 2 + 4 ∈ R and y ≥ 0 , y = x − 4 ⇒ y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 

Sample Problem 2.2.6 Find the domain and range of the following functions
in R × R.
3x
1. f (x) = x2 − 5 2. f (x) = 2 − x2 3. f (x) =
x−2
√ x+4 √
4. f (x) = x − 5 5. f (x) = 6. f (x) = 4 − x.
x−5

2.3 Operations on Functions

Definition 2.3.1 Let f and g be functions in R × R. Then
(i) their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function defined by

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);

(ii) their difference, denoted by f − g, is the function defined by

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x);

(iii) their product, denoted by f · g, is the function defined by

(f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x);

f
(iv) their quotient, denoted by , is the function defined by
g
 
f f (x)
(x) = .
g g(x)
The domain of the resulting function consists of all real numbers x common
to the domain of f and g, with the additional requirement in case (iv) where
g(x) 6= 0 for all x.
 8

Example 2.3.2 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 − 1 and

g(x) = x − 1. Define the following functions and find their respective domains:
f
(a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
g
Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R,

D(g) = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.
Hence,

D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R ∩ R = R.

(a) (f + g)(x) = x2 − 1 + x − 1 = x2 + x − 2 and

D(f + g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R.

(b) (f − g)(x) = x2 − 1 − (x − 1) = x2 − x and

D(f − g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R.

(c) (f · g)(x) = (x2 − 1)(x − 1) = x3 − x2 − x + 1 and

D(f · g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = R.

x2 − 1
 
f (x + 1)(x − 1)
(d) (x) = = = x + 1 and
g x−1 x−1
 
f
D = D(f ) ∩ D(g) ∩ {x ∈ R : g(x) 6= 0}
g
= R ∩ {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= R ∩ {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 
 9

x+4
Example 2.3.3 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = and
√ x−3
g(x) = x − 1. Define the following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c)
f
f · g; and (d) .
g
Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x+4
= x∈R: ∈R
x−3
= {x ∈ R : x − 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞),

D(g) = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: x−1∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1}
= [1, +∞),
and

D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [(−∞, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)] ∩ [1, +∞) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
√
(a) (f + g)(x) = x+4
x−3
+ x − 1 and

D(f + g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).

x+4 √
(b) (f − g)(x) = − x − 1 and
x−3
D(f − g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
√
x + 4√ (x + 4) x − 1
(c) (f · g)(x) = x−1= and
x−3 x−3
D(f · g) = D(f ) ∩ D(g) = [1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 10

  x+4
f x+4
(d) (x) = x−3 =
√ √ and
g x−1 (x − 3) x − 1
 
f
D = [D(f ) ∩ D(g)] ∩ {x ∈ R : g(x) 6= 0}
g
√
= {[1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)} ∩ {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= {[1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)} ∩ {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= {[1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)} ∩ {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞). 

Definition 2.3.4 Let f and g be functions in R × R. Then the the composite

function, denoted by f ◦ g, is the function defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f ((g(x)).

The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all real numbers x in the domain of g such
that g(x) is in the domain of f .

Example
√ 2.3.5 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x + 4 and
g(x) = x − 1. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g and (b) g ◦ f .
√ √
Solution: (a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (√ x − 1) = x√− 1 + 4;
(b) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x + 4) = x + 4 − 1 = x + 3. 
2
Example√ 2.3.6 Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x + 4 and
g(x) = x − 2. Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f ; (c) f ◦ f
and; (d) g ◦ g.
√ √
Solution: (a) (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( x − 2) = ( x − 2)2 + 4 = x − 2 + 4 =
x + 2; √ √
(b) (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 + 4) = x2 + 4 − 2 = x2 + 2.
(c) (f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f (x2 + 4) = (x 2 2 4 2
p√+ 4) + 4 = x + 8x + 20;
√
(b) (g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( x − 2) = x − 2 − 2. 

Sample Problem 2.3.5

1. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 − 4 and g(x) = x + 2. Define
f
the following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
√ g
2
2. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 2x + 3.
 11

f
Define the following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
√ g
3. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x+2
x−5
and g(x) = 3
x. Define the
f
following functions: (a) f + g; (b) f − g; (c) f · g; and (d) .
g √
4. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 − 3 and g(x) = x + 2.
Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f√; (c) f ◦ f and; (d) g ◦ g.
5. Let f and g be functions defined by f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 3x − 4.
Define the following functions: (a) f ◦ g; (b) g ◦ f ; (c) f ◦ f and; (d) g ◦ g.

2.4 Functions as Mathematical Models

In this lesson ,we will express a real-world situations using functions,
which is called a mathematical model of the situation. This will give
practice in obtaining functions as mathematical models and as preparation to
some of the applications in calculus such as extremum and related problems.

Suggestions for Solving Problems Involving Function as a Mathematical

Model
1. Draw a fugure if possible.
2. Determine the known and unknown quantities. Assign a symbol, say x,
for the independent variable and a symbol, say f (x), for the function to be
obtained.
3. Write any numerical facts about the variable and the function value and
determine two algebaic expressions for the same number. From these two
expressions form an equation that defines a function, which is the mathematical
model of the problem.

Example 2.4.1 A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 30 m of fencing

material.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the area of the garden as a
function of its length.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the area of the garden if the length is 12 m?

Solution: (a) Let x be the length of the garden, y be the width of the garden,
A be the area of the garden, and P = 30 be the perimeter of the garden. Then
A = xy and P = 2x + 2y.
 12

Since P = 30, we have 30 = 2x + 2y. Solving for y, we get

1
A = xy and y = (30 − 2x = 15 − x.
2
Thus,

A = x(15 − x) = 15x − x2 .

Therefore, A is a function of x:

A(x) = 15x − x2 .

(b)D(A) = x ∈ R : 15x − x2 ≥ 0


= {x ∈ R : x2 − 15x ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x(x − 15) ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x − 15 ≤ 0} ∪ {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 and x − 15 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 15} ∪ {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 15}
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 15} ∪ { }
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 15}
= [0, 15].

(c) If x = 12 then A(12) = 15(12) − (12)2 = 180 − 144 = 36. Therefore,

if the length is 12 m, the area of the garden is 36 m2 . 

Example 2.4.2 A closed tin can of volume 16π in3 is to be made in the form
of a right circular cylinder.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total surface area of the
can as a function of the radius.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the surface area of the can when the radius is 10 in?

Solution: (a) Let r be the radius of the can, h be the height of the can, A be
the surface area of the can, and V = 60 be the volume of the can. Then

A = 2πrh + πr2 h and V = πr2 .

Since V = 60, we have 60 = πr2 h. Solving for h, we get

60
A = 2πrh + πr2 and h= .
πr2
 13

Thus,
 
60 120π
A = 2πr + πr2 = + πr2 .
r2 r
Therefore, A is a function of r:
120π
A(r) = + πr2 .
r

 
120π 2
(b)D(A) = r ∈ R : + πr ∈ R and r > 0
r
= {r ∈ R : r 6= 0 and r > 0}
= {r ∈ R : r > 0}
= (0, +∞).

120π
(c) If r = 10 then A(10) = + π(10)r2 = 112π. Therefore, when
10r
the radius is 10 in., the surface area of the can is 112π in2 . 

Example 2.4.3 A sheet of cardboard 4 ft by 6 ft is to made into an open box

by cutting equal squares from each corner and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out is
0.5 ft?

Solution: (a) Let x be the length of the square cut out (this becomes the height
of the box, y be the width of the box, z be the length of the box, and V be
the volume of the box. Then

V = xy, and y = 4 − 2x, z = 6 − 2x.

Thus,

V = x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x).

Therefore, V is a function of x:

V (x) = x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x).

 14

(b)D(A) = {x ∈ R : x(4 − 2x)(6 − 2x) ≥ 0}

= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and 4 − 2x ≥ 0 and 6 − 2x ≥ 0}, since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 2 and x ≤ 3}
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2}
= [0, 2].

(c) If x = 0.5 then V (0.5) = 0.5[4 − 2(0.5)][6 − 2(0.5)] = 0.5[3][5] = 7.5.

Therefore, if the length of the square cut out is 6 in, the volume of the box is
7.5 ft3 . 

Example 2.4.4 An online seller sells a certain product by the kg; If not more
than 20 kg are ordered, the online seller charges 4 pesos per kg and if more
than 20 kg are ordered, the online seller charges 3 pesos per kg.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the order
as a function of the amount of the product ordered.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the total cost of an order of 16 kg?
(d) What is the total cost of an order of 25 kg?

Solution: (a) Let x be the number of kg of an order and C be the total cost
of an order. Then
(
4x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
C= .
3x, if 20 < x
Therefore, C is a function of x given by
(
4x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
C(x) = .
3x, if 20 < x

(b)D(C) = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 20} ∪ {x ∈ R : 20 < x}}

= [0, 20] ∪ (20, +∞)
= [0, +∞).

(c) If 0 ≤ x ≤ 20, then C(x) = 4x. Thus, if x = 16, then C(16) =

4(16) = 64. Therefore, the total cost of an oder of 16 kg is 64 pesos.

(d) If 20 < x, then C(x) = 3x. Thus, if x = 25, then C(25) = 3(25) =
75. Therefore, the total cost of an oder of 25 kg is 75 pesos. 
 15

Example 2.4.5 In each of the following problem, find a mathematical model

of a particular situation.
1. A rectangular field is to be enclosed with 200 m of fence.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total area of the field as
a function of its length.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the area of the field if its length is 60 m?

2. A rectangular garden is to be fenced off with 100 m of fencing material.

(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the area of the garden as a
function of its length.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the area of the garden if the length is 40 m?

3. A piece of tin with dimensions 8 in by 15 in will be made into an open box

by cutting equal squares from four corners and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out is
2 in?

4. A piece of cardboard with dimensions 40 cm by 60 cm will be made into an

open box by cutting equal squares from four corners and turning up the sides.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the volume of the box as a
function of the length of the side of the square cut out.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the volume of the box if the length of the square cut out is
5 cm?

5. A seller sells a product by the grams; If less than 10 g are ordered, the seller
charges 50 pesos per gram and if at least 10 g are ordered, the seller charges
45 pesos per gram.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the order
as a function of the amount of the product ordered.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the total cost of an order of 9 g?
(d) What is the total cost of an order of 12 g?

6. The regular adult admission to an evening performance at a downtown

 16

theater is 120 pesos, while the price for persons under 18 years of age is 100
pesos.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the admission price as a
function of the person’s age.
(b) Find the domain of the function in (a).
(c) What is the admission price if the person is 12 years old?
(d) What is the admission price if the person is 25 years old?

ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
2.5 Linear Functions
Definition 2.5.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = ax + b, where
a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0, is called a linear function.

Theorem 2.5.2 Let f (x) = ax + b, where a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0. Then

(i) D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R;
(ii) the graph of f is a line which is increasing if a > 0 and is decreasing
if a < 0.

Example 2.5.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 2x + 4. Find D(f )

and R(f ). Identify the graph of f and determine whether it is increasing or
decereasing. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R.

The graph of f is a line which is increasing since a = 2 > 0.
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Example 2.5.4 Let f (x) = −2x + 2. Find D(f ) and R(f ). Identify the graph
of f and determine whether it is increasing or decereasing. Sketch the graph
of f .
 17

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Solution: D(f ) = R and R(f ) = R.

The graph of f is a line which is decreasing since a = −2 < 0.

Sample Problem 2.5.4 Given the following linear functions, find D(f ) and
R(f ); and determine whether the graph of f is increasing or decereasing.
Sketch the graph of f .
1. f (x) = 3x + 6 2. f (x) = 3x − 6 3. f (x) = −2x + 10
4. f (x) = −4x + 6 5. f (x) = 2x − 5 6. f (x) = −5x − 10

2.6 Quadratic Functions

Definition 2.6.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where
a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function.

Theorem 2.6.2 Let f (x) =  ax2 + bx + c, where

 a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0. Then
b 4ac − b2
(i) the vertex is V = − , ;
2a 4a
(ii) D(f ) = R;
4ac − b2 4ac − b2
   
(iii) R(f ) = , +∞ , if a > 0 and R(f ) = −∞, ,
4a 4a
if a < 0.
(iv) the graph of f is a parabola opening upward if a > 0 and is a
parabola opening downward if a < 0.

Example 2.6.3 Let f (x) = x2 − 2x. Find the vertex, D(f ), and R(f ).
Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening downward.
Skecth the graph of f .

Solution: Let a = 1, b = −2, and c = 0. Then

 18

b −2 4ac − b2 4(1)(0) − (−2)2

− =− = 1 and = = −1.
2a 2(1) 4a 4(1)
Hence,
V = (1, −1),D(f ) = R, andR(f ) = [−1, +∞).
Since a > 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward. We may construct a
table of values:
x 0 1 2
y = f (x) 0 -1 0
Using these three points, we sketch a graph of the parabola.
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Example 2.6.4 Let f (x) = −x2 + 2x + 2. Find the vertex, D(f ), and R(f ).
Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or opening downward.
Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: Let a = −1, b = 2, and c = 2. Then

b 2 4ac − b2 4(−1)(2)
− =− = 1 and = = 3.
2a 2(−1) 4a 4(−1)
Hence,
V = (1, 3), D(f ) = R, and R(f ) = (−∞, 3].
Since a < 0, the graph is a parabola opening upward. Construct a table of
values.
 19

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x 0 1 2
y 2 3 2
Using these three points, sketch a graph of the parabola.

Sample Problem 2.6.5 Let f be a quadratic function. Find the vertex,

D(f ), and R(f ). Determine whether the graph of f is opening upward or
opening downward. Sketch the graph of f .
1. f (x) = x2 −2x+3. 2. f (x) = x2 +4x+5. 3. f (x) = −x2 −2x−3.
4. f (x) = −2x2 +4x. 5. f (x) = x2 −4x+1. 6. f (x) = −x2 +3x−3.

2.7 Rational Functions

Definition 2.7.1 A function f in R × R defined by f (x) = p(x) q(x)

, where p(x)
and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 6= 0, is called a rational function.

Theorem 2.7.2 Let f (x) = p(x)

q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions
and q(x) 6= 0. Then
(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : q(x) 6= 0}.
(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}.
1
Example 2.7.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x−2
R(f ).
 20

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
1
= x∈R: ∈R
x−2
= {x ∈ R : x − 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).

1 1
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−2 x−2
⇒ xy − 2y = 1
⇒ xy = 2y + 1
2y + 1
⇒x=
y
2y + 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
2y + 1
= y∈R: ∈R
y
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞). 

x+1
Example 2.7.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x+3
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x+1
= x∈R: ∈R
x+3
= {x ∈ R : x + 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −3}
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, +∞).
 21

x+1 x+1
f (x) = ⇒y=
x+3 x+3
⇒ xy + 3y = x + 1
⇒ xy − x = 1 − 3y
⇒ x(y − 1) = 1 − 3y
1 − 3y
⇒x=
y−1
1 − 3y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
1 − 3y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−1
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

x
Example 2.7.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ) and
x−2
R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x
= x∈R: ∈R
x−2
= {x ∈ R : x − 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).
 22

x x
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−2 x−2
⇒ xy − 2y = x
⇒ xy − x = 2y
⇒ x(y − 1) = 2y
2y
⇒x=
y−1
2y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
2y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−1
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

4 − 3x
Example 2.7.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
2x
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
4 − 3x
= x∈R: ∈R
2x
= {x ∈ R : 2x 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞).
 23

4−x 4−x
f (x) = ⇒y=
2x 2x
⇒ 2xy = 4 − x
⇒ 2xy + x = 4
⇒ x(2y + 1) = 4
4
⇒x=
2y + 1
4
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
2y + 1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
4
= y∈R: ∈R
2y + 1
= {y ∈ R : 2y + 1 6= 0}
 
1
= y ∈ R : y 6= −
2
   
1 1
= −∞, − ∪ − , +∞ . 
2 2

2.8 Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition 2.8.1 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the line x = a is a

vertical asymptote of the graph of f if f (x) increases or decreases without
bounds as x approaches a.

Theorem 2.8.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = p(x)

q(x)
, where p(x) and
q(x) have no common factors. If a is a zero of q(x), then x = a is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f .
1
Example 2.8.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the vertical
x2
asymptote/s, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: Set x2 = 0. Then x = 0.

Therefore, the vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = 0, the y-axis.
 24

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Below is the graph of f (x) = 1x2 with vertival asymptote x = 0.

1
Example 2.8.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x−2
vertical asymptote/s, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: Set x − 2 = 0. Then x = 2.

Therefore, the vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = 2.
1
Below is the graph of f (x) = with vertival asymptote x = 2.
x−2
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2x + 1
Example 2.8.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x+3
vertical asymptote/s, if any.

Solution: Set x + 3 = 0. Then x = −3.

Therefore, the vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = −3.

2x
Example 2.8.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find
(x + 1)(x − 2)
the vertical asymptote/s, if any.
 25

Solution: Set (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0. Then x + 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0. Thus, x = −1

or x = 2.
Therefore, the vertical asymptotes of the graph of f are x = −1 and x = 2. 

Definition 2.8.7 Let f be a function in R × R. Then the line y = b is a

horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if f (x) approaches b as x increases or
decreases without bounds.

Theorem 2.8.8 Let f be a rational function given by

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0
f (x) = , where an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0.
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + ... + b1 x + b0
(i) If n < m, then the line y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote of the
graph of f .
(ii) If n = m, then the line y = bamn is the horizontal asymptote of the
graph of f .
(iii) if n > m, then the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote.
1
Example 2.8.9 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x−2
horizontal asymptote, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: n = 0 and m = 1. Then n < m.

Therefore, the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f is y = 0.
1
Below is the graph of f (x) = with vertival asymptote x = 2 and
x−2
horizontal asymptote y = 0, the x-axis.
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 26

x−1
Example 2.8.10 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x+3
horizontal asymptote, if any. Sketch the graph of f .

Solution: n = 1 and m = 1. Then n = m.

Therefore, the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f is y = 1.
x−1
Below is the graph of f (x) = with vertival asymptote x = −3 and
x+3
horizontal asymptote y = 1.
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..... ..... ......... ...............
........
... ..
..... .......
..
.. ..
..... ...
...............

2x2 + 3
Example 2.8.11 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find the
x+1
horizontal asymptote, if any.

Solution: n = 2 and m = 1. Then n > m.

Therefore, the graph of f has no horizontal asymptote. 
2x
Example 2.8.12 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ),
x−1
R(f ), the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any.
 27

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
x−1
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞).

2x 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−1 x−1
⇒ xy − y = 2x
⇒ xy − 2x = y
⇒ x(y − 2) = y
y
⇒x=
y−2
y
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−2

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
y
= y∈R: ∈R
y−2
= {y ∈ R : y − 2 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).

Set x − 1 = 0. Then x = 1. The vertical asymptote of the graph of f is x = 1.

We have n = 1 and m = 1. Then n = m. The horizontal asymptote of the

graph of f is y = 2.

x−2
Example 2.8.13 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f ),
x+3
R(f ), the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any. Sketch the graph of f .
 28

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 
x−2
= x∈R: ∈R
x+3
= {x ∈ R : x + 3 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= −3}
= (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, +∞) .

x−2 x−2
f (x) = ⇒y=
x+3 x+3
⇒ xy + 3y = x − 2
⇒ xy − x = −3y − 2
⇒ x(y − 1) = −3y − 2
−3y − 2
⇒x=
y−1
−3y − 2
⇒ f −1 (y) = .
y−1

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

 
−3y − 2
= y∈R: ∈R
y−1
= {y ∈ R : y − 1 6= 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞) .

Set 2x + 3 = 0. Then x = − 32 . The vertical asymptote of the graph of f is

x = − 32 .

We have n = 1 and m = 1. Then n = m. The horizontal asymptote of the

graph of f is y = 1.

Sample Problem 2.8.14 Given the following rational functions, find D(f ),
R(f ), the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any.
 29

3x 2 x−2
1. f (x) = 2. f (x) = 3. f (x) =
x−1 x+5 x+2
1 x+2 2x − 5
4. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
4−x x−2 4x + 3

p
2.9 Functions of the Form f (x) = g(x)

p
Theorem 2.9.1 Let f be a function in R × R defined by f (x) = g(x), where
g(x) ≥ 0. Then
(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : g(x) ≥ 0}.
(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0}.
√
Example 2.9.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x − 1. Find D(f )
and R(f ). Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: x−1∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1}
= [1, +∞).

√ √
f (x) = x−1⇒y = x−1
⇒ y2 = x − 1
⇒ x = y2 + 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = y 2 + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0



= y ∈ R : y 2 + 1 ∈ R and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 
√
Below is the graph of f (x) = x − 1.
 30

.
....
...............

.........
.
...
..
...............

...
..
...
...............
...........
.............................
.. ......................
..................... ..
.......
............
.......

... ....................
..................
..................
.. .................
...............
............... ... ...............
.....
.....
........
.. ....
....
..........

... ...
...
....
.
..
..
...

•
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
...............
..
........
....
.
...............

√
Example 2.9.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 − 4. Find D(f )
and R(f ). Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √ o
= x∈R: x −4∈R 2

= x ∈ R : x2 − 4 ≥ 0


= {x ∈ R : (x + 2)(x − 2) ≥ 0}; r1 = −2, r2 = 2

= (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, +∞).

√ √
f (x) = x2 − 4 ⇒ y = x2 − 4
⇒ y 2 = x2 − 4
⇒ x2 = y 2 + 4
p
⇒ x = ± y2 + 4
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± y 2 + 4.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0


n p o
2
= y ∈ R : ± y + 4 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
= y ∈ R : y 2 + 4 ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 
√
Below is the graph of f (x) = x2 − 4.
 31

.
....
...............

.........
. .
.....
... ......
.......................
..
...............
...
... ..
... .

... ......
...

.. ...
...
...
...
............... ..
...
...
.. ...
...
...
... ...
....
.. ..
...
...
............... ... ...
...
.. ...
...
..
... ...
....
.
•
.
...
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
..
...............
..
........
....
.
...............

√
Example 2.9.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 1 − x2 . Find D(f )
and R(f ). Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √ o
= x∈R: 1−x ∈R 2

= {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ≥ 0}
= {x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ≤ 0}
= {x ∈ R : (x + 1)(x − 1) ≤ 0}; r1 = −1, r2 = 1
= [−1, 1].

√ √
f (x) = 1 − x2 ⇒ y = 1 − x2
⇒ y 2 = 1 − x2
⇒ x2 = 1 − y 2
p
⇒ x = ± 1 − y2
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± 1 − y 2 .

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0


n p o
= y ∈ R : ± 1 − y 2 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
= {y ∈ R : 1 − y 2 ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 2 − 1 ≤ 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : (y + 1)(y − 1) ≤ 0} ∩ {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [−1, 1] ∩ [0, +∞)
= [0, 1]. 
 32

√
Below is the graph of f (x) = 1 − x2 , which is a semicircle with center (0, 0)
and radius 1.
...............
..
...
..........
..
..
..
...
...............

..
...
..
............... ...
..
...
..
...
.....
..................
..................
...............................
...........
........... . . ..........................
....
.
...
.....
....
... ...
...
...
...
.. ......
.. . .. .. ... .
..................
.............
......... ... ........

• •
....

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................
. ...
...............
..
...
.. .
. .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...............
..
..
.
.........
...
..
...............

r
x+1
Example 2.9.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
x−2
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
x+1
= x∈R:y= ∈R
x−2
 
x+1
= x∈R: ≥0
x−2
= (−∞, −1] ∪ (2, +∞).

r r
x+1 x+1
f (x) = ⇒y=
x−2 x−2
x+1
⇒ y2 =
x−2
⇒ xy 2 − 2y 2 = x + 1
⇒ xy 2 − x = 2y 2 + 1
⇒ x(y 2 − 1) = 2y 2 + 1
2y 2 + 1
⇒x= 2
y −1
−1 2y 2 + 1
⇒ f (y) = 2 .
y −1
 33

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0



2y 2 + 1
 
= y∈R: 2 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
y −1
= y ∈ R : y 2 − 1 6= 0 and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : (y + 1)(y − 1) 6= 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y + 1 6= 0 and y − 1 6= 0 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= −1 and y 6= 1 and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1 and y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞)\{1}
= [0, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

r
2x
Example 2.9.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
4−x
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
4−x
 
2x
= x∈R: ≥0
4−x
 
x
= x∈R: ≥0
4−x
 
x
= x∈R:− ≥0
x−4
 
x−0
= x∈R: ≤0
x−4
= [0, 4).
 34

r r
2x 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
4−x 4−x
2x
⇒ y2 =
4−x
⇒ 4y 2 − xy 2 = 2x
⇒ xy 2 + 2x = 4y 2
⇒ x(y 2 + 2) = 4y 2
4y 2
⇒x= 2
y +2
4y 2
⇒ f −1 (y) = 2 .
y +2

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R and y ≥ 0



4y 2
 
= y∈R: 2 ∈ R and y ≥ 0
y +2
= y ∈ R : y 2 + 2 6= 0 and y ≥ 0


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R and y ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ 0}
= [0, +∞). 

Sample Problem 2.9.7 Find the domain and range of the following functions.
√ √ √
1. f (x) = 3x + 5 2. f (x) = x2 − 16 3.f (x) = 9 − x2

√
r r
x+5 4x
4. f (x) = 25 − x2 5. f (x) = 6.f (x) =
x+3 x−6
r r
x2 2x + 5 4x
7. f (x) = 8. f (x) = 9.f (x) = √ .
x2 − 4 4 − 3x x−6

p
3
2.10 Functions of the Form f (x) = g(x)
p
3
Theorem 2.10.1Let f be a function in R×R defined by f (x) = g(x), where
g(x) is a function in R × R. Then
 35

(i) D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R} = {x ∈ R : g(x) ∈ R}.

(ii) R(f ) = {y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R}.
√
Example 2.10.2 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 3 x − 1. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
 √
= x∈R: 3x−1∈R
= {x ∈ R : x − 1 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.

√
3
√
f (x) = x−1⇒y = 3x−1
⇒ y3 = x − 1
⇒ x = y3 + 1
⇒ f −1 (y) = y 3 + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


= y ∈ R : y3 + 1 ∈ R


= {y ∈ R : y ∈ R}
= R. 

√
3
Example 2.10.3 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = x2 − 1. Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √3
o
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R
= x ∈ R : x2 − 1 ∈ R


= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R}
= R.
 36

√
3
√
3
f (x) = x2 − 1 ⇒ y = x2 − 1
⇒ y 3 = x2 − 1
⇒ x2 = y 3 + 1
p
⇒ x = ± y3 + 1
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± y 3 + 1.

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈ R : ± y3 + 1 ∈ R
= y ∈ R : y3 + 1 ≥ 0


= y ∈ R : y 3 ≥ −1

 √
= y ∈ R : y ≥ 3 −1
= {y ∈ R : y ≥ −1}
= [−1, +∞). 

√
3
Example 2.10.4 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = 1 − x2 . Find D(f )
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
n √3
o
= x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ∈ R
= {x ∈ R : 1 − x2 ∈ R}
= {x ∈ R : x ∈ R
= R.

√
3
√
3
f (x) = 1 − x2 ⇒ y = 1 − x2
⇒ y 3 = 1 − x2
⇒ x2 = 1 − y 3
p
⇒ x = ± 1 − y3
p
⇒ f −1 (y) = ± 1 − y 3 .
 37

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R

n p o
= y ∈ R : ± 1 − y3 ∈ R
= {y ∈ R : 1 − y 3 ≥ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 3 − 1 ≤ 0}
= {y ∈ R : y 3 ≤ 1}
√
= {y ∈ R : y ≤ 31}
= {y ∈ R : y ≤ 1}
= (−∞, 1]. 
r
3 x+1
Example 2.10.5 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
x−2
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
x + 1
= x∈R:y= 3 ∈R
x−2
 
x+1
= x∈R: ∈R
x−2
= {x ∈ R : x − 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).
r r
3 x + 1 x+1
f (x) = ⇒y= 3
x−2 x−2
x+1
⇒ y3 =
x−2
⇒ xy 3 − 2y 3 = x + 1
⇒ xy 3 − x = 2y 3 + 1
⇒ x(y 3 − 1) = 2y 3 + 1
2y 3 + 1
⇒x= 3
y −1
−1 2y 3 + 1
⇒ f (y) = 3 .
y −1
 38

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


2y 3 + 1
 
= y∈R: 3 ∈R
y −1
= y ∈ R : y 3 − 1 6= 0


= y ∈ R : y 3 6= 1


= {y ∈ R : y 6= 1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞). 

r
3 2x
Example 2.10.6 Let f be a function defined by f (x) = . Find D(f )
4−x
and R(f ).

Solution:
D(f ) = {x ∈ R : f (x) ∈ R}
( r )
2x
= x∈R: 3 ∈R
4−x
 
2x
= x∈R: ∈R
4−x
= {x ∈ R : 4 − x 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 4}
= (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, +∞).

r r
3 2x 3 2x
f (x) = ⇒y=
4−x 4−x
2x
⇒ y3 =
4−x
⇒ 4y 3 − xy 3 = 2x
⇒ xy 3 + 2x = 4y 3
⇒ x(y 3 + 2) = 4y 3
4y 3
⇒x= 3
y +2
−1 4y 3
⇒ f (y) = 3 .
y +2
 39

R(f ) = y ∈ R : f −1 (y) ∈ R


4y 3
 
= y∈R: 3 ∈R
y +2
= y ∈ R : y 3 + 2 6= 0


= y ∈ R : y 3 6= −2

 √
= y ∈ R : y 6= 3 −2
n √3
o
= y ∈ R : y 6= − 2
√3
√
3
= (−∞, − 2) ∪ (− 2, +∞). 

Sample Problem 2.10.7 Find the domain and range of the following functions.
√ √ √
3
1. f (x) = r 3x + 5 2. f (x) =r3 8 − x2 3. f (x) =r3 x2 − 27
x+5 4x 2x + 5
4. f (x) = 3 5.f (x) = 3 6. f (x) = 3
x+3 x−6 4 − 3x