Module 1

Fluid Properties

Fluid properties are the characteristics or attributes of a fluid that determine its behavior and response to
various forces and conditions. These properties include density, viscosity, surface tension, and compressibility,
and they are essential for analyzing and predicting how fluids will flow and interact in different situations.

Unit Weight or Specific Weight () is the weight of fluid per unit volume.

W (N/m3, kN/m3, lb/ft3)

 =
V
where:

W = weight of fluid (N, kN, lb)

V = volume of fluid (m3, ft3)

For water @ 4 °C:

w = 9.81 kN/m3 = 9810 N/m3 (S.I. System)

= 62.4 lb/ft3 (U.S. Customary System)

Mass Density or Specific Density (ρ) is the mass of fluid per unit volume.

M (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
=
V
where:

M =mass of fluid (N, kN, lb)

V = volume of fluid (m3, ft3)

For water:

ρw = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3

= 1.938 slugs /ft3

• Density of Gases

p
= (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
RT

where:

p = absolute pressure of gas (kPa, psi)

R = gas constant (J/kg-°K)

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 For Air:
R = 0.287 kJ/kg-°K
T = absolute temperature (°K, °R)

Specific Volume () is a reciprocal of mass density.

(m3/kg, ft3/slugs)
1
=

where:
 = Mass Density or Specific Density

Specific Gravity or Relative density, (S) is the unit weight of fluid over the unit weight of water or specific
density of fluid over the specific density of water. Specific gravity can also be specific weight of gas
divided by specific weight of air.

γ liquid  liquid γ gas  gas

s liquid = = and s gas = =
γ
water
 water γ
air
 air

For water:
S = 1.0
For sea water:
S = 1.03
For air:
air = 12 N/m3

Example 1.1
A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1400 kg and a volume of 0.90 m 3. Find its (a) weight, (b) unit weight, (c)
mass density, (d) specific volume, (e) specific gravity.

Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law relates important thermodynamic properties, and is often used to calculate density.

p
=
RT

where:
p = absolute pressure
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature

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Example 1.2
Air at standard sea-level pressure (p = 101 kN/m2) has a temperature of 4°C. What is the density of the air?

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It quantifies how easily a fluid deforms under shear stress;
a higher viscosity indicates a thicker, more resistant fluid, while a lower viscosity indicates a thinner, more fluid-
like substance. For example, honey has a higher viscosity than water.

Absolute viscosity, μ
Absolute viscosity (also called dynamic) is a measure of a fluid's resistance to deformation under shear stress.

dy
 = (N.s/m2 or lb.s/ft2)
dV

where:

 = shear stress

Common unit of viscosity

Poise = dyne-s/cm2
= 0.1 N.s/m2

The viscosity of water at 20°C is one centipoise (10-2 poise) or 10-3 N.s/m2.

Kinematic Viscosity, ν
Many equations of fluid mechanics include the ratio μ/ρ. Because it occurs so frequently this ratio has been
given the special name kinematic viscosity.


=


Example 1.3
A board 1 m by 1 m that weighs 25 N slides down an inclined ramp (slope = 20°) with a velocity of 2.0 cm/s.
The board is separated from the ramp by a thin film of oil with a viscosity of 0.05 N.s/m 2. Neglecting edge
effects, calculate the space between the board and the ramp.

Surface Tension
Surface tension, σ (sigma), is the force that acts on the surface of a liquid, causing it to behave like a stretched
elastic membrane. It results from the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules, which are stronger at the
surface where molecules experience an imbalance of intermolecular forces. Surface tension is responsible for
phenomena like water droplets forming spheres and insects walking on water.

F = L (N)

where L is the length over which the surface tension acts.

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 Surface tension for a water–air surface is 0.073 N/m at room temperature.

Capillary Action
The effect of surface tension is illustrated for the case of capillary action in a small tube (Fig. 2.2).

Figure 1.2 Capillary action in a small tube

Surface tension forces for several different cases are shown in Fig. 1.3.

Case (a) is a spherical droplet of radius r. The surface tension force is balanced by the internal pressure.

2 4
p= =
r d

Fig. 1.3

Case (b) is a bubble of radius r that has internal and external surfaces and the surface-tension force acts on
both surfaces, so
4 8
p= =
r d
Case (c) is a cylinder supported by surface-tension forces. The liquid does not wet the cylinder surface. The
maximum weight the surface tension can support is

W = 2 L
where L is the length of the cylinder.

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Case (d) is a ring being pulled out of a liquid. This is a technique to measure surface tension. The force due to
surface tension on the ring is

F =  ( Di + Do )

Example 1.4
To what height above the reservoir level will water (at 20°C) rise in a glass tube, such as that shown in Fig. 2.2,
if the inside diameter of the tube is 1.6 mm?

Example 1.5
What is the pressure within a 1 mm spherical droplet of water relative to the atmospheric pressure outside?

2.5 Compressibility

The bulk modulus of elasticity, E, is a property that relates changes in pressure to changes in volume (e.g.,
expansion or contraction).

dp change in pressure
E =− =−
dV fractional change in volume
V
where:
dp = differential pressure change,
dV = differential volume change, and
V = volume of fluid.

dV
Because is negative for a positive dp, a negative sign is used in the definition to yield a positive E.
V

• The elasticity is often called the compressibility of the fluid.

• The bulk modulus of elasticity of water is approximately 2.2 GN/m2, which corresponds to a 0.05%
change in volume for a change of 1 MN/m2 in pressure.
• The elasticity of an ideal gas is proportional to the pressure, according to the ideal gas law.
• For an isothermal (constant-temperature) process,
dp
= RT
d

So
dp
E= =  RT = p
d

• For an adiabatic process, E = kp , where k is the ratio of specific heats, cp/cv.

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Example 1.6
A pressure of 2 × 106 N/m2 is applied to a mass of water that initially filled a 2000 cm3 volume. Estimate its
volume after the pressure is applied.

Property Changes in Ideal Gas

For an ideas gas experiencing any process,

p1V1 p 2V 2
=
T1 T2

For an isobaric process,

V1 V2
= ( Boyle ' s Law )
T1 T2

For an isothermal condition,

p1V1 = p 2V2 ( Charles ' Law )

For Adiabatic or Isentropic conditions (no heat exchanged)

p1V1k = p2V2 k
or

V1k p2
k
= = constant
V2 p1
k −1

T2 p  k
And = 2 
T1  p1 

Example 1.7
If 9 m3 of an ideal gas at 24 and 150 kPa absolute is compressed to 2 m 3, (a) what is the resulting pressure
assuming isothermal conditions. (b) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the process is
isentropic. Use k = 1.3.

Vapor Pressure

The pressure at which a liquid will vaporize, or boil, at a given temperature, is called its vapor pressure. This
means that boiling occurs whenever the local pressure equals the vapor pressure. Vapor pressure increases
with temperature.

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Table 2.1 Approximate physical properties of water at atmospheric pressure
Temperature Density Specific weight Dynamic Viscosity Vapor Pressure
C kg/m3 N/m3 N.s/m2 N/m2 (absolute)

0 1000 9810 1.79 x 10-3 611

10 1000 9810 1.31 x 10-3 872
15 999 9800 1.14 × 10-3 1,700
20 998 9790 1.00 × 10-3 2,340
25 997 9781 8.91 × 10-4 3,170
30 996 9771 7.97 × 10-4 4,250
35 994 9751 7.20 × 10-4 5,630
40 992 9732 6.53 × 10-4 7,380
50 988 9693 5.47 × 10-4 12,300
60 983 9643 4.66 × 10-4 20,000
70 978 9594 4.04 × 10-4 31,200
80 972 9535 3.54 × 10-4 47,400
90 965 9467 3.15 × 10-4 70,100
100 958 9398 2.82 × 10-4 101,300

Example 1.8
Water is at 20°C, and the pressure is lowered until bubbles are noticed to be forming. What must the
magnitude of the pressure be?

Example 1.9
The vapor pressure of water at 100°C is 101kN/m 2, because water boils under these conditions. The vapor
pressure of water decreases approximately linearly with decreasing temperature at a rate of 3.1 kN/m 2/ C.
Calculate the boiling temperature of water at an altitude of 3000 m, where the atmospheric pressure is 69
kN/m2 absolute.

Plate no. 1 Fluid properties

1. An engineer living at an elevation of 2500 ft is conducting experiments to verify predictions of glider

performance. To process data, density of ambient air is needed. The engineer measures temperature (74.3°F)
and atmospheric pressure (27.3 inches of mercury). Calculate density in units of kg/m 3. Compare the calculated
value with data from Table A.3. ans.  = 1.09 kg/m3

2. A 10 m3 oxygen tank is at 15°C and 800 kPa. The valve is opened, and some oxygen is released until the
pressure in the tank drops to 600 kPa. Calculate the mass of oxygen that has been released from the tank if the
temperature in the tank does not change during the process. ans. mass released = 26.7 kg

3. Find the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of kerosene, SAE 10W-30 motor oil, and water at a temperature
of 38°C (100°F). ans. For oil,  = 6.7 x 10-2 N and  = 7.6 x 10-5 m2/s; For kerosene,  = 1.4 x 10-3 N and  =
1.7 x 10-6 m2/s; For water,  = 6.8 x 10-4 N and  = 6.8 x 10-7 m2/s
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4. Two plates are separated by a 1/8-in. space. The lower plate is stationary; the upper plate moves at a
velocity of 25 ft/s. Oil (SAE 10W-30, 150°F), which fills the space between the plates, has the same velocity as
the plates at the surface of contact. The variation in velocity of the oil is linear. What is the shear stress in the
oil?

5. The device shown consists of a disk that is rotated by a shaft. The disk is positioned very close to a solid
boundary. Between the disk and the boundary is viscous oil.
a. If the disk is rotated at a rate of 1 rad/s, what will be the ratio of the shear stress in the oil at r = 2
cm to the shear stress at r = 3 cm?
b. If the rate of rotation is 2 rad/s, what is the speed of the oil in contact with the disk at r = 3 cm?
c. If the oil viscosity is 0.01 N.s/m2 and the spacing y is 2 mm, what is the shear stress for the
conditions noted in part (b)?

6. Calculate the pressure increase that must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 2%.
7. A drop of water at 20°C is forming under a solid surface. The configuration just before separating and falling
as a drop is shown in the figure. Assume the forming drop has the volume of a hemisphere. What is the
diameter of the hemisphere just before separating?

8. The surface tension of a liquid is being measured with a ring. The ring has an outside diameter of 10 cm and
an inside diameter of 9.5 cm. The mass of the ring is 10 g. The force required to pull the ring from the liquid is
the weight corresponding to a mass of 16 g. What is the surface tension of the liquid (in N/m)? ans. 0.0961
N/m
9. At a temperature of 60°F, what pressure must be imposed in order for water to boil?

10. At a temperature of 100°C and an absolute pressure of 5 atmospheres, what is the ratio of the density of
water to the density of air, w/a?

11. The sliding plate viscometer shown below is used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. The top plate is
moving to the right with a constant velocity of 10 m/s in response to a force of 3 N. The bottom plate is
stationary. What is the viscosity of the fluid? Assume a linear velocity distribution.

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12. A spherical soap bubble has an inside radius R, a film thickness t, and a surface tension σ. Derive a formula
for the pressure within the bubble relative to the outside atmospheric pressure. What is the pressure difference
for a bubble with a 4 mm radius? Assume σ is the same as for pure water. ans. p = 4σ/R; p4mm = 73.0 N/m2

13. A water bug is suspended on the surface of a pond by surface tension (water does not wet the legs). The
bug has six legs, and each leg is in contact with the water over a length of 5 mm. What is the maximum mass
(in grams) of the bug if it is to avoid sinking?

14. A water column in a glass tube is used to measure the pressure in a pipe. The tube is 1/4 in. (6.35 mm) in
diameter. How much of the water column is due to surface-tension effects? What would be the surface tension
effects if the tube were 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) or 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) in diameter? ans. For d = 1/4 in., hST = 0.185
in.; for d = 1/8 in., hST = 0.369 in.; for d = 1/32 in., hST = 1.48 in.

15. A student in the laboratory plans to exert a vacuum in the head space above a surface of water in a closed
tank. She plans for the absolute pressure in the tank to be 10,400 Pa. The temperature in the lab is 20°C. Will
water bubble into the vapor phase under these circumstances?

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