UNIT–III Wave Optics

3.1.Nature of Light
In 1704, Sir Issac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory to explain the properties of light. According
to this theory, light is made from small and extremely light particles called corpuscles. These corpuscles could
penetrate transparent materials and were reflected from the surfaces of opaque materials; and when they entered
the eye, they caused the sensation of light.
Huygen in 1670 showed that the laws of reflection and refraction could be explained on the basis of
wave theory and however it could not be immediately accepted. It was objected that if light were of a wave
motion, one should be able to see the light around corners, since being a wave it can bend around obstacles in
their path. We know now that the wavelengths of light waves are so small that the bending, which actually takes
place, is so small that it is not ordinarily observed. However, the bending of light waves around the edges of an
object (diffraction) was noted by Grimaldi and interpreted by Hooke in terms of a wave picture, but its
significance was not recognized at that time.
In about 1827, Young's experiments enabled him to measure the wavelength of the waves, and Fresnel
showed that the rectilinear propagation of light along with the diffraction effects observed by Grimaldi and it
could be explained only if light was considered as waves of short wavelengths.
In 1873, Maxwell suggested that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of extremely short
wavelengths. After some years, Hertz succeeded in producing short wavelength waves of electromagnetic
origin and showed that they possessed all the characteristics of light wave, such as refraction, reflection,
polarisation, etc. Thus Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light was experimentally justified; however, it is
failed to account for the phenomenon of photoelectric emission.
Einstein (1905) postulated that energy in a light beam was concentrated in small packets or photons
(Quantum theory). Photoelectric effect thus consisted in the transfer of energy from a photon to an electron.
Compton, in 1921, determined the motion of a photon and a single electron, both before and after a collision
and found that they behaved like material bodies having kinetic energy and momentum, both of which were
conserved during collision. Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect thus demanded a return to a corpuscular
theory of light.
Therefore, it could be stated that in some experiments, light behaves like waves and in some other
experiments it behaves like particles. Scientists made use of the electromagnetic wave theory to explain the
phenomenon such as reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, etc of light (wave nature) and they made
use of the corpuscular theory to explain the certain other phenomenon such as photoelectric effect, Compton
Effect, emission / absorption (particle nature), etc where there is interaction of light with matter. Thus, the
present scenario about nature of light is that “light is of dualistic nature” i.e. light has both wave nature and
particle nature.
3.2. Wave equation and wave parameters
A wave is the propagation of a 'disturbance'. Generally there is transfer of energy associated with a
wave. However, there are waves in which, over a time period, no net energy is carried in any direction. These
are called stationary waves. A wave front is defined as the locus of the points that are in the same phase of
vibration.
The simplest function from many points of view, as explained below, is the harmonic sine function,
f = A sin [k(x -vt) + ϕ]
It can be verified easily that this solution does satisfy Eq. 2.1 by differentiating f twice with respect to x and t.
Equation 2.3 is plotted in Fig. 2.2 for ϕ = 0, t = 0 and ϕ = 0, x = 0.

f f
C D T
A

E F x t

A B
AB = CD = EF = λ
Figure 2.1 Picturisation of a wave: (a) Space profile: shape of disturbance at fixed time and (b) Time profile:
SHM at a fixed point in space

The shape of the disturbance at fixed time (Fig. 2.1a) gives the space profile of the wave. The time profile (Fig.
2.1b) picturises the simple harmonic motion (SHM) at a fixed point in space. The simplicity of this wave allows
us to define several characteristics discussed below.
Amplitude (A): The maximum size of the disturbance is known as the amplitude (A) of the wave. It can be
seen from Eq. 2.3 that the maximum value of f is A, as the maximum value of the sine function is one.
Phase angle (v): The argument of the function on the right-hand side of Eq. 2.3 is known as the phase of the
disturbance. It is expressed either in degrees or in radians. The constant ϕ is called the initial phase. Without
loss of generality, we can assume ϕ = 0. Thus we can write Eq. 2.3 as f = A sin [k(x -vt)]
Wavelength (λ): It is the distance the wave has to travel along the direction of propagation to change the phase
by 27r. In Fig. (2.2a), this is the distance AB, CD or EF. The wavelength may be understood as the space
period. Clearly the wavelength is the normal distance between two consecutive wave fronts of the same phase,
that is, whose phases differ by 2π.
Time period (T): It is the time required for the wave to travel a distance of one wavelength λ so that λ= vT. It is
thus the time required to complete one cycle (see Fig. 2.2b). The time period may be understood as time
wavelength.
1
Frequency (v): The quantity v = is known as the frequency of the wave and it represents the number of
𝑇

vibrations completed by the particles in one second.

Angular frequency (ω): It represents the radian angle change in the phase of the wave per second and is given
2𝜋
by ω = 2πv = 𝑇

Wave number and wave vector (k):

The constant k is known vector as the wave number or phase constant. It is the magnitude of wave k, and
represents the number of wavelengths in 2π metres and is given by
2𝜋
k= 𝜆
Relation between phase and path difference is given by Phase difference = 2 π/λ Path difference.
3.3. Huygens’ Principle:

Fig: 3.1. Huygens’ Principle

It is stated as

1. Every point on a given wave front may be regarded as a source of a new disturbance,
called secondary wavelets
2. The secondary spherical wavelets from each point spread out in all directions with the
velocity of light.
3. The envelope of these wavelets in the forward direction at any instant gives a new
wave front at that instant.
Consider a number of points say a, b, c, d, e ... on the spherical wave front AB (Fig.3.1).With each
point in turn as a centre and radius ‘ct’, draw spheres. These spheres represent the secondary waves
originating from these points respectively. The envelope or tangential surface A1B1 touching all these

spheres in the forward direction is the new spherical wave front. At a large distance from the source ‘S’,
the wave front AB because plane. Huygens’ construction gives a backward wave front also (shown by
dotted lines) which is contrary to observation. This result is avoided by assuming that the intensity of the
secondary wavelets is not uniform, but varies continuously from a maximum in the forward direction to a
minimum of zero in the backward direction.

According to Huygen's theory, each point on a wave front acts as a new source of disturbance and
the wavelets emanating from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave. Thus a point
source will produce a spherical wave front, a line source will produce a cylindrical wave front and a plane
source will produce a plane wave front at small distances from the source. However, at large distances from
the source, a small portion of any of these wave fronts can be considered to be a plane wave. The name of a
wave is often derived from the shape of its wave front. For example, plane waves have flat wave fronts,
whereas spherical waves have expanding spheres as. wave fronts.
(a) Spherical wave front (b) Cylindrical wave front (c) Plane wave frnt
3.4. Young’s experiment (Division of wave front)
Thomas Young, in 1801, demonstrated the phenomenon of interference of light as shown in Fig. 3.4 Sunlight
was first allowed to pass through a pinhole S, and then through two pinholes S 1 and S2 placed at a sufficient
distance away from S and the light was received on a screen. The two sets of spherical waves emerging from S 1
and S2 interfered with each other and a few coloured fringes of varying intensity were observed on the screen.
As an improvement of the original arrangement, the pinholes S1 and S2 are replaced by narrow slits and sunlight
by a monochromatic light. The interfering waves are then cylindrical and a number of alternate dark and bright
fringes running parallel to the length of the slits are observed on the screen.
Explanation :
According to Huygens principle, S1 and S2 become centres of secondary wavelets, i.e., two cylindrical wave
fronts emerge out from S1 and S2. Their radii increase as they move away from S1 and S2 and they superimpose
on each other. At points where crest (or trough) due to one wave front falls on a crest (or trough) due to the
other wave front, then the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to each wave separately. The
intensity, which is proportional to the square of the amplitude, at these points is therefore a maximum. This is
the case of constructive interference. At points where a crest due to one wave front falls on a trough due to the
other wave front, then the resultant amplitude is the difference of the amplitudes due to separate waves and the
resultant intensity is a minimum. This is the case of destructive interference.

Fig. 3.4.Young's experiment showing the phenomenon of interference

In Fig. 4.1, the solid arcs indicate the crests while the dotted arcs indicate the troughs. The solid lines are
the loci of the points of maximum intensity and are called anti-nodal lines. The broken lines are the loci of the
points of minimum intensity and are called nodal lines. The intersections of these lines on the screen give the
positions of bright and dark fringes which occur alternately at equal distances. Young's experiment
demonstrates both the diffraction of light waves at the slits and the interference between the light waves
emerging from the slits.

3.5. Interference of Light:

Interference is the optical phenomenon in which brightness and darkness are produced by two exactly
similar light waves meeting. When two light waves, of same frequency and having constant phase
difference, coincide in space and time, there is a modification in the intensity of light. The resultant
intensity at any point depend upon the amplitudes and the phase relationships of the two waves. This
modification in the intensity distribution resulting from the superposition of two waves of light is called
interference and the pattern of bright and dark fringes produced is called interference pattern.

3.5.1. Principle of superposition:

When two or more waves arrive at a point in space simultaneously, the net wave disturbance at that
point and at any given time is the vector sum of all the wave disturbances at that point at that particular
time. This is called the principle of superposition. Let us apply the principle of superposition to the
analytical treatment of interference of light.
ω
Consider two waves of same frequency 2π. Let a1 and a2 be the amplitudes of the two waves. Let y1 be the

displacement at the observation point due to one wave at any instant t and can be represented by y1= a1sinωt.

Let the displacement of the second wave in the same direction be represented by

y2=a2 sin (ωt+δ)

Where δ is the phase difference between the two waves at the point under consideration.
According to Young’s principle of superposition, the resultant displacement at that point is given by

where A is the amplitude of the resultant disturbance at that point.

2
Intensity of the resultant disturbance

Case1: Constructive Superposition:

When the phase difference, Δ= 0, 2π, 4π…..= 2nπ,

Then A2= a12+a22 + 2a1a2 = (a1+a2)2

This is called the constructive (i.e.additive) superposition or constructive interference in which the
resultant intensity is maximum.

If a1 =a2, then in the above equation becomes A2= 4a12

Thus the resultant intensity becomes 4 times the intensity of the individual wave.

(a)Constructive Interference (b)Destructive interferene

Fig.5.1
Case 2: Destructive Superposition:
When the phase difference δ = π, 3 π, 5 π = (2n + 1) π, then
2
A = a1 + 2
a22 − 2a1 a2 = (a1 − a2) 2

This is called destructive superposition or destructive interference in which the resultant intensity
is minimum.
If a1 = a2, then A = 0.

Thus using the relation,

2𝜋
Phase difference = × Path difference , we can conclude that
𝜆

(i) When the phase difference between two waves δ = 2nπ or the path difference between them is n λ, then there
is constructive superposition and
(ii) When the phase difference between two waves δ = (2 n + 1) π or the path difference is (2n+1) λ ⁄ 2,
then there is destructive superposition

Therefore the phenomenon of interference is nothing but a spatial redistribution of intensities of

waves which results in the formation of a fixed pattern of interference fringes.

3.6. Conditions for interference:

• There must be two sources which are coherent in nature (i.e.) They must be same
wavelength, frequency and amplitude.

• The sources should have constant phase difference (or) zero phase difference.

• The sources should be closer to each other and the distance between the sources and the
screen must be larger.

• For constructive interference (i.e.) for bright fringes to appear, the path difference
between the two waves which are interfering should be equal to n λ .

Path Difference = n λ

• For destructive interference (i.e.) to get dark fringes.

Path Difference=(2n1) 2

3.7. Types of Interference: The phenomenon of interference is divided into two classes, namely (a) Division of
Wave front (b) Division of Amplitude
(a) Division of Wave front: In this method, the incident wave front gets divided into two parts by using the
phenomena of reflection, refraction or diffraction. These two separated parts of the same wave front travel
some different optical paths and then reunites to generate the interference pattern. Examples: Fresnel
Biprism, Lloyd’s mirror, etc.
(b) Division of Amplitude: In this method, the amplitude of the incident beam is divided into two or more
parts either by partial reflection or refraction. Thus we have coherent beams produced by division of
amplitude. These beams travel different paths and are finally brought together to produce the interference
pattern.
Examples: Young’s experiment, Newton’s rings, Michelson’s interferometer, etc come under this class.
3.8. Theory of Interference Fringes
Consider a narrow monochromatic (same colour or same wavelength) source S and two pin holes S1 and
S2 equidistant from S. The distance between these pin holes S1 and S2 is 2d. The two pin holes S1 and S2 act as
two coherent sources. Let a screen XY be placed at a distance D from the coherent sources as shown in
Fig.2.1.4. The point O on the screen is equidistant from the coherent sources. Therefore, the path difference
between the two waves reaching O from the coherent sources S1 and S2 is zero. Therefore, at this point intensity
is maximum and it appears bright on the screen.

(X - D)

(X + D)

Fig. 3.8. Theory of interference fringes

Consider a point P at a distance x from O.

From ∆S1QP, (S1P)2 = (S1Q)2 + (QP)2

= D2 + (x - d)2
From AS2RP, (S2P)2 = (S2R)2 + (RP)2
= D2 + (x + d)2
⸫ (S2P)2 - (S1P)2 = (x + d)2- (x- d)2
(S2P – S2P)2 (S2P + S1P) = x2 + d2 + 2xd - (x2 + d2- 2xd)
= 4xd
 4𝑥𝑑
(S2P – S1P) = (S2P – S1P)

Here x<< D,
⸫ S2P + S1P = 2D,
4𝑥𝑑 2𝑥𝑑
⸫ Path difference = (S2P – S1P) = 2D = … (1)
2D

Bright Fringes (Bands)

If the path difference is a whole multiple of wave length λ, then the point P is bright.
2𝑥𝑑
Path difference = = nλ
2D

Where n = 0,1,2,3, ………

𝑛𝜆𝐷
x= 2d

This is the distance of the bright bands from point O.

When n = 0, x0 = 0
𝜆𝐷
n = 1, x1 = 2d
2𝜆𝐷
n = 2, x2 = 2d

⁝
𝑛𝜆𝐷
n = n, xn = 2d

The difference between any two consecutive bright bands is

𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
x1–x0, = -0 = 2d
2d
2𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
x2 = x1, = - 2d = 2d
2d

Dark Fringers (Bands): If the path difference is an odd number multiple of half wavelength then the
point P is dark.

2𝑥𝑑 𝜆
Path difference = = (2n + 1)
D 2

wheren = 0,1,2,3, …………

(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
x= 4d

This is the distance of the dark bands from point O.

𝜆𝐷
When n = 0, x0 = 4d
3𝜆𝐷
n = 1, x1 = 4d
5𝜆𝐷
n = 2, x2 = 4d

⁝
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
n = n, xn = 4d

The difference between any two consecutive bright bands is

3𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
x1 – x0, = - 4d = 2d
4d
5𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
x2 = x1, = - =
4d 4d 2d
Fringe Width or Band Width (β) : It is the distance between any two consecutive bright (maxima) or dark
bands (minima).

𝜆𝐷
β = 2d

β∞ 𝜆
∞ D
1
∞ 2d

The fringe width is directly proportional to 𝜆 and D and inversely proportional to 2d.

3.9. Interference Due To Reflected Light:

Let us consider a transparent thin film of thickness‘t’ and refractive index ‘µ’ as shown in fig.
3.9. The ray AB incident on the upper surface of the film is partly reflected along BH and partly
refracted along BC. At ‘C’ part of the light is reflected along CD and finally emerges out along
DK. The path difference between the two rays BH and DK can be calculated. The normals DG to
the ray BH and BL to the ray CD are drawn.

The angle of incidence is ‘i’ and the angle of refraction is ‘r’. Also produce CD to meet BE
produced at ‘P’. Here ∠ BPD = r.
The optical path difference between BH and BK is given by
∆ = Path (BC + CD) in film − Path BG in air.

Fig. 3.9

Since the refractive index for air = 1

We can write ∆ = µ (BC+CD)−BG .... (1)

sin i
We know ,µ = sin r
B
G
From ∆BDG sin i = BD
D
L
From ∆BLD sin r = BD

∴µ = BG⁄BD ⇒ BG
 DL⁄BD DL
∴ BG = µ(DL) .... (2)
Substituting eqn. (2) in eqn. (1), we can get
= µ (BC + CD) − µ (DL)
= µ(BC+CD−DL)
Since in fig. 3.3. CD = CL + DL, we can write
= µ(BC+CL+DL−DL)
=µ(BC+CL)
Since BC = PC, we can write
∆ = µ(PC+CL)
(or) ∆ = µ (PL) .... (3)
P
∆ BPL cos r L
In = PB
(or) PL = PB cos r

Here PB = (PE + BE)

=t + t

= 2t
PL = 2t cos r .... (4)
Substituting eqn. (4) in eqn. (3), we get
∆ = µ 2t cos r

(or) ∆ = 2 µ t cos r .... (5)

This eqn. (5) is only the apparent path difference. In the case of reflects light, it
doesn’t represent the correct path difference. On the basis in electromagnetic theory
we know that when light is reflected from the surfaces an optically denser medium
(air-media) a phase change π equivalent to a put difference λ ⁄ 2 occurs.
The effective path difference between the two reflected rays is given by

= 2 µ t cos r ± λ ⁄ 2
Case (i) Bright Fringes:
If the path difference = n λ, where n = 0, 1, 2 …, constructive interference
takes place and the film appears bright.
∴ 2 µ t cos r ± λ ⁄ 2 = n λ

2 µ t cos r (2n ± 1) λ ⁄ 2

If this condition is fulfilled, the film will appear bright in the reflected light.

Case (ii) Dark Fringes:

∆= (2n ± 1) λ ⁄ 2 where n = 0, 1, 2, .... etc.,
If the path difference destructive
Interference takes place and the film appears dark.
Since (n + 1) (or) (n − 1) can also be written as an integer, in general we can write

2 µ t cos r = n λ

When this condition is fulfilled the film will appear dark in the reflected light.

3.10. Interference due to Transmitted Light:

Let us consider a thin transparent film of thickness ‘t’ and refractive index ‘µ’ as
shown in fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10
A ray SA after refraction goes long AB. At ‘B’ it is partly reflected along BC and
partly refracted along BR. The ray BC after reflection at ‘C’ finally emerges along
DQ. Here at B and C reflection takes place at the rate medium (medium − air
interface). Therefore no phase change occurs. The normal BM to the ray CD and
DN to the ray BR are drawn. The optical path difference DQ and BR is given by
=µ(BC+CD)−BN .... (1)
sin i
We know µ = sin r
BN
From BND sin i = BD
MD
From BMD sin r = BD
∴ kmu = BN ⁄ BD =
BN MD⁄BD
MD
(or) BN = µ ⋅ MD .... (2)
Substituting eqn. (2) in eqn. (1), we have
= µ(BC+CD−MD
 Since CD = CM + MD we can write

=µ(BC+CM)

Since BC = PC, we can write

=µ(PC+CM)

(or) = µ (PM) .... (3)

PM
In BPM cos r = BP

PM = BP cos r

= (PO + OB) cos r

PM = 2t cos r .... (4)

Substituting eqn. (4) in eqn. (3), we can write

The effective path difference between the transmitted rays given by

= 2 µ t cos r .... (5)

Here it should be remembered that inside the film, reflection at

different points take place at the surface backed by rarer medium (air)
thus no abrupt these change ( π ) takes place in this case.

Case (i) Bright Fringes:

For bright fringes, path difference =nλ

∴ 2 µ t cos r = n λ

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3....

Case (ii) Dark Fringes:

For dark fringes, path difference = (2n + 1) λ ⁄ 2

∴ 2 µ t cos r = (2n + 1) λ
2

where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....

Thus the conditions for the bright and dark fringes of the transmitted
light are just reversed compared to the conditions for the reflected light.

3.11. Fringes Produced By A Wedge Shaped Thin Films (Air wedge):

Let us consider two plane surfaces OA

and OB inclined at an angle θ and
reclosing a wedge shaped air film as shown
in fig. 3.11. Let µ be the refractive index of
the enclosing film in between the two
planes OA and OB. The thickness of the
film increases from O to A. When this thin
air film is illuminated by the
monochromatic light, interference occurs
between the rays reflected from upper and
lower surface of the film. The interfering
rays do not enter the eye parallel but they
appear to diverge from a point near the
film. Fig. 3.11
Let ‘t’ be thickness of the film at a distance x from the edge, for
 Normal
incidence, then
The path difference = 2 µ t
If θ is very small then we can write
t=xθ .... (1)

∴ path difference = 2 µ x θ .... (2)

We know the condition for formation of bright fringes due to the reflected light is

λ
2 µ t cos r = (2n + 1) 2

Here for air m = 1 and cos r = 1

λ
2t = (2n + 1)
2

Substituting the value of ‘t’ from eqn. (1) we have,

λ .... (3)
or 2x θ = (2n + 1) 2

Similarly, we know the condition for dark fringes is 2 µ t cos r = n λ

Since µ = 1 (for air) ; cos r = 1, we have

2t = n λ

Substituting the value of ‘t’ from eqn. (1), we have

∴2xθ=nλ .... (4)

Fringe width:

Case (i):

It we consider the dark fringe, then xn is the distance of the nth dark fringe
from the edge and x is the distance of the (n + 1)th dark fringe from the edge,
(n + 1)
then from eqn. (4), we can write.
n
λ
xn = .... (5)
2θ

(n + 1) λ .... (6)
x =
and (n + 1) 2θ
∴ Fringe width (β) which is the distance between any two consecute
bright (or) dark fringes can be got by subtracting eqn. (5) from eqn. (6).
 ∴ (n + 1)
x −x = λ −nλ
2
(n + 1) n 2θ θ
λ
(or) Fringe width β= .... (7)
2θ

Case (ii):

Similarly if we consider any two consecutive bright fringe the fringe

with β will be the same. If x is the distance corresponding to fringes, then

xλ .... (8)
2
The fringe width, β=n= θ

Applications:

It is used to find the thickness of the thin piece of paper or wire or

hair. Wedge shaped air film is obtained by inserting the material between
the ISS plates.
𝑡
Eqn. (3) can be rearranged as θ = 𝑥

Substitute for ‘θ’ in eqn. (7) we get,

xλ
β = 2t

xλ .... (9)
t= 2β

Using this equation we can measure the thickness of the given

material accurately.

3.12. Newton’s Rings:

Circular interference fringes can be produced by enclosing a very thin film

of air or any other transparent medium of varying thickness between a plane
glass plate and convex lens of a large radius of curvature. Such fringes were first
obtained by Newton and are known as Newton’s rings.

Theory:

Consider a plano convex lens A O B of large radius of curvature placed

over an optically plane glass plate M O N as in figure 3.12.(b). In between the
bottom of surface of the lens A O B and the glass plate surface an air film is
enclosed. It can be easily seen that it is of varying thickness as we proceed from
A to O. The thickness of the air film will be zero at the point O. The points at
which the thickness of the air film is the same will lie along circles with O as
centre. Therefore the fringes obtained are circular. Let light rays from a
monochromatic source be incident normally on A B. The ray will be partly
reflected back by the lens surface part of it will travel down and get reflected at
the surface M O N. Hence there will be interference between the two rays one
reflected from A and the other from M. Now since µ for air is unity and
incidence is normal hence the angle of refraction r is zero.
 Path difference = 2t.

As one of the rays suffers reflection at a denser medium i.e. at M, a further path
difference λ ⁄ 2 is introduced.

Total path difference = 2t + λ ⁄ 2.

Therefore the points A and B equidistant from O will ie on a bright ring of

diameter A B according as the path difference

2t + λ ⁄ 2 = n λ (or) 2t = (2n − 1) λ ⁄ 2

Similarly the points A and B will lie at the centre of a dark ring when the path
difference

2t + λ ⁄ 2 = (2n + 1) λ ⁄ 2 (or) 2t = n λ

From the geometry of the circle, referring to figure we have

AD×DB=OD×DE

= OD (2R − OD) = 2 R t − t2 = 2 Rt

where R is the radius of curvature of the lens and t is the maximum

2
thickness of air film. Since t is very small, t can be neglected as
compared to 2 Rt.

If d is the diameter of the ring, then A D = DB = d ⁄ 2

𝑑2 𝑑2
Therefore 4
= 2𝑅𝑡 (𝑜𝑟) 2𝑡 = 4𝑅

If A and B lie on the nth bright ring of diameter dn , then

𝑑𝑛2
= (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2
4𝑅

and for the points to lie on the mth bright ring we have

d2
m = (2m − 1) λ ⁄ 2
4R
 𝑑𝑛2 − 𝑑𝑚
2
= (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜆
4𝑅

d2 − d 2
∴R= n m
4 λ (n − m)

(1) Determination of R and λ:

The diameters dn and dm of any two bright rings are measured with
the help of a travelling microscope. Thus the radius of curvature R of the
lower surface of the lens is measured knowing the wavelength of the
monochromatic source. Or the wavelength of the monochromatic source
is determined knowing the value of R. Using a spherometer the value of
R can be determined.

(2) Use of a plane mirror instead of glass plate:

If the glass plate is replaced by a plane mirror the fringes will
disappear and we shall get an uniform illumination. It is because the
intensity of light reflected from the surface of the mirror is very large as
compared to the intensity of light reflected from the curved surface of the
air film. Hence the intensity at a dark fringe (difference of two intensities)
and at the bright fringe (sum of the two intensities) will be practically the
same.

(3) White light fringes:

The diameter of the Newton’s ring is proportional to the square root
of the wavelength. Therefore if light is not monochromatic, but consists of
more wavelengths like white light there will be superposition of the rings
due to different wavelengths. As a result if white light is used only a few
rings will be observed and these will be highly coloured except the central
spot which even in this case will be dark since the path difference at the
centre is only λ ⁄ 2.

3.13. Experimental set up to Observe Newton’s Rings:

Fig. 3.13. Experimental setup to observe Newton’s rings

 S is a monochromatic source of light (fig.3.13.(a)). L1 is a
converging lens placed in such a way that a parallel beam emerges from
it. G2 is a glass plate kept at 45° to the horizontal. The parallel beam from
the lens L1 is incident on this plate and
gets reflected vertically down and reaches the lens L placed over an optically plane
~ 1 metre).
glass plate G1. The convex lens L has a large radius of curvature (R − A
thin film of air is enclosed in between G1 and L. The rays reflected by the
bottom surface of the lens and the top surface of the plane glass plate
‘G1’ interfere and
produce Newton’s rings. The fringes are circular because the air film is
symmetrical about the point of contact of the lens L and the plane glass
plate G1. The fringes
can be observed by means of a low power travelling microscope M and
their diameters can also be measured using this microscope.
(a) Determination of the radius of curvature of a given convex lens:

The given convex lens is placed over the optically plane glass plate G1 and the
position of the microscope is adjusted so that the centre of the ring
system is observed in the field of view of the microscope. A good number
of clear rings must be available on either side of the central spot. By
proper adjustment of the arrangement and source this can be effected. It
is seen that the cross-wire of the eyepiece of travelling microscope is
tangential to the rings. The microscope is moved to one side from the
centre and fixed at a position at which the cross-wire is tangential to the
fourth bright ring. Let the order of the ring be ‘n’. The reading of the
position of the microscope is noted on the horizontal scale. The
microscope is moved away from the centre further and when the vertical
cross-wire is again tangential to the (n + 3) bright ring the reading is
again found. Thus by moving the microscope the readings corresponding
to n + 6, n + 9, n + 12, n + 15, etc., rings are taken. This is repeated on
the other side of the central spot. For a given order of the ring, the
difference between the readings on the right and left gives the diameter
of the ring of that order. The readings are tabulated as below:

Order of Reading of microscope Difference = d

d2 2 −d2
Ring Left Right Diameter ‘d’ n + 15 n

n
n+3
n+6
.
.
.
Average =
 d2 −d2
n + 15 n
Now R = 4×15×λ

If sodium light is used, then λ = 5893 × 10− 10 metre and R can be found
2 2
out by substituting the average value of dn + 15 − dn in the above
formula.

Note:
(i) If R is known (using a spherometer) the wavelength of the light
can be found out using the above formula.

(ii) If focal length of the lens is known then the refractive index of the
material of the given lens can be found using the formula

1 1 1
f =(µ−1) R + R
1 2

Here R1 and R2 are the radii of curvatures of the given convex

lens and their values can be determined using Newton’s rings.

(iii) If the refractive index of the material of the given lens is known,
then the focal length of that given lens can be found determining
R1 and R2 experimentally.

(b) To determine the refractive index of a liquid supplied in small quantity:

The experiment as detailed above is performed first with air film. The
2 2
average of dn + 15 − dn is found. Let this be S. A small drop of given
liquid is placed over
the glass plate. The given liquid is uniformly spreaded by turning the lens.
Care is taken to see that there is no air bubble in the liquid film so
formed. Now the
2 2

experiment is repeated as before and the mean value of dn 15 − dn is noted as S1.

−d
2 2
d =S=4×15×R×λ
n + 15 n air

When the liquid is used

−d
2 = S 4×15×R×λ
2
d =
n + 15 n liquid 1 µ
(dn2 + 15 −
∴µ S dn2)air
2 2
= S1 = (d −d )
n + 15 n liquid

Thus the refractive index of a liquid is found out.

3.14. Michelson’s Interferometer:
Principle:
The amplitude of the light beam from a light source is divided into two parts of equal intensity
by partial reflection and refraction. These two beams are sent in two directions at right angles and
are brought together after reflection from plane mirrors to produce interference fringes.

Fig. 3.14. Michelson’s Interferometer

Construction:

It consists of two highly polished front silvered plane mirrors M1 and M2 and two plane
parallel glass plates G1 and G2 of the same thickness. The mirror M1 is mounted on a carriage
and can be moved exactly parallel to itself with the help of
−5
a micrometer screw. The least count of the micrometer screw is about 10 cm. The mirrors M1
and M2 are provided with leveling screws at their back. Using these
screws the mirrors can be made perfectly perpendicular to the direction of the two beams. The
plate G1 is semisilvered at the back so that the incident beam is divided
into a reflected and transmitted beam of equal intensity. The plates G 1 and G2 are held parallel to
each other and are inclined at an angle of 45 to the mirrors M1 and M2 which are mutually
perpendicular to each other. The interference fringes are observed in the field of view of the
telescope ‘T’.

Working:

Light from the source S is rendered parallel by means of a collimating lens and is made to fall
on the plate G1. It is partly reflected at the back surface of G 1 along AC and partly transmitted
along AB. They ray AC is received by the plane mirror ‘M1’ normally, so that it is reflected along
the same path and emerges out along AT. The transmitted ray AB is received by mirror M2
normally and it is reflected along the same path and then moves along AT after reflection at the
back surface of G1. Thus two beams along AT are produced from a single source by division of
the amplitude. These two beams produce interference under suitable conditions. Since the ray
starting from the source and suffering reflection at the mirror M1 traverses the glass plate G1
thrice where as the ray reflected from the mirror M2 traverses the glass plate G1 only once, a
compensating glass plate G2 which is exactly similar to G1 in thickness and in size is introduced
in the path AB parallel to glass plate G1.
Adjustments:

First the distance G1 M2 must be made very nearly equal to G1 M1 and then the image of
M2 must be made parallel to M1. If this is not done the angle between the two faces of the air film
will be large and extremely narrow fringes will be formed which may be quite invisible.

This can be carried out by the following way: A tin sheet with a fine hole in it is placed in front
of the source ‘S’ just opposite to the bright part of the flame. The hole and the flames are adjusted
in line with the centre of the glass plates and mirror M2. A lens is then placed between G1 and tin
sheet. A plane mirror is also placed between G1 and the lens normally. The position of the lens is
adjusted till the image of the hole falls back on the tin sheet very close to the hole. The light beam
from the lens is now rendered parallel. After removing the plane mirror if we look in the telescope
four images of the hole will be seen, one pair formed by reflection from M1 and other from M2.
Each pair consists of one bright image due to the reflection from the silvered surface of G1 and
one rather faint image due to reflection from the unsilvered surface.

The adjustment of the mirrors is made till the images coincide two by two. If the tin sheet is removed
and the paths are exactly equal the field of view will be dark. A slight motion of M 1 parallel to itself will
produce circular fringes. By tilting the mirror M2 slightly the fringes can be made straight.

3.14.1. Theory behind the formation of different kinds of fringes:

If we look in the direction of the mirror M1, the eye will see the mirror M1 directly and also a virtual
image of M2 is formed by reflection in the glass plate G1. Therefore one of the interfering beams come
from M1 and other appears to come by reflection from the virtual image of mirror M 2 which appears to be
at M′2. The system is therefore similar to the interference from an air film enclosed between the two
mirrors M1 and M′2. The air film is of uniform thickness if M 2 is exactly perpendicular to M1 and G1 is
inclined at an angle of 45° to the direction of the beam. The two interfering beams appear to come to the
eye from two virtual images S1 and S2 of the point source S as shown in figure. Let us call S1 and S2 are
the two virtual sources. The distance between the virtual sources is 2d. As the ray AB coming after
reflection from M2 suffers reflection at the silvered surface of glass plate G1,
additional path difference of λ ⁄ 2 is introduced between the two.

Therefore total path difference = 2d + λ ⁄ 2.

If the eye looks in the direction of E making an angle ‘r’ with the normal to the mirrors then the total path
difference = 2d cos r + λ ⁄ 2.

For maximum intensity in the fringes

2d cos r + λ ⁄ 2 = nλ

where n = 0, 1, 2, ..... etc.

Case 1:

When M′2 coincides with M1 i.e. air paths AC and AB are equal, then path difference is only
λ ⁄ 2 and the field of view is totally dark.
 Fig. 3.14.1. Formation of interference fringes
Case 2:

When M1 is moved either way parallel to itself widely spaced circular fringes are produced. If the

path difference is increased further, the width of these fringes decreases.

Fig. 3.11.2. Formation of different types of fringes

If the source is an extended one and the light used is monochromatic for a given value of n, r is
constant, therefore the locus of a fringe is a circle. Hence we can see the circular bright and dark fringes with dark
spot at the centre.

Case 3:
When the mirror M1 and M′2 are not exactly parallel the air path between the
two mirrors is a wedge shaped. With such a film, the locus of points of equal thickness is a straight
line parallel to the edge of the wedge. Therefore the fringes are straight ones.
 Types of fringes:

Circular fringe:
The mirror M 1 and the virtual mirror M ‘2 which is the image of M 2 must be exactly
parallel. When M 1 and M ‘2 coincide, the path difference is zero and the field of view is
completely dark.

Localized Fringes:
When the mirror M 1 and the virtual mirror M’ 2 are inclined the air film enclosed is wedge
shaped. In this situation straight line fringes are observed. The fringes are perfectly straight, when
M 1 actually intersects M’ 2 the middle When the wedge is not intersecting the fringes are curved.

White Light Fringes

When the surfaces of M 1 and M’ 2 intersect, the path difference along the line of their
intersection is Zero and therefore same for all wavelengths. As a consequence, with a white light source
along the line of intersection we shall get central achromatic fringe. The different colors overlap on each
other and only the first few colored fringes are visible.

3.14.2. Applications of Michelson’s interferometer:

(1) Measurement of wavelength of a monochromatic source:

When the two mirrors are exactly parallel (M 1 and M 2 ‘) circular fringes are formed. As M 1 is
translated, the interference rings expand or contract. A ring disappears each time when 2t decreased by λ. If
N rings disappear at the center as t changes by D, the wavelength of light will be given by λ =

(2) Determination of Refractive Index(µ) or Thickness (t) of a transparent medium :

The refractive index and thickness of the various thin materials
When a thin transparent material is introduced in the path of the beam going towards M2, a path difference of
2(μ -1)t where μ is the refractive index of the material and t is its thickness is introduced between the two
interfering beams. With monochromatic light, this path difference introduces a displacement in the fringe
system. By adjusting the movable mirror the central fringe is brought back and the distance is noted (x).
x=

(3) Standardisation of a metre in terms of a standard wavelength:

We know that n λ2 = L where n is the number of fringes moved across the field
of view when the mirror M1 is moved through a distance ‘L’. So one can calculate the distance in terms
of standard wavelength.

But we cannot directly standardise the metre since the movement of 1 metre is not possible
because (1) we can get fringes for a path difference of 24 cm. This corresponds to a movement of mirror
M1 = 12 cm. Further (2) counting the fringes
for 1 metre distance is somewhat difficult since for 10 cm distance, 6 × 105 fringes shifted. So we must
modify the Michelson’s interferometer to standardise a metre.

(4) The difference between the two neighbouring wave resolution of the spectral lines.
 (5) For the measurement of the standard metre in terms of light. First three applications are
discussed here.

3.15. Diffraction:

The wave nature of light is further confirmed by the phenomenon of diffraction. The word is derived from
the Latin word diffractive which means to break to pieces. When waves encounter obstacles (or openings)
they bend round the edges of the obstacles, if the dimensions of the wavelength of the incident waves
matches with the size of the obstacle, then one view the diffraction pattern. Such bending of waves
around the edges of the obstacles (or opening) is called diffraction.

(a). λ<<d
When the opening is large compared to the wavelength of the incident wave, the waves do not bend
round the edges.
(b).
λ = d
When the opening is small the bending effect round the edges is noticeable

(c).
λ>>d
When the opening is very small, the waves spread over all the surface in front of the opening; i.e. bending
effect of waves round the edges of the obstacles is more pronounced.

In general, diffraction of waves become noticeable only when the size of the obstacle is comparable to its
wavelength. Diffraction is well noticed in the case of sound waves than that in the case of light waves
because in practice, the size of the obstacles / openings matches with the wavelength of sound waves,
which is very large compared to the wavelength of light waves. In the case of light, the diffraction effects
become detectable only under specific condition.

3.16. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a single slit:

Fig. 3.12.1

Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally

upon a narrow slit of width AB = a (Fig. 3.12.1). The diffracted light is focused by a convex lens
on a screen placed in the focal plane of the lens. Th diffraction pattern obtained on the screen
consists of a central bright band, having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing
intensity on both sides.
 As a plane wavefront is incident on the slit AB, each point on the wavefront becomes a
source of secondary wavelets. The rays diffracted along the direction of incident rays are focused
at O. The point O is optically equidistant from all points on the slit AB. Therefore, all the
secondary wavelets from AB reach O in the same phase. Hence there is maximum intensity at O.
Let us consider the intensity at any point P1 above O. The secondary waves travelling at an
angle θ with the normal are focused at P1. Let AC be drawn
perpendicular to BC. The optical lengths of all the rays from the plane AC to the focal point P1 are
the same. The path difference between the secondary waves
originating from extreme points A and B is
BC = AB sin θ = a sin θ .
Let this path difference be one wavelength. If now we imagine the aperture AB to be divided
into two equal halves, then the wavelets from corresponding points in each half will differ in phase
at P1 by λ ⁄ 2. They would mutually interfere and cancel
out each other’s effect thus producing the first minimum at P1.
∴ BC = a sin θ = λ
λ λ
or sin θ = or θ = ( . . . θ is very small)
a a
Hence the first minimum on either side of O will occur in a direction given by
θ = λa .
Suppose for another point P2, the path difference BC is 2 λ. Now the slit can
be supposed to be divided into four equal parts. The rays from corresponding points separated by a
distance a/4 in the two halves of each half of the slit will have a path difference of λ ⁄ 2. These rays
will mutually interfere and cancel out each other. A second minimum, therefore, occurs at P 2 in a
direction θ given by

BC = a sin θ = 2 λ
In general the various secondary minima will occur when the path difference between the
extreme rays is an even multiple of λ ⁄ 2 or an integral multiple of λ .

As a plane wavefront is incident on the slit AB, each point on the wavefront becomes a
source of secondary wavelets. The rays diffracted along the direction of incident rays are focused
at O. The point O is optically equidistant from all points on the slit AB. Therefore, all the
secondary wavelets from AB reach O in the same phase. Hence there is maximum intensity at O.
Let us consider the intensity at any point P1 above O. The secondary waves travelling at an
angle θ with the normal are focused at P1. Let AC be drawn
perpendicular to BC. The optical lengths of all the rays from the plane AC to the focal point P1 are
the same. The path difference between the secondary waves
originating from extreme points A and B is
BC = AB sin θ = a sin θ .
Let this path difference be one wavelength. If now we imagine the aperture AB to be divided
into two equal halves, then the wavelets from corresponding points in each half will differ in phase
at P1 by λ ⁄ 2. They would mutually interfere and cancel
out each other’s effect thus producing the first minimum at P1.
∴ BC = a sin θ = λ
λ λ
or sin θ = or θ = ( . . . θ is very small)
a a
Hence the first minimum on either side of O will occur in a direction given by
 θ = λa .
Suppose for another point P2, the path difference BC is 2 λ. Now the slit can
be supposed to be divided into four equal parts. The rays from corresponding points separated by a
distance a/4 in the two halves of each half of the slit will have a path difference of λ ⁄ 2. These rays
will mutually interfere and cancel out each other. A second minimum, therefore, occurs at P2 in a
direction θ given by

BC = a sin θ = 2 λ
In general the various secondary minima will occur when the path difference between the
extreme rays is an even multiple of λ ⁄ 2 or an integral multiple of λ

For minima BC = a sin θ = 2n (λ ⁄ 2) = n λ…. (1)

Besides the central maximum at O, there are secondary maxima which lie in between the
minima on either side of the central (principal) maximum. These are situated in directions in which
the path difference BC is an odd multiple of λ ⁄ 2.

∴ For secondary maxima, BC = a sin θ = (2n + 1) λ ⁄ 2 .... (2)

The intensity of these secondary maxima is much less and falls off rapidly as we move
outwards.

Thus the diffraction pattern due to a

single slit consists of a central bright
maximum at O followed by secondary maxima
and minima on both the sides. Fig. 3.11
shows the variation of intensity with distance
from the centre of the central maximum.

Let f be the focal length of the

collimating lens. Let x = distance of the
first
minimum from O. If the collimating
lens is
very near the slit or the screen is far Fig. 3.11
away
from the lens, then
f
λ x λ
sin θ = = or x =
a c a
∴Width of the = 2x = 2 f λ
central maximuma

Hence the width of the central maximum is proportional to the wavelength of light λ.

3.17. Diffraction Grating Element::

A diffraction grating is an optical element, which separates (disperses) polychromatic

light into its constituent wavelengths (colors). The polychromatic light incident on the grating is
dispersed so that each wavelength is reflected from the grating at a slightly different angle.

A grating is a plane sheet of

transparent material like glass with a
large number of opaque rulings made
on it. There will be about 600 rulings
per mm, on the grating. The
transparent spaces and the rulings
will be equally spaced. Thus
diffractionduetoaplane
transmission grating is an equivalent

to a large number of equidistant slits

of equal width. In the grating, the

space between the rulings will be Fig. 3.18: Diffraction grating
transparent and they act as slits.

3.17.1. Theory:
A B C D E F represents a section of the grating normal to the plane of the diagram. BC and
DE are the slits allowing light to be transmitted and AB, CD and E F are the opaque rulings (fig.
3.18). The width of a ruling and a space together is called the grating element.

If the ruling is of width ‘a’ and the space is of width ‘b’ then (a + b) gives the grating
element. As a plane wavefront is incident normally on a grating the particles along A B C D E F
will act as centres of disturbances and secondary wavelets from them will proceed in all directions.
The secondary wavelets at the ruling are stopped and the wavelets through the transparent spaces
or slits alone travel. Let us consider the transmission of these wavelets in a direction inclined θ to
the direction of the incident beam of light (θ is called angle of diffraction).BE1 is a line drawn
perpendicular to the direction of the diffracted light. B and
D are corresponding points of the first two slits BC and DE. The wavelets starting from B and
from D have a path difference given by DD1.
DD
1 = sin θ
BD
∴ DD1 = (a + b) sin θ , since BD = (a + b)
If DD1 is equal to an odd multiple of λ ⁄ 2 then the wavelets from BC and DE will cancel each
other. Since the entire grating can be considered to be made up of a number of pairs of adjacent
slits like this, the net intensity obtained by focussing all these waves (by a lens L) at P will be zero.

But if DD1 is equal to an even multiple of λ ⁄ 2 then the wavelets from adjacent
slits will reinforce each other. Intensity of P will the be maximum. i.e. P will be bright if DD 1 = (a
+ b) sin θ = 2 n λ ⁄ 2 = n λ (or) (a + b) sin θ = n λ

If there are N rulings per metre then N (a + b) = 1 or sin θ = N n λ is the condition to obtain
brightness at P. In the above discussion light passes through the grating and hence the latter is
called a transmission grating. Diffraction can also be observed when light is reflected from the
surface of a grating. Such gratings are called reflection gratings and usually have concave surfaces.

Results:
(1). As one proceeds from the central position to the exterior θ will increase. There will be
bright bands when sin θ1 = N.1.λ ; sin θ2 = N. 2 λ etc. if the light is of
a single wavelength. But if the light is composite then λ changes from colour to colour so that even
when n = 1,
sin θ1 = N.1 λ1, for one colour and
sin θ2 = N.2 λ2, for another colour, and so on.

or we get a series of bright colours at different angles or using a diffraction grating the composite
light can be split into its constituent colours. This is called a grating spectrum and ‘n’ is called
order of the spectrum.
For a given colour of wavelength λ,
sin θ = λ N when n = 1.
By measuring θ, the angle of diffraction and knowing N, the number of rulings per metre, the
wavelength ‘λ’ can be calculated.
(2). Considering the expression (a + b) sin θ = nλ, suppose (a + b) is less than λ. Then n has to
be less than sin θ. That is n has to be zero because sin θ can never be greater than one. Hence there
will be no diffraction by transmission. This is what happens when light passes through a crystal.
But when X-rays pass through a crystal they are diffracted because λ of X-rays is smaller than (a +
b).
(3) Maximum number of orders in a grating:
The maximum angle of diffraction possible is 90°. If there are 600000 lines/metre and a
source of light of wavelength 5000 Å is used then

sin θ = 1 = 600000 × n × 5000 × 10− 10

Therefore n is greater than 3 but less than 4. So it is not possible to get more than 3 orders
with such a grating.
 (4) conditions for absent spectra:
The conditions for the principle maxima are

(a + b) sin θ = n λ
Similarly the condition for minimum intensity is given by

a sin θ = λ

3.17.2.Types of diffraction grating element

There are typically two different types of diffraction grating – the ruled grating and
the holographic grating.
A ruled diffraction grating is produced by a ruling engine that cuts grooves into the
coating on the grating substrate (typically glass coated with a thin reflective layer) using a
diamond tipped tool.

A holographic diffraction grating is produced using interference lithography which results in a

smooth groove surface and eliminates the periodic errors found in ruled gratings.

A diffraction grating can be a reflection grating or a transmission grating. The most

common type of diffraction grating are plane gratings and concave gratings although they can also
be other profiles such as convex or toroidal depending on the application.

Fig. 3.18(a) Double slit interference factor (b) Double slit diffraction factor and
(c) their product

A diffraction plane transmission grating is an equivalent to a large number of equidistant

slits of equal width. Further this is an extension of double slit diffraction. Each slit forms its diffraction.
Maxima and minima of the various slits overlap resulting in an intensity, proportional to the square of the
number of slits, at the maxima. Figure 3.19 compares the intensity patterns for N = 2 and N = 5. From
this figure, we know that increasing N, (a) does not change the spacing; between the (principal)
interference fringe maxima provided d, the spacing between the centres of the adjacent slits and λ remain
unchanged (b) sharpens the (principal) maxima and (c) introduces small secondary maxima between the
principal maxima.
 Fig. 3.19: Diffraction patterns due to multiple slits
A principal maximum will occur when the path difference between rays from
adjacent slits is equal the integral multiples of the wavelength of light.

i.e. d sin θ = m λ where m = 0.1, 2 .... (principal maxima)

where m is called the order number. Therefore the locations of the principal maxima
are thus determined only by the ratio λ ⁄ d and are independent of N. Further the
intensity at principal maxima is proportional to the square of the number of slits and
the intensity at the secondary maxima decreases and they become more crowded as
the number of slits is increased. Generally if there are N slits, then there are N − 1
minima and N − 2 secondary maxima between two consecutive principal maxima.

Appendix
Glance about the scientist who contributes understanding the nature of light
1.Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727)
Newton was born in England and studied physics and mathematics under great scientist Isaac Barrow
and Benjamin Pulleyn in Trinity College, Cambridge University. Sir Issac Newton proposed the
corpuscular theory to explain the properties of light. At age of 23, he discovered the binomial
theorem and began to develop calculus, which was independently developed by Leibniz. Newton
discovered the law of gravitation during his undergraduate time. He discovered the dispersion of white
light by prism. He constructed a telescope using mirrors known as Newtonian telescope. In 1679,
Newton started to investigate the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's elliptic model based on
his gravitation theory and discovered classical or Newtonian mechanics. These results were published
in his famous book Principia. Newton was elected as a fellow of Trinity, Fellow of the Royal Society
(FRS) and the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. He died 20 March 1727.

2. Sir Thomas Young (13 June 1773 - 10 May 1829)

Young was an English physician and a physicist who was well known for Young’s modulus, Young’s
double slit experiment, astigmatism, Young Helmholtz theory, and Young temperament. In 1799,
Young initiated his medical practice in London. While pursuing his interests in the function . of the
human eye, Young discovered the cause of astigmatism in 1801, which was about the time that he
began his study of light. In 1801, Young began a series of experiments that addressed a phenomenon
known interference. He observed that when light from a single source is separated into as two beams,
and the two beams are recombined, the combined beams produce a pattern of light and dark fringes.
Young applied his new wave theory of light to explain of light and dark fringes. Young applied his
new wave theory of light to explain light and dark fringes. Young applied his new wave theory of light
calculated the approximate wavelened by Newton. His proposal of this wave theory of light was not
accepted by most English scientists of the period because it opposed Newton's theory of light. It was
not until Young worked with French physicists Augustin Fresnel and Francois Arago that his wave
theory began to be accepted in Europe. Young was also responsible for postulating the Young-
Helmholtz trichromatic theory. As indicated by his epitaph, Young's interests and mastery of
scientific and medical skills was quite varied. He was fluent in several languages and studied
Egyptology. Young also did experiments concerned with measuring the size of molecules, surface
tension in liquids, and quantities of elasticity. He was also the first scientist to give the word
"energy" its scientific connotation, and Young's modulus, a constant in the mathematical equation
describing elasticity was named in his honor.

"...a man alike eminent in almost every department of human learning."

4. Albert A. Michelson (19 December 1852 – 9 May 1931)

Michelson was born in Poland in 1852 and moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of
two. He grew up in the mining towns of Murphy's Camp, California, and Virginia City, Nevada,
President Ulysses S. Grant awarded Michelson a special appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy in
1869. During his four years as a midshipman at the Academy, Michelson excelled in optics,
heat, climatology and technical drawing. He became an instructor in physics and chemistry at Naval
Academy from 1875 to 1879.He is known for his discoveries in Speed of light, Hyperfine structure,
Michelson stellar interferometer. In 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case
School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio, and concentrated on developing an
improved interferometer. In 1892 was appointed professor and the first head of the
 5. Augustin- Jean Fresnel (10 May 1788 - 14 July 1827)
Augustin-Jean Fresnel ; 10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and physicist whose
research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light, excluding any
remnant of Newton's corpuscular theory, from the late 1830s [3] until the end of the 19th century. He is
perhaps better known for inventing the catadioptric (reflective/refractive) Fresnel lens and for
pioneering the use of "stepped" lenses to extend the visibility of lighthouses, saving countless lives at
sea. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) stepped lens, first proposed by Count Buffon [4] and
independently reinvented by Fresnel, is used in screen magnifiers and in condenser lenses for overhead
projectors.
5. Joseph Von Fraunhofer (6 March 1787 - 7 June 1826)
Joseph von Fraunhofer, (born March 6, 1787, Straubing, Bavaria [Germany]—died June 7, 1826,
Munich), German physicist who first studied the dark lines of the Sun’s spectrum, now known as
Fraunhofer lines. He also was the first to use extensively the diffraction grating, a device that disperses
light more effectively than a prism does. His work set the stage for the development of spectroscopy.

Fraunhofer worked as an optician at the Untzschneider Optical Institute at Benedictbeuern, near

Munich, of which he became manager in 1818. While measuring the light-bending properties of
various kinds of glass, he noticed dark lines in the light spectrum of a sodium flame, and he continued
looking for such lines in the spectra of other elements. Fraunhofer plotted hundreds of spectral lines,
and by measuring their wavelengths he found that the relative positions of the lines in the spectra of
elements are constant, whether the spectra are produced by the direct rays of the Sun or by the
reflected light of the Moon and planets, by a gas, or by a heated metal in the laboratory. Beginning in
1815, he designed several heliometers, one of which was subsequently used in 1838 by German
astronomer Friedrich Bessel to perform the first measurement of the distance between a star (61
Cygni) and Earth.

6. Christiaan Huygens (14 April 1629 – 8 July 1695)

Dutch physicist, an astronomer, mathematician and the founder of the wave theory of light. His book, Treatise
on light, makes fascinating reading even today. He brilliantly explained the double refraction shown by the
mineral calcite in this work in addition to reflection and refraction. He was the first to analyse circular and
simple harmonic motion and designed and built improved clocks and telescopes. He discovered the true
geometry of Saturn’s Rings.
7. Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1618 – 1663)

Born in Bologna, Itly. Italian Jesuit priest, mathematician and physicist. He was the first to make
accurate observations on the diffraction of light (although by some accounts Leonardo da Vinci had
earlier noted it), and coined the word 'diffraction'. Through experimentation he was able to
demonstrate that the observed passage of light could not be reconciled with the idea that it moved in a
rectilinear path. Rather, the light that passed through the hole took on the shape of a cone. Later
physicists used his work as evidence that light was a wave, significantly, Dutch
mathematician Christiaan Huygens. He also discovered what are known as diffraction bands.

The crater Grimaldi on the Moon is named after him.

8. Robert Hooke

fossils, Hooke presaged the theory of biological evolution. Hooke's pioneering work in land surveying
and in map making aided development of the first modern plan-form map, although his grid-system
plan for London was rejected in favour of rebuilding along existing routes. Even so, Hooke was key in
devising for London a set of planning controls that remain influential. In recent times, he has been
called "England's Leonardo".
 9.Albert Einstein

He was widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time.
Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important
contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum
mechanics are together the two pillars of modern physics. His mass–energy
equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most
famous equation". His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He received
the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his
discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory.
His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with
"genius".
10. James Clerk Maxwell

• 13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879

• Scottish mathematician and scientist
• Born in Scotland, United Kingdom

the classic
al
theory of
electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism and light as
different manifestations of the same phenomenon. Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism have
been called the "second great unification in physics" where the first one had been realized by Isaac
Newton.

With the publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" in 1865, Maxwell
demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of
light. He proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and
magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led his prediction of the
existence of radio waves. Maxwell is also regarded as a founder of the modern field of electrical
engineering.

11. Max Planck

His discovery of energy quanta won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.

Planck made many substantial contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame as a physicist rests
primarily on his role as the originator of quantum theory,[5] which revolutionized human understanding
of atomic and subatomic processes. In 1948, the German scientific institution Kaiser Wilhelm
Society (of which Planck was twice president) was renamed Max Planck Society (MPG). The MPG
now includes 83 institutions representing a wide range of scientific directions. The Planck constant,
or Planck's constant, is a fundamental physical constant of foundational importance in quantum
mechanics. The constant gives the relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency, and
by the mass-energy equivalence, the relationship between mass and frequency. Specifically, a photon's
energy is equal to its frequency multiplied by the Planck constant.