LASER

4.1. INTRODUCTION:
Laser is an outstanding achievement of science and technology in the twentieth century.
Today Lasers find wide applications in communication systems, computers, navigation
equipments, measuring instruments and in medicine. The term LASER stands for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Einstein predicts the existence of stimulated emission of radiation by an atom. The
theoretical prediction for laser oscillations was given by A.L. Schawlow and C.H. Townes in
the year 1958 using the process of stimulated emission.
The first laser was demonstrated by T.H.Maiman in the year 1960 using a ruby crystal as the
active material.
Basic requirements of laser operation:
To achieve laser operation, the following basic requirements are required.
• Active medium − To create population inversion.
• Active centers - atoms that actually take part in population inversion.
• Population inversion.
• Resonance cavity - For optical feedback.
• Threshold inversion density − for emission of inphase photons satisfying
characteristics of Laser beam.
Stimulated absorption:
In order to understand the working principle of laser, let us study the quantum processes that
take place in a material matter when it is exposed to light radiation. Let us consider an
assembly of atoms exposed to light radiation. According to quantum theory, light radiation
consists of photons with energy hν. Let us assume two energy levels E1 and E2 for the atom.
An atom residing in the lower energy state E1 can absorb a photon and go to the higher
energy level E2 (excited state) provided the photon energy hν equals to energy difference (E2
− E1 ). This process is known as stimulated absorption or simply absorption.

hν

Fig.4.1:Spontaneousemission
Spontaneous emission:
After absorption of photon the atom return to ground state by emitting a photon of energy hν.
The emission process can take one of the following forms.
(i) Spontaneous emission
(ii) Stimulated emission
In the case of spontaneous emission, the atom passes from higher energy state E2 (excited
state) to lower energy state E1 (ground state) spontaneously by emission of a photon of
energy hν(Figure 4.2)

Excited state
hν

Ground state
Fig.4.2:Spontaneousemission

The spontaneous emission is random in character. The radiation emitted spontaneously by

each atom has a random direction and a random phase. Thus radiation in this case is a
random mixture of quanta having various wavelengths.
Moreover, they are not in phase. Thus the radiation is incoherent and has a broad spectrum.
It is the process of spontaneous emission that dominates in conventional light sources.
Stimulated emission:
The transition from a higher to a lower energy state with the emission of radiation depends
upon the presence of incidence radiation of the same frequency in the surrounding.
According to Einstein, an interaction between the excited atom and a photon can trigger the
excited atom to make a transition to the ground state. The transition produces a second
photon which would be identical to the triggering photon in respect of frequency, phase and
propagation direction. This process of induced emission of photons caused by the incident
photon is called stimulated emission.

Excited state
hν

Ground state
Fig.4.3:Stimulatedemission
Differences between spontaneous and stimulated emissions:
Spontaneous and stimulated emissions are distinguished from each other due to following
reasons.

S.No Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. It is random in character. That is, This type of emission takes place

this type of emission is a due to inducement of incident
statistical phenomenon. photon.

2. It is incoherent. It is highly coherent.

3. This type of emission dominates This type of emission dominates

in conventional light sources. in laser sources.

4. It is less intense. It is more intense.

5. The radiation of this type The radiation of this type contains

contains many wavelengths. monochromatic wavelength.

6. Less directionality with more High directionality with less

angular spread. angular spread.

4.2. AMPLIFICATION OF LIGHT BY POPULATION INVERSION:

The ratio of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission gives
𝑁𝑠𝑡 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑄 𝐵21
= = 𝑄
𝑁𝑠𝑝 𝐴21 𝑁2 𝐴21

This equation indicates that the stimulated emission will dominate the spontaneous emission
if density (Q) of the incident photons is very large. Thus, the presence of a large number of
photons in the active medium is required.
However, it will lead to more absorption transitions. Hence large photon density alone will
not be sufficient for more stimulated emissions.
Population inversion:
To achieve stimulated emission, population of excited state (N2) should be made larger than
population of lower state (N1) and this condition is called population inversion.
The ratio of stimulated emissions to stimulated absorptions is
𝑁𝑠𝑡 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑄
=
𝑁𝑎𝑏 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑄
But B21 = B12
𝑁𝑠𝑡 𝑁2
=
𝑁𝑎𝑏 𝑁1
This equation indicates that the stimulated emissions will dominate the absorption process if
N2 is greater than N1. It means that there should be more atoms present in the higher energy
level than in the lower energy level for stimulated emission to dominate over spontaneous
emissions.
The establishment of situation in which the number of atoms in higher energy state is larger
than the number of atoms in the lower energy state is called population inversion.

Fig.4.4:Populationinversion

Different methods of achieving population inversion:

There are five different methods by which the population inversion can be achieved, viz.,
(a) Optical pumping.
(b) Direct electron excitation.
(c) Inelastic atom-atom collision.
(d) Direct conversion.
(e) Chemical process.
Pumping action:
The process of raising more number of atoms to excited state by artificial state is known as
pumping process.
Active Medium:
This is the basic material in which atomic or molecular transitions take place leading to the
laser action.
Pumping System:
This is a device by itself or simply a process by which population inversion can be achieved
in the medium.
4.3. PROPERTIES OF LASER:
The wide use of laser in science and technology is due to specific properties of laser
radiation. The most striking features of laser are:
(i) High degree of coherence
(ii) Extraordinary
(iii)Directionality and
(iv) High intensity
Coherence
Laser radiation has a high degree of coherence. That is, all its constituent photons have the
same energy, same direction of momentum and same direction of polarization. Coherence
is characterized by two parameters, namely coherence length and coherence time.
The length of the wave train over which it may be assumed to have a fairly sinusoidal
character and predictable phase is known as coherence length. The time interval during
which the phase of the wave train can be predicted reliably is called coherence time.
The coherence length is about 600 km for laser beam and 3 cm only for sodium lamp. The
high coherence of laser beam results in extremely high power radiation.

Fig.4.5:Coherence

Fig.4.6:Monochromaticityoflaserbeamandordinarylightbeam
 Monochromaticity
Laser beam is more monochromatic (single wavelength or frequency) to any other
conventional monochromatic light sources. Laser beam spreads over a very small frequency
range whereas ordinary light beam spreads over a very large frequency range.
∆𝜈
The degree of non-monochromaticity is defined as ξ = 𝜈0

Where, ∆ν is the band width and νo is the average frequency.

∆𝜈 500
Thus, the degree of monochromaticity of laser beam ξ = = 5×1014 = 10−22
𝜈0

∆𝜈 109
For conventional monochromatic light sourceξ = = 1014 = 10−5
𝜈0

Hence the monochromaticity of the conventional monochromatic light source is poorer than
the laser source. It is concluded that laser beam is highly monochromatic.
Directionality
Laser beam travels as a parallel beam over very long distances but conventional light source
emits in all directions. The directionality of laser beam is usually expressed in terms of full
angle beam divergence. The angular spread is related with the aperture diameter ‘d’ by. For
a typical laser, the beam divergence is less than 0.01 milliradian. That is, the beam spread is
less than 0.01 mm for every metre. But in the case of ordinary light beam, the spread is
about 1 metre for every one metre that light traverses.
Intensity
Laser beam gives out light into a narrow beam of light and its energy is concentrated in a
small region. Even a 1 watt laser light is more intense than 100 watt ordinary incandescent
lamp.
Ordinary light and laser light:
Laser light is distinguished from ordinary light due to the following reasons
S.No Ordinary light Laser light

1. It is not coherent It is highly coherent

2. It is not directional It is more directional

3. It is less intense It is highly intense

4. The angular spread is more The angular spread is less

5. Examples are sunlight, mercury Examples are helium-neon

vapour lamp etc. laser, carbon dioxide laser etc.
4.4. DIFFERENT KINDS OF LASERS:
Solid state lasers, Gas lasers, Liquid lasers, Dye Lasers and Semiconductor lasers are the
important kinds of lasers.
• Solid state lasers -Ruby laser, Nd - YAG laser
• Gas lasers- He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, Argon-ion laser
• Liquid lasers -Se OCl2 laser, Europium chelate laser
• Dye lasers-Rhodamine 6G laser, Coumarin dye laser
• Semiconductor lasers -Ga As laser, In P laser.
4.5. RUBY LASER:
Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser and was constructed by Maiman. It is a pulsed
laser having very high power of hundreds of meg watt in a single pulse with 10 nanosecond
duration. It is used for various industrial applications like surface hardening, hard facing,
cladding of various industrial products, etc. Recently erbium (Er3+) doped ruby lasers are
available and have higher merits than ordinary chromium (Cr3+) doped ruby laser.

Fig.4.7:Rubylaser

Construction
In ruby laser the active element is pure aluminium oxide (Al2 O3) with 0.05% of chromium
and it is shaped into a cylinder with parallel transparent sides and reflectors at both ends.
Among the two end reflectors, one is a perfect reflector and other is a partial reflector.
The diameter of the active element is about 0.5 cm. and its length is about few centimetres.
Pumping source is a flash lamp. Chromium atoms are particularly responsive to light having
a wavelength 5600 Å. Most flash lamps like Xenon flash lamps are able to supply energy in
this wavelength range.
Flash lamp tube is spirally wound over the curved surface of the ruby rod and is connected
to a power supply.
Working:
(a) Once chromium atoms have been excited to an upper energy level ‘H’ by absorbing
light photons of wavelength 5600 Å from the flash lamp they require two steps to return
to their ground state ‘G’. First step is from ‘H’ state to metastable state ‘M’ which is a
shorter jump and energy emitted in this transition is passed to the crystal lattice as heat.
The energy is not radiated in the form of photons and this transition is called “radiation
less transition” (Figure 4.8)

Fig.4.8:ThreelevelsinRubyLaser“Transition”

(b) The chromium atoms returned to M level can remain in this state for several
milliseconds. The accumulation of excited atoms at M level increases the population at
M level and then transition occurs from M to G level emitting out some photons by
spontaneous emission initially in a random manner.
(c) Due to continuous working of flash lamp, the chromium atoms are continuously raised
to higher energy state ‘H’ and then to M level.
(d) At a particular stage population of excited chromium atoms are more at M than at G.
Hence there is population inversion. The emitted photons of wavelength 6943 Å
stimulate or induce the chromium atoms at level M to undergo transition. This results in
stimulated emission of other identical photons and a cascade begins.
(e) The photons travelling parallel to the axis of the ruby rod are used for stimulation while
the photons travelling in other directions will pass out from the ruby rod. In the mean
time, the photons undergo multiple reflections from the mirrors placed at the ends of the
ruby rod and the intensity of the laser radiation grows to a higher value and some of its
bursts is coming out through the partial reflector and it serves as output laser beam.
(f) The emitted photon and stimulating photon are in phase and have same frequency and
are travelling in the same direction. Thus the laser beam has directionality along with
spatial and temporal coherence.
(g) The output beam has red wavelength 6943 Å and frequency 4.32 × 1014 Hertz. Its power
is more than few hundred Megawatt.
[Note: Metastable state ‘M’ consists of two closed sublevels. There is another laser
transition between one of these closed sub-levels and ground state giving an emission line at
a wavelength 6927 Å. But this transition probability is very small].
Applications of Ruby laser:
• Since it is a pulsed laser, it is used in pulsed holography.
• It is used in LIDAR.
• It is used in Remote sensing.
• It is used in Ophthalmology.
• Because of its coherence it is used in drilling small areas.
4.6. ND-YAG (NEODYMIUM – YTTRIUM ALUMINUM GARNET) LASER:
Characteristics of Nd-YAG laser:
Type− Doped insulator laser (solid state laser)
Active medium − Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Y3 Al5 O12)
Active centre − Neodymium (Nd3 + ions)
Pumping method − Optical pumping
Pumping source −Xenon flash lamp
Optical resonator −Ends of the rod polished with silver and two mirrors, one of them is
totally reflecting and the other is partially reflecting.
Power output −2 × 104 Watts
Nature of output − Pulsed
Wavelength emitted − 1.064 µm

Introduction:
Nd-YAG laser is a doped insulator laser. It is a four level system in which the active
medium is taken in the form of a crystal. Here, the crystal is intentionally doped during its
growth. Those type of lasers have number of energy levels with the same energy. The laser
is used to generate high power intensity.
Principle:
The term “doped insulator laser” refers to the active medium, yttrium aluminium garnet (Y3
Al5 O12)
doped with neodymium Nd3+ . The neodymium ion has many energy levels. Due to optical
pumping, these ions are raised to excited levels. During the transition from metastable state
to E1 state, the laser beam of wavelength 1.064 µm is emitted.
Construction:
The active medium is made as a rod which has yttrium aluminium garnet doped with a rare
earth metal ion neodymium Nd3+ ions normally occupies the yttrium ions and provides the
energy levels for both the lasing transitions and pumping. This rod is placed inside a highly
reflecting elliptical cavity as shown in fig. 4.9.

Fig.4.9

A close optical coupling is made by placing the xenon flash lamp near by the laser rod, in
such a way that most of the radiation from the flash type passed through the laser rod due to
the elliptical cavity. The flash tube may be switched ON and controlled with the help of a
capacitor. The discharge of capacitor is initiated using a high voltage source.
The optical resonator is formed by grinding the ends of the rods and coated with silver
accompanied by two mirrors, one is 100% reflecting and the other is partially reflecting
which is included to increase the efficiency of the output beam.
Working:
1. The xenon flash lamp is switched ON and the light is allowed to fall on the laser rod.
2. The intense white light excites the neodymium (Nd3+) ions from the ground state to
various energy levels above E2 hence the atoms are raised to group of higher levels
in E3 as illustrated in the energy level diagram.
3. From these energy levels the ions make non -radiative decay and is gathered in a
state called metastable state, until the population inversion is achieved.
4. Once the population inversion is achieved, the stimulated emission builds up rapidly.
5. Hence, pulsed form of laser beam of wavelength 1.064 µm is emitted during the
transition from E4 to E1 (lower).
 6. A large amount of heat is produced by the flash tube during the working. Hence
cooling arrangement is made either by blowing air or circulating water over the
crystal.
Applications of Nd-YAG laser:
1. It is used in transmitting signals to a longer distance.
2. It is used in long haul communication system.
3. It is also used in the endoscopic applications.
4. It plays a vital role in remote sensing applications.

4.7. HELIUM-NEON LASER:

For the continuous laser beam, He-Ne laser is used. Light radiations with higher coherence,
higher directionality and higher monochromaticity can be obtained from it. But the output
power is generally few milliwatts. Helium-Neon lasers are very useful in making holograms
and for interferometric experiments. In medicine, this acts as an aiming laser which is
normally used to identify the spot where the laser surgery has to be performed.
Construction
The Helium-Neon laser system consists of a gas discharge tube which is the active medium.
The tube is made up of quartz and is filled with the mixture of Neon under a pressure of 0.1
mm of mercury and Helium under a pressure of 1 mm of mercury. The ratio of the Helium-
Neon mixture is 10:1 i.e., the number of Helium atoms is greater than the number of Neon
atoms. The power output from these lasers depends upon the length of the discharge tube
and pressure of gas mixture. Further electrodes at the ends of the discharge tube are
connected to a radio frequency oscillator to produce electrical discharge in the Helium-Neon
mixture so as to pump the Helium atoms to higher energy states.

1. Perfect concave reflector 2. Active medium 3. Electrodes 4. R.F. Oscillator 5.

Brewster angle windows 6. Partially reflecting concave mirror.
Fig. 4.10: Construction of Helium-Neon Laser
The end faces of the gas discharge tube are tilted at the Brewster angle as shown in figure
4.10. These are called Brewster angle windows. An emitted unpolarised light wave consists
of two components called perpendicularly polarised wave and parallel polarised wave. The
perpendicularly polarised wave is completely attenuated by the window plate while the
parallel polarised wave is transmitted by the window in the same direction. The parallel
polarised wave is repeatedly reflected by the concave mirrors situated behind the Brewster
angle windows and correspondingly it passes repeatedly through the active medium. Among
these concave mirrors, one is partially reflecting and the other is perfectly reflecting.
Through the partially reflecting concave mirror the laser output is coming out as parallel
polarised beam of light.
Working:

Fig.4.11:Helium-Neonenergylevelsandlasertransitions

1. By the electrical discharge in the gas tube, the ground level (E0) helium atoms are excited to higher levels E1 and E2 of helium. This
taking place by the transfer of fraction of kinetic
process of excitation is called electron excitation which is
energy of electrons to helium atoms (Figure 4.11).
2. By reasonance collisional transfer method, the helium atoms at E2 give up their
excitation energy to the ground state neon atoms. Thus the neon atoms are excited to
their higher energy level E5. Meanwhile these helium atoms are de-excited and returned
to their ground state.
3. Similarly the helium atoms at E1 give up their excitation energy to the ground state neon
atoms and the neon atoms are excited to another higher energy level E 3 as shown in
figure 4.11. The helium atoms are de-excited and returned to their ground state.
4. Since E5 and E3 of Neon atoms are metastable states, population inversion takes place at
these levels. Any one of the spontaneously emitted photons will trigger the laser action.
5. Thus the stimulated emission takes place between E5 (3s) and E2 (2p) giving a laser light
wavelength of 6328 Å.
6. Similarly the stimulated emission between E5(3s) and E4 (3p) gives a laser light
wavelength of 3.39 µm.
7. Another stimulated emission between E3 (2s) and E2 (2p) gives a laser light wavelength
of 1.15 µm.
8. The neon atoms undergo transition from E2 to E1 and from E4 to E1 in the form of fast
decay giving photons by spontaneous emission. These photons are absorbed by optical
elements placed inside the laser system.
9. The neon atoms are returned to the ground state from E1 by non-radiative diffusion and
collision proceses. Therefore there is no emission of radiation.
10. After arriving the ground state, once again the neon atoms are raised to E5 and E3 by
excited helium atoms. Thus one can get continuous output form the He-Ne laser.
11. Some optical elements placed inside the laser system are used to absorb the infrared laser
wavelengths 3.39 µm and 1.15 µm.
12. Hence the output of He-Ne laser contains only a single wavelength of 6328 Å and the
output power is about few milliwatts.

Applications of He-Ne Laser:

★ Because of its high power it is used in open air communications.

★It is used to produce holograms.

★It is used in determining the size of tiny particles.

4.8. CARBON DI-OXIDE LASER:
In the Nd YAG laser or in He-Ne laser, the transitions are taking place among the various
excited electronic states of an atom or an ion.
In CO2 laser, the laser transitions are occurring between different vibrational states of the
carbon di oxide molecule. An Indian Engineer, Patel was the first person who designed CO2
laser.
Special features of CO2 lasers
(a) High power CO2 lasers find applications in materials processing, welding, hole
drilling, cutting, etc.
(b) Since the atmospheric attenuation is low at 10.6 µm, CO2 lasers are also used in open
air communication.
(c) It is used in surgery as a direct substitute for a scalpel. In cutting tissues with CO2
laser beam, the laser light is absorbed in a small volume, causing a little damage to the
surrounding tissues.
(a) Modes of vibration and vibrational energy levels:The CO2 molecule consists of a
central carbon atom with two oxygen atoms attached one on either side. We know that
every molecule has electronic, vibrational and rotational energy levels
 Fig.4.12:Threeindependentmodesofvibrationofthecarbondi-oxidemolecule

In CO2 laser, laser transition is taking place between vibrational-energy levels. According to
figure 4.12, CO2 molecule can vibrate in symmetric stretching, bending and asymmetric
stretching modes. Each of these modes is characterised by a definite frequency of vibration.
The molecule’s vibrational energies in symmetric stretching mode is given by
1
𝐸𝑋 = 𝑚 + (ℎ𝜈𝑖)
2
Where m = 0,1,2
The degree of excitation is characterized by the integer ‘m’. Since the CO2 molecule is
vibrating with a combination of three modes, the state of vibration can be described by three
integers (m n q) where m, n, and q are the integers corresponding to the degree of excitation
in the symmetric stretching, bending and asymmetric stretching modes respectively.
Construction:

Fig.4.13:CO2Laser
Symmetric stretching mode of a CO2 molecule:
Here the carbon atom is stationary and the oxygen atoms oscillate or vibrate along the axis
of the molecule.
Asymmetric stretching mode of a CO2 molecule:
Here all the three atoms will vibrate. Here the oxygen atom vibrates in the opposite direction
to the vibration direction of carbon atom.
Bending mode of a CO2 molecule:
Here the atoms will not be linear; rather the atoms will vibrate perpendicular to the
molecular axis.
Figure 4.13 shows the schematic diagram of a CO2 laser. Along with CO2 , there are also
nitrogen and helium gases in the apparatus. Nitrogen helps to increase the population of the
upper level of CO2 , while helium helps to depopulate the lower level. This is achieved due
to high thermal conductivity of helium. Further helium helps to conduct heat away to the
walls of the discharge tube keeping CO2 cold.
The discharge tube has 2.5 cm in diameter and 5 m in length and discharge is produced by
d.c. excitation. Sodium chloride Brewster windows are used at the end. Near confocal
silicon mirrors coated with aluminium, form the resonant cavity. The partial pressures of
CO2 , N2 , and He are around 0.33 torr, 1.2 torr and 7 torr respectively. The partial pressure
values depend on the diameter of the tube. To remove the dissociation products which may
contaminate the laser, the continuous flow of the gas mixture is maintained in the tube. [1
torr = 1 mm height of mercury column].
Working:
Figure 4.14 shows the various vibrational energy levels taking part in the laser transition. In
the figure E5 refers to (001) level, E4 refers to (100) level and E3 refers to (021) level. E2
refers to (010) level and E1 refers to ground state energy level.
0.3

0.2

0.1

Fig.4.14:VibrationalEnergylevelsofCO2moleculeandimportantl
aser transitionshaving9.6mmand10.6mmwavelength

The laser transition at 10.6 m occurs between the (001) and (100) levels of CO2. The
excitation of the CO2 molecules to the long lived level (001) occurs both through collisional
transfer from nearly resonant excited nitrogen molecules and also from the cascading down
of CO2 molecules from higher energy levels.
Laser action in CO2 Laser:
1. When a discharge is passed through the tube, the nitrogen molecules are excited and are
raised to higher excited state.
2. The excited energy of nitrogen molecules is transferred to carbon-di-oxide molecules
through collisions and carbon-di-oxide molecules are raised to their excited vibrational
energy level E5 (001) from their ground state.
3. The energy level ‘E5 ’ is a metastable state energy level. Hence there is population
inversion.
4. Stimulating photons of wavelength 10.6 µm and 9.6 µm induce the CO2 molecules to
undergo stimulated emission by laser transitions from E5 to E4 giving laser wavelength of
10.6 µm and from E5 to E3 giving laser wavelength of 9.6 µm.
5. Since the laser transition from E5 to E4 has higher gain than from E5 to E3, the laser
usually oscillates at 10.6 µm.
6. The CO2 molecules from E4 and E3 are returned to their ground through fast decay and
diffusion.
7. When there is longitudinal flow of gases, the maximum power obtained is about 50-60
W/m.
 8. If the gas flow is perpendicular to the discharge the output power can be raised to about
10 kilowatt/m. This type of CO2 laser is known as Transversely Excited Atmospheric
pressure laser or TEA laser. Thus the gas flow is maintained along the axis of the tube at
normal atmospheric pressure and the current in the arc flows at right angles to the axis of the
laser.
4.9. GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GaAs) DIODE LASER (SEMICONDUCTOR LASER)
Principle:
Among the semiconductors there are direct bandgap semiconductors and indirect bandgap
semiconductors. In the case of direct bandgap semiconductors, there is a large possibility for
direct recombination of hole and electron emitting a photon.
But in indirect bandgap semiconductors, like Germanium and Silicon, direct recombination
of hole and electron is not possible and hence there is no photon emission.

Fig.4.15:GaAsdiodelaser

GaAs is a direct bandgap semiconductor and hence it is used to make light emitting diodes
and lasers. The wavelength of the emitted light depends on the bandgap of the material.
Construction
(Homo junction GaAs semiconductor diode laser). Refer figure 4.15.
The active medium is a p-n junction diode made from crystalline Gallium Arsenide. The p-
region and n-region in the diode are obtained by heavily doping Germanium and Tellurium
respectively in GaAs.
At the junction the sides through which emitted light is coming out are well polished and
parallel to each other. Since the refractive index of GaAs is high, the reflectance at the
material-air interface is sufficiently large. So that the external mirrors are not necessary to
produce multiple reflections.
Electric current is applied to the crystal platelet through a strip electrode fixed to its upper
surface. The threshold pumping current density to start the stimulated emission is so high
about 400 A ⁄ mm2. Homojunction laser can give the laser output in the form of pulsed mode
at room temperature.
Working:
1. A population inversion is obtained by injecting electrons across the junction from the n
doped region to the p region by means of a forward bias voltage.
2. The excess minority electrons in the p region and excess minority holes in the n region
produce population inversion of minority charge carriers.
3. Particularly when a relatively large current of the order of 104 ampere/cm2 is passed
through the junction to provide excitation, the direct recombination process is taking place
efficiently.
4. Further the emitted photons increase the rate of recombination of injected electrons from
the n region and holes in p region by inducing more recombinations. Thus more number of
photons are produced.
5. Hence the emitted photons from induced recombinations are having the same phase and
frequency as that of original inducing photons; otherwise we have stimulated emission of
radiation along the P-N junction as shown in figure.
6. The wavelength of the emitted radiation depends upon the concentration of donor and
acceptor atoms in GaAs. Particularly when the donor and acceptor concentrations are about
1024 atoms/m3 the emitted wavelengths are 0.9020, 0.8425 and 0.8370 microns.
7. The efficiency of laser emission increases when we cool the GaAs diode. Since there is no
optical confinement, the emitted laser radiation has large divergence and power coherence.
8. In the reverse bias, no carrier injection takes place and consequently no light is emitted.

4.10. APPLICATIONS OF LASERS:

Due to high intensity, high monochromaticity, high coherence and high directionality of
lasers, they are widely used in many fields of Science, Engineering and Medicine.
Lasers in microelectronics:
Microelectronics is a sub-field of electronics. It is related to the study and manufacture of
electronic components which are very small. These devices are made from semiconductors
with the help of lasers using a process called photolithography. The proliferation of
consumer microelectronic devices such as cell phones, computers, CD’s, DVD’s, PDA, flat
panel TV’s and miniaturised audio equipment, has had a huge impact on our daily lives.
Laser-based processes are used at many points within the manufacture and test of the
microscopic circuits that make up these devices.
Laser’s application in semiconductor and microelectronics fabrication process is growing
exponentially due to its unique characteristics.
Material Processing using Lasers:
We know that lasers are the light sources having very high energy density and their radiation
can be focused well. This fact is utilized for material processing like surface modification,
welding, cutting, drilling, etc. The material processing using lasers can be done in open air.
But the electron beam processing requires vacuum. Today we have industrial lasers having
very high beam power (> 1 MW) and very narrow pulse width (< 10− 9 s). Particularly by
mode locking and Q switching principles, the power of the laser beam is further increased to
a very large value.
Mode locking means the different modes of laser oscillation developed in the resonant
cavity of laser source, enter the output in a periodic manner as well as in phase condition.
The laser output has very high power density due constructive interference among the
modes. The period of occurring of giant pulse having high energy density is about 2L/C
second where L is the length of the resonant cavity and C is the velocity of light. In other
times, the output from the laser beam is almost zero due to destructive interference among
the different modes.
Similarly Q switching means the increase of population inversion in the excited state having
long life time above the threshold condition for oscillation and making all the atoms to
undergo laser transition simultaneously. This will bring a very narrow beam with high
power.
Industrial lasers and their uses:
Laser type Wavelength Power (µ Applications (kW)
m)
CO2 10.6 ≤ 0.1 Ceramic scribing, cutting, drilling

0.1 to 1 Welding and cutting

1 to 10 Heat treating and heavy section welding

Nd YAG 1.06 > 10 Large scale heat treating, cladding and

(pulsed) alloying

0.05 Spot welding

0.1 to 0.4 Seam welding, high speed spot welding,

cutting and large hole drilling
Nd YAG 1.06 ≤ 0.1 Ceramic scribing, resistor trimming and
(continuous sawing
wave)
0.2 to 0.8 Welding and heat treating
Table shows the different lasers, their wavelength and power and the corresponding
applications. Generally when we use high power lasers, thicker specimens can be processed
well.
The carbon di-oxide laser is a gaseous laser and Nd-YAG laser is a solid state laser.

(a)Continuous Laser beam

Fig.4.16:Timedependenceoflaseroutputfordifferentlasertypes

Figure 4.16 shows the time dependence of laser output in continuous wave laser (figure
4.16(a)), pulsed laser (figure 4.16(b)), and Q switched laser (figure 4.16(c)). Depending
upon the application different lasers are used. For example, in the case of welding of thicker
specimens, Q switched lasers are used.

Fig.4.17:Operationalregimesinlasermaterialprocessing
Figure4.17showsthevariouspowerdensitiesrequiredfordifferentoperations.
Laser instrumentation for material processing:

Fig.4.18:Laserinstrumentationformaterialprocessing
Figure 4.18 shows the laser setup used for surface modification, welding, cutting and
drilling. The output of the laser beam is incident on the plane mirror. After reflection, it
passes through a shutter to control its intensity. Then there is focusing assembly to get a fine
beam. Further there are shielding gas jet and powder feeder. The shielding gas is used (i) to
remove the molten material and to favour vaporisation, (ii) to provide cooling effect, (iii) to
protect the focusing optical arrangement against smoke and fumes and to increase the
absorption of energy by the sample. For different materials, different gases are used. Air is
the assisting gas for Ti, Nb, Ta, Zr and glass. Using high power lasers, Copper and
Aluminium can be welded, drilled, alloyed or cut without any assisting gas. During the
cutting of readily inflammable glass materials like ceramics, wood and paper, the nitrogen
gas is used. This will increase the cutting rate by blowing the molten material out of the hole
produced by laser energy. Further it reduces the firing and fire accidents. Oxygen gas is
mainly used for brittle materials and metals. It will blow out the molten material and
contribute some exothermal chemical reaction. So that metal can absorbs maximum energy
from the laser beam. Argon gas is used for cutting and drilling of wood and ceramics.
Powder feeder is used to spray the metal powder on the substrate for alloying or cladding.
For example the satellite powder (cobalt based carbide consisting of various elements C, Cr,
Mo, W and Fe) is used during cladding to improve the hardness of the surface. There are
various arrangements to monitor the flow of feeder gas or powder and shielding gas.
Laser surface treatments
Laser surface treatments are used for altering the compositions and microstructure of surface
layers and there by improving the surface hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance and
fatigue strength. Laser surface modification processes for changing the surface composition
can be divided into:
(a) laser surface alloying
Alloying elements in the laser melt pool may be introduced by means of pre-deposition
methods like thermal spraying, boronizing, nitrating, carburizing, laying of loose metal
powders, thin sheets or rods on the surface of substrate, etc (all of which are done prior to
laser melting) and co-deposition methods like injecting powder, wire or rod forms of alloys
into the laser melt pool. By this method one can have the control over the supply of alloying
elements.

Fig.4.19:Differentlasersurfacetreatmentprocesses
Figure 4.19 shows the different laser surface treatment processes. In annealing, there is no
heat affected zone and melting also takes place over few picometres thickness. In hardening
process, there is heat affected zone in the form of hemispherical manner. In the case of
shock hardening there is melting over a thickness of few micrometres. In surface alloying
and surface cladding, there is a coating of alloying or cladding material on the substrate
surface. There are local melting and heat affected zone also. Laser alloying means that there
is controlled melting of a work piece surface to a desired depth using laser beam with
simultaneous addition of powdered alloying elements. Since the alloying elements diffuse in
a thin liquid layer at the surface, it is feasible to obtain the required depth of alloying in
small time intervals (~0.1s to 10s). Alloy composition will govern the microstructure and
the degree of microstructural grain reinfinment. Laser alloying will increase the resistance
to wear, erosion, corrosion and high temperature oxidation.
(ii) Laser cladding (or) hardfacing: Here a laser beam melts a very thin surface layer of the
work piece. This thin liquid layer mixes with the liquid cladding alloy and subsequently
freezes to form a metallurgical bonding between the cladding and substrates. Cladding
alloys are usually cobalt, nickel or iron based and are used for the applications involving the
increase of resistance of metal-to-metal wear, impact, erosion, corrosion and abrasion. Laser
cladding is more superior than the conventional cladding techniques for high quality surface
modification. That is both mechanically and metallurgically superior.
Laser welding, cutting and drilling: For laser welding, cutting and drilling high power lasers
are generally used. The quality of welding or cutting is affected by beam power, beam
diameter, welding (or) cutting speed, focussing conditions and TEM mode of laser. When
the beam power is more, the penetration depth is also more. The diameter of the beam
should be very small to get highly focussed radiation. For a given power, if the welding or
cutting speed increases, the penetration depth decreases. So to increase the welding or
cutting speed as well as the penetration depth it is advisable to use key hole mode of melting
and high power lasers.
Advantages of laser welding, cutting and drilling:
1. Here the heat affected zone is very narrow. Therefore the microstructure of
surrounding layers are not affected.
2. Laser welding, cutting and drilling can be done at room temperature and
pressure without preheating and vacuum condition.
3. Difficult materials such as titanium, quartz and ceramics can be welded, or
cut or drilled.
4. The work piece is need not be clambed rigidly.
5. No electrode or filler or material is required.
6. Higher welding speed or cutting speed can be achieved.
7. There is minimum residual stress and distortion.
8. Heating and cooling are so rapid. Hence there is fine grain structure in the
weld or cut or drilled region so that it increases the strength of that region.
9. The drilled hole has uniform diameter throughout the specimen and the walls
of the hole are perfectly uniform.
10. The weld region is correctly bonded together and there is no dry welding.
11. The laser cutting has improved edge quality. That is the surface quality is
maintained in the original condition since there is no bead formation due to
scattering of molten material.

Laser welding, cutting and drilling can be done by the following manner.
(a) By movement of laser source keeping the material stationary.
(b) By movement of material alone keeping the laser source stationary.
(c) Keeping the material and laser source stationary and moving the laser beam by means of
mirrors and lenses.
(d) Keeping the laser source stationary and moving the material and the laser beam.
Medical Applications:
Surgery:
The three lasers most often used in medical treatment are
(a) Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) laser. Primarily a surgical tool, this device converts light
energy to heat strong enough to minimize bleeding, while cutting through or
vaporizes tissue
(b) Neodymium: yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd: YAG) laser.
(c) Argon laser.
Purpose:
Laser surgery is used to:
(a) Cut or destroy tissue that is abnormal or diseased without harming healthy, normal
tissue. .
(b) Shrink or destroy tumors and lesions.
(c) Close off nerve endings to reduce postoperative pain.
(d) Cauterize (seal) blood vessels to reduce blood loss.
(e) Seal lymph vessels to minimize swelling and decrease spread of tumor cells.
(f) Remove moles, warts, and tattoos.
(g) Decrease the appearance of skin wrinkles.
Description:
Lasers can be used to perform almost any surgical procedure. In fact, general surgeons
employ the various laser wavelengths and laser delivery systems to cut, coagulate, vaporize,
and remove tissue. In most “laser surgeries,” they actually use genuine laser devices in place
of conventional surgical tools-scalpels, cryosurgery probes, electrosurgical units, or
microwave devices − to carry out standard procedures, like mastectomy (breast surgery).
With the use of lasers, the skilled and trained surgeon can accomplish tasks that are more
complex, all the while reducing blood loss, decreasing postoperative patient discomfort,
decreasing the chances of infection to the wound, reducing the spread of some cancers,
minimizing the extent of surgery (in some cases), and achieving better outcomes in wound
healing. Also, because lasers are more precise, the laser can penetrate tissue by adjusting the
intensity of the light. Lasers are also extremely useful in both open and laparoscopic
procedures. Common surgical uses include breast surgery, removal of the gallbladder, hernia
repair and solid organ surgery. The first working laser was introduced in 1960. Initially used
to treat diseases and disorders of the eye, the device was first used to treat diseases and
disorders of the eye, whose transparent tissues gave ophthalmic surgeons a clear view of
how the narrow, concentrated beam was being directed. Dermatologic surgeons also helped
to pioneer laser surgery, and developed and improved upon many early techniques and more
refined surgical procedures.

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