5.

EVOLUTION by: MA

Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another. c. To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs
Evolutionary Biology: Study of history of life forms. d. To study about geological period by analyzing fossils in
ORIGIN OF LIFE different sedimentary rock layers. The study showed
Big Bang Theory states that universe originated about 20 that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are
billion years ago, by a thermonuclear explosion (big bang) restricted to certain geological time spans.
of a dense entity. 2. Morphological and Anatomical evidences
The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different
There was no atmosphere on early earth. Water vapour, CH4, forms of animals have some common structural features.
CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass covered the surface. This can be explained as follows:
H2O → H2 + O2 a. Homologous organs and Homology
NH3 + O2 → water - Homologous organs are the organs having fundamental
CH4 + O2 → CO2 similarity in structure and origin but different functions.
Then the ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water This phenomenon is called Homology.
vapour fell as rain to form oceans. - E.g. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing, and
Theories of origin of life Cheetah’s foot. All these perform different functions, but
are constructed on the same plan.
1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis): It
- Homology can be seen in skeleton (e.g. humerus, radius,
states that, life came out of decaying and rotting matter
ulna, carpals, metacarpals & phalanges), heart, blood
like straw, mud etc.
vessels, excretory system, brain etc.
Louis Pasteur demonstrated that life comes only from
- Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and
pre-existing life and disproved this theory.
tendrils of Cucurbita.
He showed that in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not come
- The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent
from killed yeast while in another flask open to air, new
evolution (It is the process by which related species
living organisms arose.
become less similar in order to survive and adapt in
2. Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani
different environmental condition).
& Louis Pasteur. It states that, life originates from pre-
- Homology indicates common ancestry.
existing life.
3. Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia): It states that, b. Analogous organs and Analogy
the units of life (spores) were transferred to different Analogous organs are the organs having similar function but
planets including earth. different structure and origin. This phenomenon is called
4. Theory of special creation: It states that, living & non- Analogy. E.g.
living was created by some supernatural power (God).  Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
Haldane. It states that, the first form of life was originated  Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina
from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as from embryonic brain).
CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc. i.e.  Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
“Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since”.  Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
 Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of
Urey-Miller experiment
vertebrates (from endoderm).
Harold Urey & Stanley Miller conducted an experiment to Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution
prove theory of chemical evolution. They created a (It is the process by which unrelated species become more
condition similar to that of primitive earth (i.e. high similar in order to survive and adapt in similar
temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere environmental condition).
containing CH4, NH3, H2O, H2 etc).
They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing 3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)
CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As a result, some Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution
amino acids are formed. of closely related species in a given geographical area
In similar experiments, others observed formation of sugars, starting from a point. E.g.
nitrogen bases, pigment and fats. o Darwin’s finches (seen in Galapagos Islands).
First non-cellular form of life originated 3 billion years ago. o Australian marsupials.
They were RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc. o Placental mammals in Australia.
EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
1. Paleontological evidences
Paleontology: The study of fossils.
Fossils: These are remnants of life forms found in rocks
(earth crust). Fossils are written documents of evolution.
Significance of fossils:
a. To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race
history). E.g. Horse evolution.
b. To study the connecting link between two groups of Placental mammals: Mole, Anteater, Mouse, Lemur,
organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx. Flying squirrel, Bobcat, Wolf.

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When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an  Heritable minor variations
isolated geographical area, this leads to convergent evolution.  Overproduction by organisms
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.  Limited natural resources
 Struggle for existence
Placental mammals Australian Marsupials
 Survival of the fittest
Mole Marsupial mole
Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater) Population size grows exponentially if everybody reproduces
Mouse Marsupial mouse maximally (E.g. bacterial population). In fact, population size
Lemur Spotted cuscus is limited due to competition for resources (Struggle for
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger existence). Only some survives (Survival of the fittest).
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat Darwin said that the organisms with heritable variations
Wolf Tasmanian wolf make resource utilization better. They reproduce and leave
4. Biochemical evidences more progeny. It leads to a change in population
characteristics and new forms appear.
- Similarities in proteins and genes
- Similarities in other biomolecules and metabolism. MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
5. Evidences for evolution by natural selection Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of
speciation.
Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation Theory of evolution.
are best suited for their environment survive and reproduce. He conducted some experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana
Some evidences are given below. (evening primrose) and believed that evolution takes place
Industrial melanism (In England) through mutation and not by minor variation.
 Before industrialization (1850s): There were more white Differences between Darwinian variation & mutation
winged moths (Biston betularia) on trees than dark
winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria). Darwinian variation Mutation
Reason: There was white coloured lichen covered the Minor variation Large variation
trees. In that background the white winged moths survived Slow and directional Random, sudden & directionless
but the dark coloured moths were picked out by predators. Speciation by saltation (single
Gradual evolution
 After industrialization (1920): More dark winged moths step, large mutation)
and less white winged moths.
Hardy- Weinberg Principle
Reason: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial
smoke and soot. No growth of lichens. Under this - It says that allele frequencies in a population are stable
condition the white winged moth did not survive because and constant from generation to generation.
the predators identified them easily. Dark winged moth - The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a
survived because of suitable dark background. population) remains a constant. This is called genetic
o Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
etc resulted in selection of resistant varieties (Natural - Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
selection by anthropogenic action). - E.g. In a diploid, p and q are the frequencies of alleles A
& a respectively.
THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION The frequency of AA = p2 (i.e. the probability of an allele A
1. Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of with frequency p is the product of the probabilities, i.e. p2)
Acquired characters) The frequency of aa = q2
Proposed by Lamarck. It states that evolution of life forms The frequency of Aa = 2pq
occurred by use and disuse of organs. E.g. Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]
o Evolution by use of organs: Long neck of giraffe is due to Change of frequency of alleles in a population causes
continuous elongation to forage leaves on tall trees. This disturbance in genetic equilibrium. This is due to evolution.
acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations. Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
o Evolution by disuse: Disappearance of limbs in snakes. a. Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to
This theory was eliminated out because it is proved that another. Here gene frequencies change in both
the characters are inherited only through genes. populations. There would be a gene flow if migration
2. Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection) happens multiple times.
Proposed by Charles Darwin. It is based on 2 key concepts b. Genetic drift: The accidental gene flow causing change
in frequency. Sometimes, the change in frequency is so
 Branching descent  Natural selection different in the new sample of population that they
Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are become a different species. The original drifted population
modified descendants of previous life forms. becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.
Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony (say A) c. Mutation: Mutations result in formation of new
growing on a given medium. If the medium composition is phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
changed, only a part of the population (say B) can survive d. Genetic recombination: It is the reshuffling of gene
under new condition. This variant population outgrows the combinations during crossing over resulting in genetic
others and appears as new species, i.e. B is better than A variation.
under new condition. Nature selects for fitness. e. Natural selection: 3 types.
Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin. i. Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire
Natural selection is based on the following facts: mean character value and variation is reduced.

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 ◦ In the next 200 million years reptiles dominated on
earth. Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but
they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
 Mesozoic era:
◦ 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water
to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g. Ichthyosaurs).
◦ The land reptiles were dinosaurs. They include
ii. Directional selection: Here, individuals of one  Tyrannosaurus rex: Largest dinosaur (20 feet in
extreme are more favoured. height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).
 Triceratops  Pteranodon
 Stegosaurus  Brachiosaurus
 Coenozoic era:
◦ 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared
◦ First mammals (shrew-like). Their fossils are small sized.
◦ In South America, there were mammals resembling
horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. Due to continental
iii. Disruptive selection: drift, when South America joined North America, these
animals were overridden by North American fauna.
◦ Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived
because of lack of competition from any other mammals.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN
 Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus (15 mya):
Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzee.
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION Dryopithecus: ape-like.
 Proterozoic era: 2000 million years ago (mya): Ramapithecus: man-like.
Fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia & Tanzania.
◦ First cellular forms of life.
 Man-like primates (3-4 mya): Height up to 4 feet.
◦ Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the
 Australo-pithecus (2 mya):
light reaction in photosynthesis.
In East African grass lands.
◦ Single celled organisms → Multicellular organisms
Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.
 Paleozoic era: Homo habilis:
◦ 500 mya: Invertebrates. First human-like being (hominid).
◦ 400-600 mya: First land organisms (plants). Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat.
◦ 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.  Homo erectus (1.5 mya):
◦ 350 mya: Jawless fish. Fish with stout and strong fins Large brain (900 cc). Ate meat.
could move on land and go back to water.  Neanderthal man (40,000- 1 lakh yrs ago):
Brain 1400 cc.
Lived in East & Central Asia.
Used hides to protect their body.
Buried their dead.
◦ 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants.  Homo sapiens (Modern man): 10,000 to 75,000 yrs ago.
◦ Amphibians to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians. Agriculture & settlements: 10,000 years ago.

Prepared by:
K.C. Muhammed ali K.C
[email protected]
bankofbiology.blogspot.com
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