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    Algebra and Functions

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    Chamika T

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    Algebra and Functions

    Uploaded by

    Chamika T
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    Algebra and functions

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    9 views18 pages

    Algebra and Functions

    Uploaded by

    Chamika T

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 18

    Polynomial division

    What is a polynomial?
     A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of a finite number of terms, with non-negative indices
    only.

    What is polynomial division?


     It’s a method for splitting polynomials into factor pairs (with or without an accompanying remainder
    term)

    How do I divide polynomials?


     Using a method just like long division
     At a level you will normally be dividing a polynomial dividend of degree 3 or 4 by a divisor in the form ¿ ¿
     The answer to a polynomial division question is built up term by term, working downwards in powers of
    the variable (usually x)

    1. Start by dividing by highest power term


    2. Write out this this multiplied by the divisor and subtract
    3. Continue to divide by each reducing power term and subtracting you answer each time

    4. Continue until you are left with zero

    5. If the divisor is not a factor of the polynomial, then there will be a remainder term left at the end of the
    division
    Factor division

    What is the factor theorem?

     It’s a very useful result about polynomials


     At a level you will most frequently use the factor theorem a s way to simplify the process of
    factorizing polynomials
    What do I need to know about the factor theorem?
     For a polynomial f ( x ) the factor theorem states that:
    o If f ( p ) = 0, then (x− p) is a factor of f( x )
    AND
     If (x− p) is a factor of f( x ), then f ( p ) = 0

    Polynomial factorisation
    What is polynomial factorisation?
     Factorising a polynomial combines the factor theorem with the method of polynomial division
     The goal is to break down a polynomial as far as possible into a product of linear factors
    How do I factorise a polynomial?
     At a level you will usually be asked to factorise a cubic polynomial
     Follow the following steps:

     Step 1. Find a value p that makes f(p) = 0

     Step 2. Use polynomial division to divide f(x) by (x-p)

     Step 3. Use the result of your division to write


    f(x) = (x-p)(ax2+bx+c)

     Step 4. If the quadratic (ax2+bx+c) is factorizable, factorise it and write f(x) as a product of 3 linear
    factors (if quadratic is not factorizable, then your result from Step 3 is the final factorisation)

    Sketching polynomials
    Sketching the graph of a polynomial
     A polynomial is any finite function with non-negative indices
    When asked to sketch a polynomial you'll need to think about the following
    o y-axis intercept
    o x-axis intercepts (roots)
    o turning points (maximum and/or minimum)
    o a smooth curve (this takes practice!)
    How do I sketch a graph of a polynomial?
    STEP 1 Find the y-axis intercept by setting x = 0
    STEP 2 Find the x-axis intercepts (roots) by setting y = 0
    STEP 3 Consider the shape and “start”/”end” of the graph
    eg. a positive cubic graph starts in third quadrant (“bottom left”) and “ends” in first quadrant (“top
    right”)
    STEP 4 Consider where any turning points should go
    STEP 5 Draw with a smooth curve
     Coordinates of turning points can be found using differentiation
     Except with a point of inflection, repeated roots indicate the graph touches the x-axis

    Reciprocal Graphs - Sketching


    What are reciprocal graphs?

     Reciprocal graphs involve equations with an x term on the denominator e.g.


     There are two basic reciprocal graphs to know for A level
    1 1
    y= and y= 2
    x x
     The second one of these is always positive
    Other graphs

     The sign of a shows which part of the graph the curves are located
     The size of a shows how steep the curves are
    o The closer a is to 0 the more L-shaped the curves are

    o horizontal, y = 0 (x-axis)
    o vertical, x = 0 (y-axis)All have two asymptotes

    How do I sketch a reciprocal graph?


    STEP 1 Use “a” to locate the curves and use the size of “a” to gauge the steepness of the curve
    STEP 2 Sketch the graph
    STEP 3 Label the points x = 1 and x = -1 as a guide to the scale of your graph
    STEP 4 Draw asymptotes with a dotted line
     These graphs do not intercept either axis
     Graph transformations of them could cross the axes

    Solving Equations Graphically


    Simultaneous equations

     Coordinates of the intersections are the solutions


    How do I solve simultaneous equations using a graph?

    Proportional relationships

    Proportional relationships use the symbol ∝ which means is proportional to


     It describes a proportional connection between two variables

     Direct proportion creates a linear graph where k is the gradient
     Inverse proportion creates a reciprocal graph

    Direct proportion
     y is proportional to x
     y increases as x does, k determines gradient
     by changing this to the equation y = kx we can substitute in given values and solve to find k

    k>0

    Inverse proportion
    1
     y is proportional to or y is inversely proportional to x
    x
     y decreases as x increases and vice versa, k determines the gradient
    k
     by changing this to the equation y= we can substitute in given values and solve to find k
    x

    How do I work with proportional relationships?


     Set up your proportional relationship using ∝ then change to = k
     Calculate or deduce the value of k from the information given or a graph
     Once you've found k sub it back in to your original proportion equation
     You can now find any values using this proportional relationship
     y = mx + c rearranges to y – c = mx so (y - c) is directly proportional to x

    Translations
    What are graph transformations?
     Effects on the graph of a function after altering a function in certain ways
     Shape, size, and orientation of the graph remain same, the graph is merely shifted up, down, left or right
     A particular translation is specified by a translation vector:

    What do I need to know about graph translations?


    0
     The graph of y = f(x) + a is a vertical translation of the graph y = f(x) by the vector ( a)
    o The graph moves up for positive values of a and down for negative values of a
    o The x-coordinates stay the same
    −a
     The graph of y = f(x+a) is a horizontal translation of the graph y = f(x) by the vector ( )
    0
    o The graph moves left for positive values of a and right for negative values of a
    o The y-coordinates stay the same

     Any asymptotes of f(x) are also translated. If an asymptote is parallel to the direction of translation,
    however, it will not be affected
    Stretches
     With a stretch all the points on the graph are moved towards or away from either the x or the y axis by a
    constant scale factor

    What do I need to know about graph stretches?


     The graph of y = af(x) is a vertical stretch of the graph y = f(x) by a scale factor of a, centered on the x axis
    o The x coordinates of points stay the same; y coordinates are multiplied by a
    o Points on the x axis stay where they are
    o All other points move parallel to the y axis, away from (a > 1) or towards (0 < a < 1) the x axis
    1
     The graph of y = f(ax) is a horizontal stretch of the graph y = f(x) by a scale factor of , centered on the y
    a

    o The y coordinates of points stay the same; x coordinates are multiplied by


    o Points on the y axis stay where they are
    o All other points move parallel to the x axis, away from (0 < a < 1) or towards (a > 1) the y axis

     Any asymptotes of f(x) are also affected by the stretch


     If an asymptote is one of the coordinate axes, or is parallel to the direction of the stretch, however, it will
    not be affected
    Reflections
     With a reflection all the points on the graph are reflected in either the x or the y

     Any asymptotes of f(x) are also affected by the reflection


     If an asymptote is one of the coordinate axes, or is perpendicular to the coordinate axis in which the
    graph is reflected, it will not be affected
    What do I need to know about graph reflections?
     The graph of y = -f(x) is a reflection in the x axis
    o The x coordinates of points stay the same; y coordinates have their signs flipped (positive to
    negative, negative to positive)
    o Points on the x axis stay where they are
    o All other points are reflected to the other side of the x axis
     The graph of y = f(-x) is a reflection in the y axis
    o The y coordinates of points stay the same; x coordinates have their signs flipped (positive to
    negative, negative to positive)
    o Points on the y axis stay where they are
    o All other points are reflected to the other side of the y axis

     Any asymptotes of f(x) are also affected by the reflection (reflect them as you would reflect the
    function of a straight line)
     If an asymptote is one of the coordinate axes, or is perpendicular to the coordinate axis in which the
    graph is reflected, it will not be affected
    Modelling with Functions
    What is a mathematical model?
     A mathematical model simplifies a real-world situation so it can be described using mathematics which
    can then be used to make predictions
    o The path a stone will take if thrown from the top of a cliff
    o The number of toys a factory can produce in a day
     Assumptions about the situation are made in order to simplify the mathematics
    o Air resistance on the stone can be ignored
    o The machines/people at the factory produce toys at a constant rate
     Models can be refined (improved) if further information is available or the model is compared to real-
    world data
    o The mass of the stone needs to be considered
    o 30-minutes downtime per day is allowed for machine repairs/maintenance
    How do I solve modelling problems?
     There will be no one-size-fits-all step-by-step guide to solving modelling questions

     A combination of skills and problem-solving skills will be needed


    NOTES

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