MATH 134 Calculus 2 with FUNdamentals
Section 10.1: Sequences
Chapter 10 concerns the subject of infinite series, where we sum a list of numbers that is infinitely
long. It is a fascinating topic in calculus with surprising results and famous formulas. In order to make
sense of an infinite sum, we first need to learn about sequences and what it means for a sequence to
converge or diverge.
Example 1: The Fibonacci Sequence
Consider the list of numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, . . . .
This is a famous, infinite list of numbers known as the Fibonacci Sequence, named after the mathe-
matician Leonardo Pisano (1175-1250). Fibonacci, which loosely translates as “son of Bonacci,” was a
pseudonym for Pisano. Before Fibonacci, Indian scholars such as Gopala (before 1135) and Hemachan-
dra (1089–1172) discussed this sequence in their analysis of Indian rhythmic patterns. Surprisingly,
the Fibonacci numbers frequently arise in nature. For instance, the number of petals in many flowers
are Fibonacci numbers: 3-leaf clover, buttercups (5), black-eyed Susan (13), chicory and Shasta daisy
(21) (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Some Fibonacci flowers: Columbine (left, 5 petals); Black-eyed Susan (center, 13 petals);
Shasta Daisy (right, 21 petals);
In general, a sequence is an ordered, infinite list of numbers. We use the notation an to represent
the nth term (number) in the sequence. So for the Fibonacci sequence, we have a1 = 1 because the
first term in the list is 1. Similarly, a4 = 3 and a10 = 55. The subscript n is called the index since it
identifies a specific term in the sequence. Notice that the Fibonacci sequence satisfies the equation
an+2 = an+1 + an ,
since the next term in the sequence is obtained by summing the previous two terms. This is an example
of a recursive sequence, where a formula is specified to define the next numbers in a sequence using
the previous values.
Exercise 1: Let an be the sequence defined by the relation an+1 = a2n − 1 and a1 = 2. What are the
next four terms in the sequence?
1
Typically we define a sequence using a formula that depends on the index n. For example, the
sequence an = n defines the sequence of counting numbers:
an = n =⇒ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .
The sequence an = 2n − 1 gives the sequence of odd numbers:
an = 2n − 1 =⇒ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
The . . . indicates that the pattern continues forever.
Example 2: A Convergent Sequence
n
Consider the sequence defined by an = :
n+1
1 2 3 4 5 6
, , , , , , ...
2 3 4 5 6 7
If we convert these terms into decimals we obtain
0.5, 0.666, 0.75, 0.8, 0.8333, 0.8571, . . .
The numbers appear to be heading toward 1. This can be confirmed mathematically by evaluating
the limit of the sequence as n → ∞. For instance, if n = 99, we have a99 = 99/100 = 0.99 and if
n = 999,999, we have a999,999 = 999,999/1,000,000 = 0.999999. Since
n
lim an = lim = 1,
n→∞ n→∞ n + 1
we say the sequence converges to 1. Note that the limit can be computed with L’Hôpital’s Rule.
Definition: Given a sequence an , we say the sequence converges to the limit L if lim an = L. If
n→∞
the limit is ∞ or if the limit does not exist, we say the sequence diverges.
Exercise 2: Consider the two sequences defined by an = ( 23 )n and bn = ( 23 )n . Write out the first
four terms of each sequence and then determine whether each sequence converges or diverges. If it
converges, state the limit of the sequence.
Geometric Sequence:
Each of the sequences in the previous exercise are geometric sequences. A geometric sequence is
one of the form an = c rn for some nonzero constants c and r. The number r is called the ratio. It is
the value which you multiply a number in the sequence by to obtain the next number in the sequence.
Key Fact: The geometric sequence an = c rn converges to 0 if |r| < 1. If r = 1, the sequence converges
to c. In all other case, the sequence diverges.
2
Exercises:
3. Find a formula for each of the following sequences (e.g., an = 2n2 − 3).
(a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . .
1 1 1 1
(b) 1, , , , , ...
3 9 27 81
1 1 1 1 1
(c) , , , , , ...
2 5 10 17 26
4. For each of the following sequences, write out the first four terms of the sequence. Then determine
whether the sequence converges or diverges. If it converges, state the limit of the sequence.
1
(a) an =
n
n
3
(b) bn =
π
π n
(c) cn =
3
n
(d) an = √
4n2 + 3
n
(e) an =
2n
(f ) sn = sin(n)
