Module 2

Syllabus
 Directional control valves, pressure control valves, process control valves.
 Rotary actuators.
 Development of simple hydraulic and pneumatic circuits using standard Symbols.
 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS): Fabrication: Deposition, Lithography, Micromachining
methods for MEMS, Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) and LIGA processes.
 Principle, fabrication and working of MEMS based pressure sensor, accelerometer and gyroscope.

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Hydraulic system
The purpose of a specific hydraulic system may vary, but all hydraulic systems work through the same
basic concept. Defined simply, hydraulic systems function and perform tasks through using a fluid that is
pressurized. A hydraulic control system is used to control position / speed of a load and provide necessary
force for doing work. A hydraulic circuit includes various components like reservoir, pump, actuator,
motor, pipes, hoses, clamps, accumulator, valves etc.
Examples for hydraulic systems: - Earth moving machines, Automotive-Power steering, Brakes,
suspension, Heavy duty robot arms, Aircraft landing gear.

Control valves of hydraulic system

Hydraulic valves are mechanical devices that are used to regulate the flow of fluid within a hydraulic circuit
or system. Hydraulic valves must be capable of withstanding large amounts of fluid pressure, as the nature
of many hydraulic systems will entail high pressures upwards of 3,000 psi or more.
In order to control the hydraulic output or to get the desired output, control valves are needed.
Various types of control valves are
1. Directional control valve- determine the path through which a fluid transvers
2. Flow control valves-to control the flow rate
3. Pressure control valves-protect the hydraulic system from high pressure
Directional Control Valves
As the name indicates, the directional control valve is used to control the direction of fluids. It controls
the fluid flow in a hydraulic or pneumatic system by changing the position of its internal components.
Function of directional control valves
 To start, stop and change the direction of motion of hydraulic actuator
 To permit the free flow from the pump to the reservoir, when the pump’s deliver is not needed
into the system
 To vent the relief valve by either electrical or mechanical control
 To isolate certain branch of circuit
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Classification of Directional Control Valves
Based on the Type of Construction
1. Poppet valve
2. Spool valve
Based on number of ports:
1. Two- way valves
2. Three – way valves
3. Four- way valves
Based on number of switching position:
1. Two – position
2. Three - position
Based on actuating mechanism:
1. Manual actuation
2. Mechanical actuation
3. Electric actuation
4. Hydraulic actuation
5. Pneumatic actuation
Based on the Control Method
1. Direct controlled DCV -direct operation of valve spring
2. Indirect controlled DCV-pilot operated valve
According to type of construction
Poppet Valve
The basic construction of a poppet valve comprises a movable poppet that closes against a valve seat.
Pressure from the inlet serves to hold the valve tightly closed. A little force is required to the poppet stem
that opens the poppet.

Spool valve
It consists of a shaft sliding in a bore which has large groove around the circumference. This type of
construction makes it look like a spool. The spool is sealed along the clearance between moving spool and
housing. The quality of seal or the amount of leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of
fluid and the level of the pressure.
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Based on number of ports
The standard terms are referred as Port ‘P’ is pressure port, Port ‘T’ is tank port and Port ‘A’ and Port ‘B’
are the actuator (or working) ports. The actuators can move in forward or backward direction depending
on the connectivity of the pressure and tank port with the actuators port.
Two way valves -2 ports
 Two way valves have only two ports. These valves are also known as on-off valves because they
allow the fluid flow only in direction.
 When actuating force is not applied to the right, the port P is not connected with port A as shown.
Therefore, the actuation does not take place. Similarly, in the open condition the pressure port P
is connected with the actuator port A and actuation takes place.
 Normally, the valve is closed. These valves are available as normally open and normally closed
function. These are the simplest type of spool valves.

Three way valves -3 ports

When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and one actuating port, it is known as three-way valve.
In this valve, the pressure port pressurizes one port and exhausts another one. Only one actuator port is
opened at a time. Generally, these valves are used to operate single acting cylinders.

Four way valves

It is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both the directions. The four ways are:
pump port P, tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected to the actuator. The primary function
of a four-way valve is to pressurize and exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.
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Five Way Valve-5 ports

Closed Center P to A and B to T P to B and A to T

Based on number of switching position:
The number of positions is how many different positions that valve can be in.
Five Way Valve-5 ports and 3 position (5/3 valve)

Closed flow P to A and B to T P to B and A to T

Five Way Valve- 5 ports and 2 positions (5/2 valves)
The two position four way valves have only two switching positions and do not have any mid position.

P to B and A to T P to A and B to T
Based on number of valve position
2 Position Valves
These valves are common in double acting cylinder applications where they are always supplying pressure
to one side of the cylinder while venting the opposite side to atmosphere.
3 Position Valves
Some valves may have 3 positions in their function, which allows all ports to be blocked or open to
atmosphere. These valves are not very common and are used for specific applications to either lock in a
specific position of a cylinder or to open paths to atmosphere allowing the cylinder to be mechanically or
manually positioned.

 2/2 way valves are for ON/OFF function for fluid supply. It can be normally open or closed.
 3/2 way valves are generally used to control single-acting actuators.
 4/2, 4/3, 5/2, 5/3 way valves are normally used for double-acting actuators.

The number of ways corresponds to the number of fluid port connections in one position of the valve. The
number of positions corresponds to the number of possible flow path configurations.
The envelope with lines protruding or with ports identified by a letter or a number shows the flow path
through the valve in the normal, or at rest, position.
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Flow control valves
The speed of actuator can be controlled by regulating the fluid flow. The fluid flow is controlled by varying
area of the valve opening through which fluid passes.
Types of flow control valves
Plug or glove valve
This valve has a plug which can be adjusted in vertical direction by setting flow adjustment screw.
Thus the adjustment of plug controls the fluid flow in the pipeline.

Butterfly valve
It consists of a disc which can rotate inside the pipe. The angle of disc determines the restriction.
Butterfly valves are favoured because of their lower cost and lighter weight. The disc is always
present in the flow therefore a pressure drop is induced regardless of the valve position.
Ball valve
Flow control valve uses a ball rotated inside a machined seat. The ball has a through hole as shown in
figure. They do not offer fine control which may be necessary in throttling applications.

Gate valve
Gate valves are used as ‘stops’ to shut off fluid flow or to open the line to full flow. Gate valves provide
an opening with minimum pressure drop.
Needle valve
Needles valves provide finer control of flow in small diameter pipes. They have sharp pointed conical disc
and matching seat.
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Diaphragm operated control valve
A diaphragm valve, or membrane valve, is a valve with an elastomeric diaphragm and a seat upon which
the diaphragm rests when it is closed. The flexible diaphragm obstructs, controls, or isolates the flow of
fluids and acts as a flow control device.

Pressure control valves

Its primary function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range. It is normally a closed
type and it opens when the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow
back to the tank
Pressure relief valve
Generally, the spring is adjustable to set the maximum pressure limit of the system. The poppet is
held in position by combined effect of spring force and dead weight of spool. As the pressure
exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises and excess fluid bypassed to the reservoir (tank).
The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value.

Pressure reducing valve

Sometimes a part of the system may need a lower pressure. This can be made possible by using
pressure reducing valve. These valves are used to limit the outlet pressure. A free flow passage is
provided from inlet port to the outlet port until a signal from the outlet port tends to throttle the
passage through the valve. When the pressure in the reduced pressure line exceeds the valve
setting, the spool moves to reduce the flow passage area by compressing the spring.

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Pressure sequence valve
Sequence valves manage the sequence of operations between two different circuit branches,
allowing one branch to activate another branch automatically. Sequence valves have an actuator
that diverts the medium to another part of the system to execute the next command in the
programmed sequence. This function is critical to the performance of many different industrial
systems, including automobiles, aerospace, fluid processing, and more.

Direct operated sequence valve

Direct controlled directional and indirect controlled directional control valve

Direct controlled directional valve
A valve is actuated directly on the valve spool. This is suitable for small sized valves. Generally, the spring
is adjustable to set the maximum pressure limit of the system. The poppet is held in position by
combined effect of spring force and dead weight of spool. As the pressure exceeds this combined
force, the poppet raises and fluid passed.

Indirect controlled DCV

A valve is actuated by a pilot line or using a solenoid. It is also called pilot operated valves. They are similar
to spring-loaded valves, but these valves offer excellent performance for overpressure protection. Pilot
valves are useful because they allow a small and easily operated feed to control a much higher pressure
flow, which would otherwise require a much larger force to operate. Pilot pressure is used to operate
relief valve, check valve and sequence valve as shown in figures.
In pilot operated check valve as shown below, flow from A to B is possible and B to A is not possible
normally. When pilot pressure is applied, then B to A is possible. Likewise, relief and sequence valve
operation is assisted by pilot fluid pressure. 8
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Pilot operated relief valve pilot operated check valve Pilot operated sequence valve
Simple hydraulic and pneumatic Circuits using standard symbols
The hydraulic and pneumatic elements such as cylinders and valves are connected through pipelines to
form a hydraulic or a pneumatic circuit. It is difficult to represent the complex functioning of these
elements using sketches. Therefore, graphical symbols are used to indicate these elements. The symbols
only specify the function of the element without indicating the design of the element. Symbols also
indicate the actuation method, direction of flow of air and designation of the ports.
The symbol used to represent an individual element display the following characteristics:
o Function
o Actuation and return actuation methods
o Number of connections
o Number of switching positions
o General operating principle
o Simplified representation of the flow path

Symbols for ports

The graphical representation, designation and explanation of various components and equipment’s used in hydraulic
and pneumatic system are given in table

Symbols for pumps and compressors

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Directional control valves

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Directional control valves actuations

Valves types

Flow control valves

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Pressure control valves

Graphical symbols of hydraulic / pneumatic elements and equipment’s

Finite and infinite control valves

The hydraulic and pneumatic operated valves are control valves by which we can alter the flow to
any valve between its limit. There are basically just two forms of control valve.
1. Finite position valve
2. Infinite position valve
 Finite position valves are one where the action is just to allow or block fluid flow and
so can be used to switch the flow actuator on or off.
 The infinite positions valves are able to control flow anywhere between fully on and
fully off and so are used to control the varying actuator forces or the rate of fluid flow
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for a process control situation. pilot

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 Frequently asking questions from directional control valves
What is check valve? Explain with sketch
Explain with sketch 2/2 Direction control valve
A 2/2 valve is one which has 2 port connections and two positions only. The valve shown below is normally
closed type (it can be normally open type also). Its construction is simply a spring loaded ball which is
actuated by pressing the button. In normal position the connection between port 'P' and port 'A' is closed.
But when the operator presses the valve manually, it opens the connection between the port P and Port
A., thus allowing the fluid to pass to port A.

This valve is used for actuating single acting cylinder, which doesn't needs oil/air for returning. It may be
gravity or spring return cylinder

Explain with sketch 3/2 Direction control valve

Draw a schematic of 3/2 DCV that is manually operated and briefly explain its function
Three way valves either block or allow flow from an inlet to an outlet. They also allow the outlet to flow
back to the tank, when the pump is blocked, while a two way valve does not. A three way valve has three
ports namely a pressure inlet (P),an outlet to the system(A),and a return to the tank (T).

In the actuated position shown, the pressure port is connected to working port, otherwise working
port is connected with the tank por.
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What is 4/2 DC valve? Explain with sketch
A 4/2 valve is one which has 4 port connections and two positions only. This valve is useful for double
acting cylinder. The valve shown below has a spool which separates the ports, in normal position port T is
connected to A and Port B is connected to T.

When the spool is shifted by some means, it alters the connections and connected the Port P to B and
Port A to T. Thus it reverses the connections.
What is 4/3 DC valve? Explain with sketch
Draw a schematic of 4/3 DCV that is direct operated electrically and briefly explain its Function
A 4/3 valve is one which has 4 port connections and three positions only. This valve is useful for double
acting cylinder. The valve shown below has a spool which separates the ports.
When the spool is at centre, the oil is not moving to any port and all the ports are disconnected from each
other. When the spool is shifted to right, by some means, it connects P to B and A to T. Whereas when it
is shifted to left it connects P to A and B to T. With the spool is centralized and all ports are closed off and
no load flow

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What is 5/2 DC valve? Explain with sketch
A 5/2 valve is one which has 5 port connections and two positions only. This valve is useful for double
acting cylinder. The valve shown below has a spool which separates the ports, in normal position port P is
connected to B and Port B is connected to T and R is idle port When the spool is shifted by some means,
it alters the connections and connected the Port P to A and Port B to R, and T port is idle this time. Thus it
reverses the connections, causing the cylinder to move in reverse direction.

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What is 5/3 DC valve? Explain with sketch
A 5/3 valve is one which has 5 port connections and three positions. This valve is useful for double acting
cylinder. The valve shown below has a spool which separates the ports, in neutral central position all ports
are disconnected with each other. When shifter to right position port P is connected to A and Port B is
connected to T and R is idle port

What is the function of hydraulic actuators in the automated system? How many types of actuators are
used?
Ans: A hydraulic actuator receives pressure energy and converts it to mechanical force and motion. An
actuator can be linear or rotary. A linear actuator gives force and motion outputs in a straight line. It is
more commonly called a cylinder but is also referred to as a ram, reciprocating motor, or linear motor. A
rotary actuator produces torque and rotating motion. It is more commonly called a hydraulic motor or
motor.
Normally two types of hydraulic actuators are used which are:
o Reciprocating actuators: Single acting cylinders, Double acting cylinders.
o Rotary actuators: Hydraulic motors.
Draw figures of cylinder and hydraulic motors from notes
What oils are normally used for hydraulic operations? What are the desired properties of such oils?
Ans: Most hydraulic systems will operate satisfactorily using a variety of fluids. These include multi-grade
engine oil, automatic transmission fluid and more conventional anti-wear hydraulic oil. But it is not
possible to make one definitive recommendation about the type of fluid which is best for a particular
application and may cover all types of hydraulic equipment in all applications. A satisfactory liquid for a
hydraulic system must be thick enough to give a good seal at pumps, motors, valves.
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Shuttle Valve
A shuttle valve allows two alternate flow sources to be connected in a one-branch circuit. The valve has
two inlets P1 and P2 and one outlet A. Outlet A receives flow from an inlet that is at a higher pressure. If
the pressure at P1 is greater than that at P2, the ball slides to the right and allows P1 to send flow to outlet
A. If the pressure at P2 is greater than that at P1, the ball slides to the left and P2 supplies flow to outlet A

Check Valve-ball type poppet valve

Check valves are simply a variation of a poppet valve. The ball is held against the valve seat by a spring
force. Fluid flow is not possible from the spring side but the fluid from opposite side can pass by lifting
the ball against. A check valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks the flow in the opposite direction.
The advantages of the poppet valves include no leakage, long life and suitability with high pressure
applications. These valves are generally small sized, simple in construction and inexpensive.

Check valve unloading valve

Unloading valve
Unloading valves are pressure-control devices that are used to dump excess fluid to tank at little or no
pressure. Unloading valves are used in hydraulic circuits, these valves would stop or remove the flow of
the pump back to the tank when the machine is not operating.
Unloading valves works same as pressure relief valves. Both pressure relief valve and unloading valves
send fluid to the tank during set pressure is reached. When fluid from an external line reaches a certain
pressure then unloading valves opens and send fluid to the tank. Typically unload valves used in the
system where two fixed displacement pumps are available.
How many types of valves are used in hydraulic/pneumatic systems? What are their symbols?
---------------------------for answer refer notes--------------------------

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Development of simple hydraulic and pneumatic circuits using standard Symbols
Design a pneumatic circuit to operate a clamping cylinder using a pilot operated 5/2way valve and two
push button operated 3/2way valves.

Develop a pneumatic circuit with standard symbols, to operate two cylinders in sequence. Explain its
working.
Design a circuit in which pressure sequence valve is used to initiate an operation only when another
operation has been completed.

Explain the working of a double acting hydraulic actuator

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Design a hydraulic circuit to operate a winch fitted with a hydraulic motor. The motor should be run
clockwise, counter clockwise and stopped. Use a manually operated valve.

Develop a standard circuit for a hydraulic shaper in which the backward motion of linear actuator is
quicker than the forward motion. Describe the working

Design a hydraulic circuit for two hand operation of a hydraulic press.

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There are various hazards associated with operating machinery. Two-hand control or two-hand
operation protects the machine operator from physical injuries, by ensuring both hands remain outside
the hazardous area as long as a danger exists. Device keeps the operator’s hands away from the point
of operation during the entire machine stroke
To use safety two hand control switches you need to have both hands securely on top of the controller
buttons. If your hands are off the controls, the machine will stop or move to a safe area. To activate the
machine, both buttons must be pressed simultaneously.
a. dangerous machine movements in the area accessed by the operator.
b. there is a high risk of injuries during manual loading for stamping, cutting and punching.
c. the time during which the machine is idle is less than the access time.

A plastic component is to be embossed by using a die which is powered by a double acting cylinder.
The return of the die is to be effected when the cylinder rod has fully extended to the embossing
position and the pre-set pressure is reached. A roller lever valve is to be used to confirm full extension.
The signal for retracting must only be generated when the piston rod has reached the embossing
position. The pressure in the piston chamber is indicated by a pressure gauge. Design a pneumatic
circuit for the above-mentioned Application

A double acting cylinder is to be advanced either by operating a push button or by a foot pedal. Once
the cylinder is fully advanced, it is to be retracted to its initial position. A 3/2-way roller lever valve is
to be used to detect the full extension of the cylinder. Design a pneumatic circuit for this application
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 Develop an automatic reciprocation circuit for single cylinder

Pneumatic circuit A+ B+ B- A-

Pneumatic circuit A+ B+ B- A- using sequence control valves

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Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
MEMS is a micro-electromechanical system composed of miniature mechanical and electromechanical
elements created using high-precision micro-process technologies. Micro or nano-scale systems are at the
heart of modern day technology, like a laptop or a mobile phone there are a billions of transistors and
other components. In the most general form, MEMS consist of mechanical micro-structures, micro-
sensors, micro-actuators and micro-electronics, all integrated onto the same silicon chip. These devices
(or systems) have the ability to sense, control and actuate on the micro scale, and generate effects on the
macro scale.
MEMS are made up of components between 1 and 100 micrometers in size (i.e., 0.001 to 0.1 mm), and
MEMS devices generally range in size from 20 micro-metres to a milli-metre although components
arranged in arrays can be more than 1000 mm2.

Schematic illustration of MEMS components

Micro-sensors detect changes in the system’s environment by measuring mechanical, thermal, magnetic,
chemical or electromagnetic information or phenomena. Microelectronics process this information and
signal the micro-actuators to react and create some form of changes to the environment.

Advantages of MEMS technology –why MEMS

 Smaller, light weight
 High functionality/performance
 Lower power consumption
 More sensitive to input variations
 Can be Batch fabricated, create arrays to reduce cost
 Increased reliability and robustness
 Can be readily integrated with microelectronics to achieve an embedded mechatronic system
MEMS devices examples
 In the audio domain, MEMS microphones and MEMS speakers
 Micro-Sensors -Like MEMS gyroscopes, accelerometers, flow sensors, pressure sensors, and
magnetic-field sensors, thermal sensors, optical sensors
 Actuators such as MEMS switches, micro-pumps, micro-valves, micro-grippers, micro mirror etc
 Micro-electronic circuits, micro relays
 MEMS oscillator
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 Inkjet printer head

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 Bio-MEMS- Heart pacemakers, Hearing aids

Applications of MEMS
MEMS can be found in systems ranging across automotive, medical, electronic, communication and
defense applications. Current MEMS devices include accelerometers for airbag sensors, inkjet printer
heads, computer disk drive read/write heads, projection display chips, blood pressure sensors, optical
switches, micro-valves, bio-sensors and many other products that are all manufactured and shipped in
high commercial volumes.

MEMS fabrication techniques

The most important microfabrication techniques are photolithography, film deposition (CVD/PVD),
chemical etching, and bonding.
MEMS Materials
Silicon is the most common substrate material used in microelectronics and micro-mechanics. However,
there are other materials used for MEMS such as quartz and polymers and ceramics.
MEMS fabrication methods
MEMS technology is a technology used to create tiny integrated devices, micro components and micro
structures etc. It is a system of micro-sensors, micro-actuators, and other microstructures fabricated
together on a common silicon substrate. All micro-fabrication techniques or processes involve
physical and chemical treatment of materials.
1. Bulk micromachining- builds components within a substrate
2. Surface micromachining- uses thin film layers deposited on the surface of a substrate to construct
structural components for MEMS
3. High aspect ratio micromachining-Liga process
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Bulk micromachining
It is used to selectively remove substrate to shape mechanical components. Usually, silicon wafers are
used as substrates for bulk micromachining. Bulk etch is a subtractive process in which the silicon
substrate is selectively removed. Specific etchants are chosen that remove substrate material either
isotropically (the same in all directions) or anisotropically (not the same in all direction).
Bulk micromachining is used to
 remove relatively large amounts of a silicon substrate,
 construct high aspect ratio structures such as fluidic channels and chambers as below)
 To construct sensors including micro pressure sensors, cantilever arrays, and accelerometers.

Surface Micromachining
Surface micromachining- process that uses thin film layers deposited on the surface of a substrate to
construct structural components for MEMS. It consists of a series of steps starting with the deposition of
a thin film material that acts as a temporary layer over which the permanent mechanical structural
(device) layers will be built. Then, the removal of the temporary layer releases the mechanical structure.

In order to form a functional MEMS structure on a substrate, it is necessary to etch the thin films
previously deposited and/or the substrate itself.

 Silicon dioxide (SiO2 or oxide) is the film most commonly used as a sacrificial layer and hard
mask.
 Polysilicon crystalline (poly) is the most commonly used film as a structural layer.

High aspect ratio micro-machining

High aspect ratio micro-machining (HARM) is similar to surface micro-machining in that the desired
structure is built upon the surface of the substrate. However, film thickness are typically on the order of
100μm and vertical to lateral aspect ratios are on the order of 100: 1.
 Examples are LIGA, technology for high aspect ratio and deep reactive ion etching.
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Etching Processes
The process involves using a liquid (etchant) or reactive gas, to removes the desired layers of the
material. Materials that are not protected by mask are etched away by liquid chemicals.
In general, there are two classes of etching processes
 Wet etching where the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution
 Dry etching where the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor
phase etchant
Wet etching process principle
The most basic etching process is wet etching, also known as chemical etching. Wet etching is a
material removal process that uses liquid chemicals or etchants to remove materials from the work
material. Materials that are not protected by this mask are etched away by liquid chemicals.
All it requires is a container with a liquid solution that will dissolve the material in question. It
involves the immersion of the work-piece into a chemical reactive that will remove exposed
regions of the substrate. Areas from which the material is not to be removed are protected by an
etching-resistant material, known as a ‘maskant or’ resistance

Common etchants using for etching silicon based materials are mixtures of
 KOH and H2O
 nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrofluoric acid (HF) in water or acetic acid
 hydrofluoric acid plus ammonium fluoride is used (NH4F)
 ammonium hydroxide etchants, typically tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH),
Silicon dioxide or silicon nitride is usually used as a masking material. Almost all materials from
metals to ceramics can be chemically machined.
As an example- for etching silicon, usually 30 percent KOH and 70% water at a temperature of 900 removes
100 µm/hr (etch rate). The concentrations, temperature, stirring of etchant determines the etch rate.
Wet etching is used remove material from large area of pattern (3µm).
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Anisotropic etching
Remove a material in specific directions is required to obtain intricate and often flat or vertical shapes.
The etching should take place only in the vertical direction and they should be no laterals spread. Usually,
that is not the case of wet etchant, have different rates going in different direction and end up with a
wider pattern

The crystal has planes which have different atom densities. As a result, the etching speed for certain
etchants differs according to the plane of the silicon crystal through which etching takes place. For
example, if the aim is to etch a deep cavity with straight walls, the crystal planes with a slow etching speed
have to be oriented along the cavity walls while the plane with a high etching speed should form the
bottom.
Isotropic etching
In isotropic etching, an isotropic etchant such as hydrofluoric acid etches the silicon equally in all
directions. This means that the wafer is etched directly downwards and also sideways under the mask.

 Isotropic – Etching proceeds at equal rates in both horizontal and vertical direction
 Anisotropic – Etching proceeds faster in one plane than in another

Dry etching
In dry etching, plasmas or etching gases are used to remove material from the substrate. Gas is
used as the etchant. It is the process of removing a masked pattern of semiconductor material by
bombarding it with ions. Typically, the ions are a plasma of reactive gases like oxygen, boron,
fluorocarbons and chlorine, e.g., by using jets of chlorine, in the machining area.
Process gases are used whose molecules in the plasma are mostly broken down into radicals. The
etching effect is mainly based on the reaction of these radicals with the atoms or molecules of the
substrate and their conversion to gaseous degradation products.
The dry etching technology can split in three separate classes
 Plasma etching----chemical dry machining using a plasma or reactive gases
 Sputter etching---- physical removal (usually by momentum transfer)
 Reactive ion etching (RIE)---- combination of chemical reactions and physical removal.
o Deep Reactive ion etching (DRIE)
Dry etching is a more flexible process than wet etching. It can achieve more precise, directional material
removal as compared to the more general, universal material removal produced by an isotropic process.
Dry etching can etch small patterns with smaller undercut and higher aspect ratios than wet etching.
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Plasma etching
The plasma produces high-energy, neutrally-charged free radicals that react on the wafer surface,
smashing the plasma ions into the surface to shave material from it. In plasma etch, the chemical etchant
is introduced in the gas phase. The chamber is first evacuated before introducing the gas. Radio frequency
(RF) electrodes are then used to generate the plasma that ionizes the gas. This ionized gas attacks the
oxide layer, removing the layer. Gases are transported to the wafer surface, and react with the wafer
surface material to form volatile products and removes the materials. Etch rates in plasma etch are ∼ 1
− 10 µm/hr, much smaller than wet etching. So, it more suitable for thin layers, but it also provides greater
thickness control.

Sputter etching (ion beam etching)

The ion beam etching the chamber arrangement is similar, but instead of a chemical reaction, you have
physical removal of a material, but it with high energy ions. Energetic ions to bombard out atoms from
surface (substrate)

Reactive ion etching (RIE)

Reactive ion etching combines the plasma and ion beam etching process. The ions react chemically with
the materials on the surface of the samples, but can also knock off (sputter) some material by transferring
some of their kinetic energy.
 RIE uses chemically reactive plasma to remove material deposited on wafers.- The ions are
accelerated towards, and reacts at, the surface of the material being etched, forming another
gaseous material.
 High energy ions knock atoms out of the material to be etched without a chemical reaction
In RIE, the substrate is placed inside a reactor in which several gases are introduced. A plasma is struck in
the gas mixture using an RF power source, breaking the gas molecules into ions. The ions are accelerated
towards, and reacts at, the surface of the material being etched, forming another gaseous material. This
is known as the chemical part of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part which is similar in nature
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to the sputtering etching process. If the ions have high enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the
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material to be etched without a chemical reaction, they remove material by physical bombardment.
Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE)
It is a highly anisotropic etch process used to create deep penetration, steep-sided holes and trenches in
wafers/substrates, typically with high aspect ratios structures. What distinguishes DRIE from RIE is etch
depth: Practical etch depths for RIE (as used in IC manufacturing) would be limited to around 10 µm at a
rate up to 1 µm/min, while DRIE can etch features much greater, up to 600 µm/min or more.
Deep etching of silicon, achieved using the Bosch process or cryogenic micro-fabrication technologies, is
routinely used for MEMS manufacturing to create deep micro-structures with high aspect ratios.
The Bosch process uses a fluorine based plasma to etch the silicon, combined with a fluorocarbon plasma
process to provide sidewall passivation and improved selectivity to etch mask. A complete etch process
cycles between etch and deposition steps many times to achieve deep, vertical etch profiles. Bosch
process with alternating steps of Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) etching and Octa-fluoro-cyclo-butane (C4F8)
passivation take place

Schematic of typical Bosch process for deep silicon etching using SF6 and C4F8 gases
In the deposition process, a passivation film is deposited on the sidewalls and bottom surface of the
trench. In etching step, only the silicon at the trench bottom, where the passivation film has been
removed, is etched.
The passivation layer protects the entire substrate from further chemical attack and prevents further
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etching. However, during the etching phase, the directional ions that bombard the substrate attack the
passivation layer at the bottom of the trench (but not along the sides). They collide with it and sputter it
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off, exposing the substrate to the chemical etchant.

Deposition process
The deposition process is the opposite of etching. Here, material is added to the wafer surface. Thin film
deposition is the process of creating and depositing thin film coatings onto a substrate material. These
coatings can be made of many different materials, from metals to oxides to compounds to alter or improve
some element of the substrate performance. One way for the production of high-performance devices is
through molecular deposition or through molecular growth on a substrate.

There are two main deposition techniques

1. Physical vapor deposition
2. Chemical vapor deposition
If the raw material is taken in gaseous form and the final material is deposited on the wafer after reaction,
it is called chemical vapor deposition (CVD). If the material is taken in solid state, but sent as very small
particles or atoms and deposited on the wafer without any reaction, it is called physical vapor deposition
(PVD).

Chemical vapor deposition process (CVD)

CVD is the most widely used method in Micro-fabrication process. The process is often used in the
semiconductor industry to produce thin films. The films deposited during CVD are a result of the chemical
reaction between the reactive gases and the atoms of the substrate surface. It is a coating process that
uses thermally induced chemical reactions at the surface of a heated substrate. Generally chemical vapor
deposition (CVD) is a vacuum deposition method used to produce high quality, and high-performance,
solid materials.
CVD consists of four main stages:
1. The reaction gas diffuses to the surface of the material.
2. The reaction gas is adsorbed on the surface of the material.
3. Chemical reaction occurs on the surface of the material.
4. The gaseous by-products are separated from the material surface.
Several gases including film element are admitted into the vacuum chamber through inlet and after
dissociation between the species, the newly formed chemical molecules are deposited on the heated
substrate as shown. It deposits evaporated reactants on the surface to form thin-films.
By increasing the temperature, CVD can produce chemical reactions on the substrate surface and
generate new solid substances to be deposited on the surface

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Physical vapor deposition
Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is a thin-film coating process which produces coatings of pure metals,
metallic alloys and ceramics with a thickness usually in the range 1 to 10µm. Physical vapour deposition,
as its name implies, involves physically depositing atoms, ions or molecules of a coating species on to a
substrate. The material to be deposited as a film is converted into vapor by either applying heat to the
source material in the vacuum chamber or bombarding material with an electron beam to evaporate and
coat the substrate.
The two most common Physical Vapor Deposition Coating processes are Sputtering and Thermal
Evaporation
 Sputtering involves the bombardment of the coating material known as the target with a high
energy electrical charge causing it to “sputter” off atoms or molecules that are deposited on a
substrate like a silicon wafer or solar panel
 Thermal Evaporation involves elevating a coating material to the boiling point in a high vacuum
environment causing a vapor stream to rise in the vacuum chamber and then condense on the
substrate.

There are some important film parameters, which need to be controlled and these decide the type of
growth/deposition technique that is adopted.
1. Thickness and uniformity
2. Roughness
3. Composition control
4. Stress
5. Purity
6. Film integrity
Applications
Thin film deposition is an important manufacturing step in the production of many opto-electronic, solid
state and medical devices and products, including consumer electronics, semiconductor lasers, fiber
lasers, LED displays, optical filters, compound semiconductors, precision optics, microscopy &
microanalysis sample slides, Passivation layers and medical implants.
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Introduction to Lithography
The term ‘lithography’ is derived from the Greek words lithos, meaning ‘stone’ and graphein, meaning ‘to
write’. Lithography (photolithography technique) is the process by which the components of MEMS
devices are manufactured. The first, transferring the pattern on to the photo resists, and then the pattern
has to be transferred on to the wafer.
Terminology terms related lithographic process
Photo resist materials
A photoresist is a light-sensitive material used in several processes, such as photolithography and
photoengraving, to form a patterned coating on a surface.

In the case of a positive photoresist, the photo-sensitive material is degraded by light and the developer
will dissolve away the regions that were exposed to light, leaving behind a coating where the mask was
placed. In the case of a negative photoresist, the photosensitive material is strengthened (either
polymerized or cross-linked) by light, and the developer will dissolve away only the regions that were not
exposed to light, leaving behind a coating in areas where the mask was not placed.

Mask
A photolithography mask is an opaque plate or film with transparent areas which allows light to shine
through a defined pattern. Masks are used to produce a pattern on a substrate, normally a thin slice of
silicon known as a wafer in the case of chip manufacturing.

Steps of photo-lithography process

The process begins by coating a substrate with a light-sensitive organic material. A patterned mask is then
applied to the surface to block light, so that only unmasked regions of the material will be exposed to
light. A solvent, called a developer, is then applied to the surface.
Typically, ultraviolet light is used to transfer a geometric design from an optical mask to a light-sensitive
chemical (photoresist) coated on the substrate. The photoresist either breaks down or hardens where it
is exposed to light. The patterned film is then created by removing the softer parts of the coating with
appropriate solvents.

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LIGA processes
LIGA is the German acronym for lithography, electroplating and molding (Lithographie, Galvanik und
Abformung). The LIGA process combines X-ray or UV lithography with electroplating and molding. The
notable characteristics of X-ray LIGA-fabricated structures include
 High aspect ratios on the order of 100:1.
 smooth surfaces and
 Sub-micron accuracies are required.
The main fields of current applications are in mechanical devices and microoptics, in particular, for
sensing, optical telecom and datacom network

LIGA process steps

In Liga process, lithography is done using UV Light and X-ray etc. In the electroplating step, nickel, copper,
or gold is plated upward from the metalized substrate into the voids left by the removed photoresist.

Galvanic deposition or electroforming of metals such as nickel, or copper into these structures to obtain
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metallic microstructures or mold inserts. Metallic microstructures are produced by electroforming.

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Principle, fabrication and working of MEMS based pressure sensor, accelerometer and gyroscope.
MEMS pressure sensors principle and working
MEMS pressure sensors operate by converting pressure signals into electrical signals via small strain
gauges, called piezo-resistors, implanted in a thin silicon membrane.

MEMS Piezo-resistive sensors

As pressure deflects the membrane, it creates mechanical strain, which is then transformed into a change
in electrical resistance and read out as a change in voltage. Two of the most common type of pressure
sensors are piezo-resistive and capacitive type.

The pressure sensing die is composed of a springy diaphragm and resistors integrated into the diaphragm.
When the springy diaphragm is pressured, changes in the resistance of these conductors provide a
measure of the applied pressure. Conductive sensing elements are fabricated directly on to the
diaphragm.

MEMS capacitive pressure sensors

Deformation of the diaphragm changes the spacing between the conductors and hence changes the
capacitance (see right). The change can be measured by including the sensor in a tuned circuit, which
changes its frequency with changing pressure.

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Accelerometer sensor working principle
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that is used to measure acceleration or vibration of a
structure and the force producing it. Newton’s Second law of motion says that the acceleration of a body
is directly proportional to the net force acting on the body, and inversely proportional to its mass.
Acceleration creates a force that is captured by the force-detection mechanism of the accelerometer. So
the accelerometer really measures force, not acceleration. It basically measures acceleration indirectly
through a force applied to one of the accelerometer's axes.
𝐹
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎 = )
𝑚
𝑘𝑥 𝐹
𝑎= = … … … . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 … … … . (𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑚 𝑚
𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑖𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑥) or a = f(F) acceleration can be considered as a function of displacement or force
either by measurement of displacement or force, acceleration can be calculated

There are three main sensing technologies or types

1. Piezo-electric
2. Piezo-resistance
3. Capacitive
Capacitive accelerometer
Capacitive accelerometers use change in electrical capacitance to determine an object’s acceleration.
When the mass undergoes acceleration, the distance between its capacitor plates changes as the
diaphragm of the sensor moves. The movement of the mass is relative to the fixed electrodes, and causes
a change in capacitances (C1 and C2). By calculating the difference between C2 and C1 we can derive the
displacement of our mass and its direction.

The mass of an object presses on one of the capacitor plates, changing the capacitance and allowing for
the force to be measured with force and mass of object known, acceleration is then measured
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Piezoelectric Accelerometer
A piezoelectric accelerometer utilizes the piezoelectric effect to sense acceleration. The device is
implemented directly on the object that vibrates, which allows the accelerometer to convert the vibration
energy into an electrical signal that is proportional to the momentary acceleration of the object.
Piezoelectric accelerometers are most commonly used in vibration and shock measurement.

Accelerometers contain microscopic crystal structures, generating voltages when vibrations occur.
Voltage generated will create a reading of how much acceleration are there
Piezo-resistance Accelerometer
A piezo-resistance accelerometer increases its resistance in proportion to the amount of pressure or force
applied to it. This type of accelerometer is made with the use of piezoresistive material, which becomes
deformed under the influence of an external force, resulting in a change in resistance. The force caused
by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material
which produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge is
proportional to the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is also proportional to the
acceleration. Piezo-resistance accelerometers are much less sensitive than piezoelectric accelerometers,
and they are better suited to vehicle crash testing.

Application of accelerometer
 Compass/Map applications on your smartphone devices through axis based sensing
 Tilt sensing; iPhone uses an accelerometer to sense whether the phone is being held in portrait
or landscape mode
 Earthquake detection
 Fall sensing
 Medical devices such as artificial body parts
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 Games/applications that require motion sensing

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Gyroscopic sensor working principle
When an object is rotating around an axis is applied with external torque along a perpendicular direction
to the rotational axis is experienced by the force called Coriolis force (Coriolis effect) on a disc to produce
a precession. By measuring this force, the rate of rotation can be determined. Micro-Electro-Mechanical
System (MEMS) gyroscopes are motion sensors that detect angular movement using Coriolis effect. MEMS
gyroscopes measures the angular rate by applying the theory of the Coriolis effect.

If a mass “m” moving with velocity Vx in X- direction and the mass is given angular rotation in Y axis, then
a force will act on Z- direction called Coriolis force and precession(motion) occurs in Z -direction.
Types of Gyroscopes sensors
1. Mechanical gyroscope
2. Optical gyroscope etc
MEMS gyroscopic sensor
The physical displacement which is caused by the Coriolis effect is capacitive sensed by an associated
MEMS circuitry. Capacitance change is the measure of displacement due to Coriolis force due to angular
movement. Measuring displacement in Y-direction using capacitive sensor is a measure of rotation of
rotation of Z-axis.

Applications of Gyroscope
1. Gyroscopes find applications in the compasses of boats, spacecraft, and aeroplanes. The
aeroplane’s orientation and pitch are determined against the steady spin of the gyroscope.
2. In spacecraft, the desired target’s navigation is done with a gyroscope’s help.
3. The stabilization of the large boats and satellites is done with the help of massive gyroscopes.
4. Gyroscopes and accelerometers are used in smartphones providing excellent motion sensing
The body or vehicle enclosing the gyroscope can be moved from place to place and the orientation of the
spin axis will remain the same. This makes gyroscopes very useful in navigation, especially where magnetic
compasses can’t be used, such as in manned and unmanned spacecraft, intercontinental ballistic missiles,
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unmanned aerial vehicles, and satellites like the Hubble Space Telescope
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Fabrication of mems components
Micro-fabrication is the set of technologies used to manufacture structures with micrometric features.
Techniques like photolithography, thin film deposition by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical
vapor deposition (PVD), thin film growth by oxidation and epitaxy, doping by ion implantation or diffusion,
wet etching, dry etching, etc have all been adopted by the MEMS technologists.
A typical fabrication process starts with a wafer (silicon, polymer, glass...) may only be a substrate on
which the MEMS is built.

Commonly using Mems fabrication process

 Thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide (silicon dioxide) on the surface of a wafer.
 Ion implantation is a low-temperature process that acceleration of ions of a particular element
towards a target, altering the chemical and physical properties of the target
 Diffusion process, the dopant atoms are introduced to the subtrate from the gas phase
 Deposition process –film coating process by any method
 Etching process-removal of materials through wet or dry methods

Fabrication MEMS capacitive pressure sensor

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Fabrication MEMS accelerometer sensor

Fabrication of steps of MEMES gyro

***********************************************

Selectivity
The ability of the etch process to distinguish between the layer to be etched and the material not
to be etched
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