1

Experiment 1

Familiarization with Electrical Measuring Instruments

Objectives:

1. To determine the characteristics and proper connection of common

electrical measuring devices.
2. To be able to learn how to read measurements of basic electrical
measuring devices.
3. To become familiar with the basic circuit training kit and learn the
proper connection of the trainer kit devices.

Theoretical Discussion:

The galvanometer is a versatile analog instrument used in detecting and

measuring small amount of current in the circuit. The essential parts of the
meter are a permanent magnet, measuring scale, pointer attached to a soft
iron core wounded with coils of wire connected through a pivot.
A coil of wire wound on a soft iron core is pivoted on jewel bearings
between the poles of the permanent magnet. The coil becomes a magnet when
current in induced in it. The instrument contains 2 permanent magnets: a
horseshoe magnet in a fixed axis and an electromagnet free to turn on its axis.
There are coiled springs connected to restrain rotational movement and to
return the pointer to the zero position.
When there is current in the movable coil, its core is magnetized. The
poles of the core are then attracted or repelled by the poles of the permanent
magnet. A torque acts upon the coil and the coil rotates in an attempt to align
its plane perpendicular to the line joining the poles of the permanent magnet.
The torque is neutralized by the reaction of the springs. Since the permanent
field flux is constant, the torque on the coil is proportional to the current in it.
The current sensitivity of a meter (pointer deflection, d) is proportional
to the amount of current in the coil (IM),
IM  d
IM = k d

If the basic meter movement is used as a voltmeter

+ Im - + -
V
Rm Rs
Fig. 1a

VT  Im( Rs  Rm)  Im RT

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Where:
VT = the voltage to be measured at full scale deflection
Rs = the higher multiplier resistance in series with the basic meter movement

Note that the same small current Im is needed to cause full scale
deflection in the voltmeter and the same small voltage Vm is across the basic
meter movement. The rest of the voltage will appear across Rs and this is equal
to ImRs. The total high input resistance will now be equal to (Rs+Rm).

If the basic meter movement is used as an ammeter,

Im

Rm

+ IT- I m - + -
A
IT R sh
Fig. 1b
Vm  I m Rm  ( I T  I m ) Rsh  I T RT
Where:
Vm = the small voltage across the meter to cause full scale deflection
Im = The small current to cause full scale deflection
Rm = The resistance of the basic meter movement
IT = The current to be measured at full scale deflection
Rsh = the low shunt resistance

The resistance of the shunt is given by the equation

Im Rm Im Rm
Rsh  
I T  Im Ish

The electrodynamometer is similar to the galvanometer movement of

the dc meters except that it does not include a permanent magnet. The moving
coil rotates in the magnetic field of a pair of fixed coils carrying magnetizing
current. As the current in the fixed coils produces magnetic flux B, a current in
the moving coil produces a flux along its axis, and the coil tends to align in the
two magnetic fields. This torque produces a pointer deflection related to the
product of the two coil currents. The dynamometer mechanism is used in
quality ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters.

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer kit (EEC471-2 and EEC470)
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
1 pc Analog D.C. milliammeter (100mA dc)
1 pc Analog D.C. Voltmeter (20V dc)
1 pc Electronic V.O.M.
1 set Connecting wires

Procedure:

Part A. Determine the characteristics of an analog ammeter.

1. Measure the input resistance of an analog ammeter across the input

terminals by using a VOM.
RT (input resistance) = 

2. Multiply the resistance of the ammeter (RT) by the full scale reading of
the ammeter to get the voltage Vm that will cause full deflection.
Vm = IT x RT = V

3. Observe the connection of the ammeter in the circuit shown in the

figure 1.1

Part B. Determine the characteristics of an analog voltmeter.

1. Measure the input resistance of an analog voltmeter across the input

terminals by using a VOM.
RT (input resistance) = 

2. Divide the full scale voltage reading of the voltmeter by the input
resistance of the meter to get the current Im that will cause full
deflection.
Im = VT/ RT = Adc

Voltmeter sensitivity = RT/ VT =

3. Observe the connection of the voltmeter in the circuit shown in the

figure 1.1

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Part C.

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram fig. 1.1 (Refer to the
connection set-up of the appropriate trainer).

+
-
A

+
-

VS R V

Fig. 1.1

2. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
3. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 20V dc.
4. Using the ammeter and voltmeter measure the respective current (IL)
and the voltage readings (VL) of the circuit.
5. Measure available resistance values and check each resistor for damage
to ensure accurate results. Make 10 trials by using different resistance
values available in the circuit trainer. Compute for the power consumed
by the circuit, PL = VL * IL
6. Complete Table 1.1 of the preliminary data sheet by using the ammeter
and voltmeter readings for the following formula.
Formula 1: VL/IL
Formula 2: PL/IL2
Formula 3: VL2/PL
7. Simulate the circuit diagram fig. 1.1 using Tina Pro software in the
computer and substitute the resistance values used in table 1.1
(measured values). Obtain the meter readings and record the data on
table 1.2. Complete the preliminary data sheet of table 1.2 using the
same formula applied on procedure 6. (Optional)

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Questions and Problems:

1. Describe the type of meter movement used in analog meters.

2. What device is used to extend the range of a DC ammeter and how is it
connected to the basic meter?
3. What device is used to extend the range of a DC voltmeter and how is it
connected to the basic meter?
4. Why is it necessary that an ammeter be a low resistance instrument?
Why must a voltmeter be a high resistance instrument?
5. What type of basic meter is configured as a wattmeter?
6. Two 150V voltmeters are being compared; meter A had 5K/V while
meter B has a total meter resistance of 750K. Which is the more
sensitive meter? Why?
7. What current is required for full scale deflection of a galvanometer
having a current sensitivity of 50A per scale division? The meter has
exactly 50 divisions on either side of the mid-scale index.
8. What potential difference appears across the galvanometer described in
problem 6 when the pointer is fully deflected? The meter resistance is
10.
9. Determine the series resistance needed to convert a galvanometer to a
voltmeter reading 15V on full scale deflection if a current of 2.5mA
causes full scale deflection and the resistance of the coil is 10.
10. Determine the shunt resistance needed to convert a galvanometer to an
ammeter with a full scale reading of 10A if the scale requires 2.5mA to
cause full deflection with a coil resistance of 10.

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 1: Familiarization with electrical measuring instruments

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 1.1 Measured Data

Trials VL IL PL Given VL/IL PL/IL2 VL2/PL

RL
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table 1.2 Simulated Data (Optional)

Trials VL IL PL Given VL/IL PL/IL2 VL2/PL

RL
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 2

Series - Parallel Circuits

Objectives:
1. To demonstrate the characteristics of series-parallel circuits by
measuring and verifying the calculations of the resistance, voltage and
current associated with the different resistive components of a series-
parallel circuit.
2. To demonstrate the principle of basic electric circuit Law called Ohm’s
Law.
3. To demonstrate the use of basic principles involved in series, parallel
and series-parallel circuits.

Theoretical Discussion:

Basic Electrical Laws

Ohm’s Law
A basic electrical law that states if the voltage is kept constant, less
resistance results in more current and more resistance results in less current. It
may also be stated as the amount of voltage is directly proportional to the
amount of current in a given circuit.

Circuit Connections:
a. Series Circuit
It is described as a circuit that provides only one complete path for
which current could flow wherein the resistors are simply connected end to
end. It may also be defined as a circuit that provides only one path for current
between two points in a circuit so that the same current flows through each
series resistor.

+ R1
V1
I -

+
V V2 R2
-

1
+
V3 R3
-

Fig. 2a

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Formula:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + Rn

Observations regarding resistances in series can be summarized into 3 cardinal

rules:
1. The current in all parts of the series circuit has the same magnitude.
2. The sum of all the separate drops in a potential around a series circuit is
equal to the applied emf.
3. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the
separate resistances.

b. Parallel Circuit
It is a described as a circuit connection of two or more resistors that are
connected between the same two node or points. A parallel circuit provides
more than one path for current. Each current path is called a branch.

IT I1 I2 I3

+ + +
VT R1 V1 R2 V2 R3 V3
- - -

Fig. 2b

Formula:
1
RT 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
R1 R2 R3 Rn

Observations regarding resistances in parallel can be summarized into 3

cardinal rules:
1. The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents
in the separate branches.
2. The potential difference across all branches of a parallel circuit must
have the same magnitude.
3. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the separate resistances in parallel.

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c. Series-Parallel Circuit

A series-parallel circuit contains the combination of both the series and

the parallel circuits.

R1
A

RT R2 R3

Fig. 2c

R2  R3
RT  R1 
R2  R3

In simplifying series-parallel circuits first determine the connection of

two resistances farthest from the terminals and apply appropriate resistance
formula (i.e. if the resistors are in series RT = R1+R2, and if the resistances are
in parallel then RT = (R1*R2)/(R1+R2)) in order to reduce the circuit to a single
equivalent resistance RT.

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer kit (EEC471-2 and EEC470)
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
5 pc Analog D.C. Ammeter (100mA dc)
1 pc Electronic V.O.M.
1 set Connecting wires

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram fig. 2.1 (Refer to the
connection set-up of the appropriate trainer).

R1 R4
A1 A4

V1 V4
A3

VS1
R3 V3

R2 R5
A2 A5

V2 V5

Fig. 2.1

2. Measure available resistance values and check each resistor for damage
to ensure accurate results. Measure the total resistance of the circuit
across the terminals A & B using the electronic VOM.
3. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
4. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 20V dc then connect the supply to the circuit.
5. Before connecting the power supply to the circuit measure the total
resistance across the terminal A & B using the VOM.
6. Connect the power supply across terminal A & B. Using the VOM measure
the voltage readings (Vn) across each resistor of the circuit. Take note of
the polarity of each voltage.
7. Using the ammeter measure the current (In) flowing at different
branches of the circuit. Take note of the direction of the currents.

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8. Complete the data in table 2.1 (measured values) by computing for the
calculated values using the following formula,
R1 = V1/I1 R2 = V2/I2
R3 = V3/I3 R4 = V4/I4
R5 = V5/I5 RT = VT/I1
9. Simulate the diagram in fig. 2.1 using Tina Pro program in the computer
and substitute the resistance values used in the trainer. Record the
simulated data on table 2.2 (simulated values). Take note of the
polarities on the meter readings. (Optional)

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Questions and Problems

1. What are the identifying characteristics of a series circuit?

2. What are the identifying characteristics of a parallel circuit?
3. What changes occur in the total resistance of a circuit as additional
resistances are added (a) in series, (b) in parallel.
4. What are the different types of resistances and their purpose.
5. Why are lamps in a house lighting circuit not connected in series?
6. A small lamp is designed to draw 300mA in a 6V circuit. What is the
resistance of the lamp filament?
7. A battery with an internal resistance of 1.5 is connected in series with
resistors R1 = 3 and R2 = 3.5 if the potential difference across the 3
resistor is 9V. What is the emf of the battery?
8. Determine the ideal voltage source needed by three resistors connected
in series R1 = 6, R2 = 8 and R3 = 10 if a required current of 0.5A
flows in the circuit.
9. Determine the total resistance of the circuit.
1 14 4.5

4
25 18
1.5
5
40
10

2 5
Fig. a

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 2: Series – Parallel Circuits

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 2.1 (Measured Values)

Measured R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RT
Values
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 VT

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 IT

Calculated R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RT
values

Table 2.2 (Simulated Values) Optional

Measured R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RT
Values
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 VT

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 IT

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 3

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Objectives:

1. To demonstrate the operating principles of Wheatstone bridge circuits.

2. To illustrate the different conditions arising from the resistance bridge
circuit and its practical application.
3. To familiarize the students with the analysis of basic bridge circuits used
for instrumentation.

Theoretical Background:

Kirchhoff’s Laws
Two Basic electrical laws were named from Gustav Robert Kirchhoff that
are universally accepted:

a. Kirchhoff’s Current Law

It states that the summation of all currents within a given node is
equivalent to zero. It may also be stated as the summation of all current
entering the node or junction is equivalent to the summation of all current
leaving the node/junction. A node or a junction is a point at which two or more
elements have common connection.

IT I1 I2 I3

+ + +
VT R1 V1 R2 V2 R3 V3
- - -

Mathematically defined as,

 Current = 0
 I entering =  I leaving

This is known as Kirchhoff’s 1st Law, in effect, a law of conservation of

charge in electric circuits.

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b. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

It states that the summation of all voltages/potential around a given
closed path or loop is equivalent to zero. It may also be stated as the
summation of all voltage/potential rise is equivalent to the summation of all
voltage/potential drop. A path is a set of nodes and elements passed through if
no node was encountered more than once while a closed path or a loop is a
kind of path wherein the node where you have started is also the node where
you’ll end.

+ R1
V1
I -

+
V V2 R2
-

1
+
V3 R3
-

Mathematically defined as,

 Voltages = 0
 V rise =  V drops

This Kirchhoff’s 2nd law can be recognized as an application of the Law

of Conservation of Energy to electric circuits. The two Kirchhoff’s Laws define
the basic principle that must be employed in the interpretation of electric
circuits: that energy and charge are conserved. A primary application of these
basic electrical laws is the derivation of different formula for various circuit
connections.

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer kit (EEC471-2 and EEC470)
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
5 pc Analog D.C. Ammeter
1 pc Electronic V.O.M.
1 set Connecting wires

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram fig. 2.1 (Refer to the
connection set-up of the appropriate trainer).

R1 R4
A1 A4

V1 V4
A3

VS1
R3 V3

R2 R5
A2 A5

V2 V5

Fig. 2.1

2. Measure available resistance values and check each resistor for damage
to ensure accurate results. Measure the total resistance of the circuit
across the terminals A & B using the electronic VOM.
3. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
4. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 20V dc then connect the supply to the circuit.
5. Before connecting the power supply to the circuit measure the total
resistance across the terminal A & B using the VOM.
6. Connect the power supply across terminal A & B. Using the VOM measure
the voltage readings (Vn) across each resistor of the circuit. Take note of
the polarity of each voltage.
7. Using the ammeter measure the current (In) flowing at different
branches of the circuit. Take note of the direction of the currents.

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8. Complete the data in table 2.1 (measured values) by computing for the
calculated values using the following formula,
R1 = V1/I1 R2 = V2/I2
R3 = V3/I3 R4 = V4/I4
R5 = V5/I5 RT = VT/I1
VT = supply voltage
 I at C = I1 – I4 – I3
 V at loop ACDBA = VT – V1 – V3 – V2
 V at loop CEFDC = V3 – V4 – V5
 V at loop ACEFDBA = VT – V1 – V4 – V5 – V2

9. Simulate the diagram in fig. 2.1 using Tina Pro program in the computer
and substitute the resistance values used in the trainer. Record the
simulated data on table 2.2 (simulated values). Take note of the
polarities on the meter readings. (Optional)

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Questions and Problems

1. What is a loop in circuit analysis?

2. What is a node in a circuit?
3. What are the common applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws? Discuss briefly
each application.
4. Find Ix and Vab from the given circuit below.

1 ohm 2 ohms

Ix a
50 V +
-
2Ix
b

5. The total current flowing through the circuit is 70A, determine branch
currents flowing through the circuit below.

E 10 mhos 5 mhos 6 mhos 20 mhos

6. From the figure below, determine the current I and the voltage across
terminals A & B.

12 ohms 20 ohms

100 V a b

28 ohms 30 ohms

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 3: Kirchhoff’s Laws

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 3.1 (Measured Values)

Measured R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RT
Values
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 VT

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 IT

Calculated R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
values
RT  I at C V
ACDBA CEFDC ACEFDBA

Table 3.2 (Simulated Values) Optional

Measured R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 RT
Values
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 VT

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 IT

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 4
Delta-Wye and Wye -Delta Transformation

Objectives:

1. To familiarize students in identifying delta connection of resistances and

wye connection in complicated network circuits.
2. To demonstrate and verify the corresponding responses between delta
connected resistors and its equivalent wye connected resistors.
3. To be able to learn and demonstrate the transformation principles
involved in converting a delta connection of resistors to wye connection
or vice versa.

Theoretical Discussion:

Any electric circuit may contain networks that are neither in series nor
in parallel, making it difficult to analyze using the previous techniques. In such
cases, we replace certain parts of the circuit by their three terminal
equivalents.
The two networks are identical and equivalent to each other. Pair of
three terminal networks is said to be equivalent to each other if the resistance
measured between corresponding terminal pairs is equivalent.

R1
A B

R2 R3

C
Fig. 4a Delta or Pi Connection
RA RC
A B

RB

C
Fig. 4b Wye or Tee Connection

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Transformation from delta to wye involves the computation:

R1
A B

RA RC

R2 R3

RB

R1 * R2
Ra 
R1  R2  R3
R2 * R3
Rb 
R1  R2  R3
R1 * R3
Rc 
R1  R2  R3

Hence, in general the transformation delta to wye is,

Product of adjacent resistances in delta

Rwye 
Sum of resistances in delta

Transformation from wye to delta involves the computation:

R1
A B

RA RC

R2 R3

RB

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RaRb  RbRc  RaRc

R1 
Rb
RaRb  RbRc  RaRc
R2 
Rc
RaRb  RbRc  RaRc
R3 
Ra

Hence, in general the transformation wye to delta is,

Sum of products of adjacent resistances in wye

Rdelta 
Opposite resistance in wye

The transformation formula is based from the concept that if the two
connections are equivalent then the resistance seen across a pair of terminals
is also equivalent.

Hence,
RAB (Delta) = RAB (Wye)
RBC (Delta) = RBC (Wye)
RAC (Delta) = RAC (Wye)

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer kit (EEC471-2 and EEC470)
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
2 pc Analog D.C. Ammeter (100mA dc)
1 pc Electronic V.O.M.
1 set Connecting wires

Procedure:

A. Delta to Wye Transformation

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram fig. 4.1 (Refer to the
connection set-up of the appropriate trainer).

VA

R1
A1 A2

VS1 VB R2 R3 VC RL

Fig. 4.1 Delta to Wye transformation (Delta Circuit)

2. Measure available resistance values and check each resistor for damage
to ensure accurate results.
3. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
4. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 15V dc then connect the supply to the circuit.
5. Connect the power supply to the circuit and using the VOM measure the
voltage readings (Va, Vb & Vc) across the resistors in the circuit. Then
using the ammeter, measure the currents (I1 and I2) flowing in the circuit
6. Record the voltage and current readings in table 4.1 under measured
delta.

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7. Switch off the power supply and reconnect the circuit using the same
values for the voltage source (VS1) and load resistance (RL) similar to fig.
4.2

V’A

RA RC
A’1 A’2

VS1 V’B RB V’C RL

Fig. 4.2 Delta to Wye transformation (Wye equivalent)

8. Using potentiometers for Ra, Rb and Rc vary the resistances until the
voltmeter readings Va’ = Va; Vb’ = Vb and Vc’ = Vc as well as, the
currents I1’ = I1 and I2’ = I2
9. Switch off the power supply and remove the potentiometers then
measure the resistance values of each potentiometer.
10. Record the potentiometer resistances Ra, Rb and Rc in table 4.1 under
Wye measured.
11. Complete the table by calculating for the equivalent wye connected
resistances using the formula,
R1 * R2
Ra 
R1  R2  R3
R2 * R3
Rb 
R1  R2  R3
R1 * R3
Rc 
R1  R2  R3

Or simply apply the general formula for Delta to Wye Transformation.

12. Complete the table by computing for the other variables using the basic
laws and principles in circuit analysis.

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B. Wye to delta Transformation

13. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram fig. 4.3 (Refer to the
connection set-up of the appropriate trainer).

VA

RA RC
A1 A2

VS1 VB RB VC RL

Fig. 4.3 Wye to Delta transformation (Wye circuit)

14. Measure available resistance values and check each resistor for damage
to ensure accurate results.
15. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
16. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 15V dc then connect the supply to the circuit.
17. Connect the power supply to the circuit and using the VOM measure the
voltage readings (Va, Vb & Vc) across the resistors in the circuit. Then
using the ammeter, measure the currents (I1 and I2) flowing in the circuit
18. Record the voltage and current readings in table 4.2 under measured
wye.
19. Switch off the power supply and reconnect the circuit using the same
values for the voltage source (VS1) and load resistance (R L) similar to fig.
4.4
V’A

R1
A’1 A’2

VS1 V’B R2 R3 V’C RL

Fig. 4.4 Wye to Delta transformation (Delta equivalent)

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20. Using potentiometers for R1, R2 and R3 vary the resistances until the
voltmeter readings Va’ = Va; Vb’ = Vb and Vc’ = Vc as well as, the
currents I1’ = I1 and I2’ = I2
21. Switch off the power supply and remove the potentiometers then
measure the resistance values of each potentiometer.
22. Record the potentiometer resistances R1, R2 and R3 in table 4.2 under
delta measured.
23. Complete the table by calculating for the equivalent wye connected
resistances using the formula,
RaRb  RbRc  RaRc
R1 
Rb
RaRb  RbRc  RaRc
R2 
Rc
RaRb  RbRc  RaRc
R3 
Ra

Or simply apply the general formula for Wye to Delta Transformation.

24. Complete the table by computing for the other variables using the basic
laws and principles in circuit analysis.
25. Simulate the diagram in fig. 4.2 and fig. 4.4 using Tina Pro program in
the computer and substitute the resistance values used in the trainer.
(Optional)

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Questions and Problems

1. When will a delta connection of resistors be equivalent to its wye

connected resistors?
2. What are the practical applications of the technique delta – wye
transformation? Discuss briefly the different practical applications.
3. Determine the total resistance across the terminals from the figure
below.

12k ohms

16k ohms 4k ohms

RT 3k ohms 6k ohms

4. Determine the total resistance across the terminals from the figure
below.

1 ohm

6 ohms 3 ohms 0.6 ohm

RT 2 ohms 1 ohm
6 ohms
5 ohms 4 ohms

5. Determine the total resistance across the terminals from the figure
below.

1 ohm 25 ohms
20 ohms 75 ohms

80 ohms
RT 26 ohms 10 ohms

20 ohms
30 ohms 35 ohms

15 ohms

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6. Determine io from the given circuit fig below.

2.2 ohms
20 ohms 30 ohms
io

500 V
50 ohms

46 ohms
9 ohms

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 4: Delta – Wye and Wye – Delta Transformation

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 4.1 Delta to Wye Transformation

Delta R1 R2 R3 RL I1 I2 Va Vb Vc
Measured

Wye Ra Rb Rc RL I1’ I2’ Va’ Vb’ Vc’

Measured

Calculated

Table 4.2 Wye to Delta Transformation

Wye Ra Rb Rc RL I1 I2 Va Vb Vc
Measured

Delta R1 R2 R3 RL I1’ I2’ Va’ Vb’ Vc’

Measured

Calculated

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 5
Power Measurement and Maximum Power Transfer

Objectives:

1. To learn and verify the principles and concepts of electrical power and
maximum power transfer.
2. To demonstrate and verify the corresponding responses produced by
practical sources.
3. To be able to learn how power is measured and calculated.
4. To demonstrate how to attain maximum power transfer and its effect to
varying load resistance.
5. To be able to demonstrate the graphical response of power produced by
practical sources.

Theoretical Discussion:

The reduction of any linear resistive circuit to its equivalent practical

voltage source (similar to the Thevenin equivalent form) or practical current
source (similar to the Norton equivalent form) is a very convenient
conceptualization as far as the computation of load related quantities are
concerned. The practical voltage and current source models simply imply that
some of the power generated by the practical source will necessarily be
dissipated through the internal circuits within the source. Given unavoidable
power loss this topic discusses how much power can be transferred to the load
from the source under the most ideal conditions. The topic eventually relates
to a given value of the load that will ideally absorb the most amount of power
from the source and the internal resistance that limits the amount of power
absorbed.
The general problem of power transfer can be discussed in terms of
efficiency and effectiveness. Power utility systems are designed to transport
the power to the load with the greatest efficiency by reducing the losses on the
power lines. Thus, the effort is concentrated on reducing internal resistances in
the system. While in the case of signal transmission, as in electronics and
communications industries, the problem is to attain the maximum signal
strength at the load. Consider the signal received at the antenna of an FM radio
receiver from a distant station. Thus the goal is to design a receiver circuit so
that the maximum power ultimately ends up at the output of the amplifier
circuit connected to the antenna of the FM radio.

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In reference to a practical voltage source,

R in

IL

+
VL RL
VS1
-

The amount of power that can be absorbed at any value of RL can be given by
the following formula,

Vs
IL 
( Rin  R L )
Vs R L
VL 
( Rin  R L )
Vs 2 R L
PL  VL * I L 
( Rin  R L ) 2

To obtain maximum power, which will be transferred to the load, apply the
differentiating technique Maxima-Minima.

d PL
 0  ( Maxima - Minima )
d RL

Hence,

dPL  ( Rin  RL ) 2  2( Rin  RL ) RL 

 Vs 2  0
dRL  ( Rin  RL ) 4 

The derivative is zero when,

RL = Rin  Maximum power condition

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During this condition then

Vs
IL 
(2 Rin)
1  Vs  1
IL    Isc
2  Rin  2

Vs 1
VL   Voc
2 2

Maximum power can then be computed as

Vs 2 Rin Vs 2
PL (max)  
(2 Rin) 2 4 Rin

Is 2 Rs 2 RL Is 2 Rs
PL (max)  
( Rs  RL ) 2 4

The power transfer efficiency is then defined as,

2
P(output) PL I R
   2 L L2
P(input) PL  Ps I L RL  I L Rin

RL

( Rin  RL )

Hence during maximum power transfer the efficiency is,

Rin 1
   50%
(2 Rin) 2

This means that maximum power transfer only occurs when the load voltage
has increased to 50% of its maximum value (Voc) and the load current has
decayed to 50% of its maximum value (Isc).

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer kit (EEC471-2 and EEC470)
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
1 pc Analog D.C. Ammeter (100mA dc)
1 pc Electronic V.O.M.
1 set Connecting wires

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram fig. 5.1 (Refer to the
connection set-up of the appropriate trainer).

R in
AL

RL VL
VS1

Fig. 5.1

2. Measure available resistance values using the VOM and check each
resistor for damage to ensure accurate results.
3. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
4. Switch on the power supply to the circuit and ensure that the output
voltage is set to 1V dc. Then using the VOM measure the voltage (V L)
across the load resistor (RL) and using the ammeter measure the current
(IL) flowing through the load resistance.
5. Make 10 trials by varying the source voltage from 1Vdc to 20Vdc. Record
the readings in table 5.1 and compute for the load power consumed in
the circuit by the formula, PL = VL * IL to complete the table.
6. Plot the curves of load voltage against the load current and the load
power using different scales.
7. Switch off the power supply and reconnect the circuit as shown in the
diagram fig. 5.2 using a potentiometer as load resistance (RL).

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R in
AL

RL VL
VS1

Fig. 5.2

8. Ensure that the output voltage of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 15V dc then connect the supply to the circuit. Then using the VOM
measure the voltage (VL) across the load resistor (RL) and using the
ammeter measure the current (IL) flowing through the load resistance.
9. Make 10 trials by increasing the load resistance (RL). Record the readings
in table 5.1 and compute for the load power consumed in the circuit by
the formula, PL = VL * IL for the load power and RL = VL/IL for the load
resistance (RL) to complete the table.
10. Plot the curves of load voltage (VL), load current (IL) and the load power
(PL) against the load resistance (RL) using different scales.
11. Simulate the diagram in fig. 5.1 and fig 5.2 using Tina Pro program in the
computer and substitute the resistance values used in the trainer.
Record the simulated data on table 5.3 and table 5.4 (simulated values).
(Optional)

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Questions and Problems

1. How much internal resistance does an ideal voltage source have?

2. How much internal resistance does an ideal current source have?
3. When is maximum power delivered from a practical source to a load?
4. What are the practical applications of the theory maximum power
transfer? Discuss briefly the different applications.
5. Determine the maximum power that can be dissipated from the figure
below.

20 ohms
10 V 60 ohms 90 ohms 180 ohms RL

6. When a 4 load is connected to a given generator (practical source) its

terminal/load voltage was found to be 160V. The generator’s efficiency
is 90% when a 9 load is connected to it. Find:
a. the maximum power available from the generator.
b. the power transfer efficiency  and the power PL, if RL = 50 .
c. the power transfer efficiency  and load RL, if PL = 8 KW.
d. the load RL and power PL, if the power transfer efficiency  = 65 %.

7. A practical source delivers 5A of current to a load of 5 and it delivers

2A of current if the load is increased to 20. Find:
a. the maximum power available from the source.
b. the power transfer efficiency  and power PL, if the load RL = 10.
c. the power transfer efficiency  and load RL, if the load power PL = 45W.
d. the load RL and power PL, if the power transfer efficiency  = 75 %.

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 5: Power Measurement and Maximum Power Transfer

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

A. Measured Values

Table 5.1 Power Measurements

Internal Resistance (Rin):

Load Resistance (RL):

Trials Voltage Source Load Voltage Load Current Load Power

(VS) (VL) (IL) (PL)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table 5.2 Maximum Power Transfer

Internal Resistance (Rin):

Trials Load Voltage Load Current Load Power Load Resistance

(VL) (IL) (PL) (RL)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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B. Simulated Values (Optional)

Table 5.3 Power Measurements

Internal Resistance (Rin):
Load Resistance (RL):

Trials Voltage Source Load Voltage Load Current Load Power

(VS) (VL) (IL) (PL)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table 5.4 Maximum Power Transfer

Internal Resistance (Rin):

Trials Load Voltage Load Current Load Power Load Resistance

(VL) (IL) (PL) (RL)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 6

Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis

Objectives:
1. To investigate the effects of mesh analysis on multiple active linear
source in a network.
2. To verify that the linear response at any point in a mesh circuit is similar
to Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
3. To investigate the effects of nodal analysis on multiple active linear
source in a network.
4. To verify that the linear response at any point in a nodal circuit is similar
to Kirchhoff’s current law.

Theoretical Discussion:

A. Mesh Analysis

1 2

3 4

Fig. 6a Mesh circuit

Mesh
 It is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

Mesh analysis is a technique applicable only to those networks which are

planar. A planar circuit is a circuit where no branch passes over or under any
other branch. A mesh is a property of a planar circuit and is not defined for a
non-planar circuit.
In mesh analysis, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is used. The following
are the rules followed in mesh analysis:

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Rules:
1. The network diagram must strictly be planar or 2 dimensional.
2. The mesh format requires all sources to be voltage sources. If there is
any current source, convert it to its equivalent voltage source.

Steps:
1. Draw a current loop for each mesh. All mesh currents must be in the
same or uniform in direction (clockwise or counterclockwise).
2. Formulate mesh equations following the pattern. For an n-mesh
network, we have n-mesh equations.
3. Solve for the unknown mesh current by applying techniques involved in
evaluating system of linear equations.

Equation Pattern:
V1 = R11I1 - R12I2 - . . . . . . - R1NIN .
V2 = -R21I1 + R22I2 - . . . . . . . - R2NIN .
.
.
.
.
VN = -RN1I1 - RN2I2 - . . . . . . + RNNIN .

where:
V1 , V2 . . . . Vn = algebraic sum of all voltage sources encountered in the given
mesh.
R11 , R22 . . .RNN = sum of all resistance present in the given mesh.
R12 , R22 . . .RN = common or mutual resistances present between meshes in a
given mesh
I1 , I2 . . . . . . .IN = unknown circulating mesh currents

B. Nodal Analysis

I3

R3
I1 R1 R2 I2

Fig. 6b Nodal circuit

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Node
 A point at which two or more elements have a common connection.

Nodal analysis is a method that uses Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to

obtain a solution of simultaneous equations that when manipulated will provide
a means of solving for the voltages on each node and for every branch. The
following are the rules followed in mesh analysis:

Rules:
1. The network diagram must strictly be planar or 2 dimensional.
2. The node format requires all sources to be current sources. If there is
any voltage source, convert it to its equivalent current source.

Steps:
1. Identify the nodes of the given circuit (including the reference node).
All nodes have corresponding voltages (except the reference node) and
must have the same voltage sign convention where the given node is
positive and the reference node is negative.
2. Formulate node equations following the pattern. For an n - node
network, we have n -1 node equations.
3. Solve for the unknown node voltages by applying techniques involved in
evaluating system of linear equations.

Equation Pattern:
I1 = G11 V1 - G12 V2 - . . . . . . - GN1 VN
I2 = G21 V1 - G22 V2 - . . . . . . - G2N VN
.
.
.
IN = -GN1 V1 - GN2 V2 - . . . . . .+ GNN VN

where:
I1 , I2 , IN = algebraic sum of all current sources connected to a node.
G11 , G22 , GNN = sum of all conductance connected to a node.
G12 , G21 , GN = common conductance between two nodes.
V1 , V2, VN = unknown node voltages

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 set Computer unit with a Full Version of Tina pro circuit simulator

Procedure:

1. Draw and simulate the mesh circuit diagram in fig 6.1 in the tina pro
worksheet.
R1 R4
A1 A2

V1 V4

VS1
R3 V3 VS2

R2 R5

V2 V5

A3
VS3
Fig 6.1
2. Obtain the mesh currents I1, I2 & I3 and the voltages across the resistors
V1, V2, V3, V4 & V5 from fig 4.1 and record the simulated readings on
table 6.1. Take note of the polarities of the responses.
3. Calculate the mesh currents & the voltages across the resistors using
mesh analysis technique and record the calculated values on table 6.1
4. Draw and simulate the nodal circuit diagram in fig 6.2 in the tina pro
worksheet.
VS2
R5

A1 A2 A3
R4

R1 V1 V2 R2 V3 R3 VS3

VS1

Fig 6.2

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5. Obtain the node voltages V1, V2 & V3 and the currents I1, I2 & I3 from fig
6.2 and record the measured readings on table 6.2. Take note of the
polarities of the responses.
6. Calculate the node voltages & the mesh currents nodal analysis
technique and record the calculated values on table 6.2

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Questions and Problems

1. What is a mesh current?

2. What does a negative mesh current imply?
3. What technique is employed if (a) a current source appears on the
periphery of only one mesh on a given mesh circuit? (b) a current source
is common to two meshes of a given mesh circuit?
4. How many node equations are obtained from an N number of nodes
present on a given circuit?
5. What technique is employed if (a) a voltage source appears connected to
a given node and the reference node (ground) in a given nodal circuit?
(b) a voltage source lies between two given nodes of a given nodal
circuit?
6. What basic Laws are the underlying principles of Mesh Analysis and Nodal
Analysis?
7. Determine the mesh current Ix shown in fig. d

5 10 
Ix

+ 36V
24V 2A 20 
-

Fig. d

8. Determine the mesh currents in fig. e

Ix

2 10 10
+
Vx 2 3Vx 4Ix +
-
10V -

5V

Fig. e

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9. Determine the node voltages in fig. f

- 3A

3 2

4
- 8A 1 - 25A 5

Fig. f

10. Determine the node voltages in fig. g

Ix
4

-3A
+-
3
Ix
2
-8A 1 5 -25A

Fig. g

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 6: Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 6.1 Mesh Analysis

Simulated Mesh Currents Voltages

Values I1 I2 I3 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5

Calculated I1 I2 I3 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
Values

Table 6.2 Nodal Analysis

Simulated Node Voltages Currents

Values V1 V2 V3 I1 I2 I3

Calculated V1 V2 V3 I1 I2 I3
Values

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 7

Superposition theorem and Linearity

Objectives:
1. To investigate the effects of multiple active linear source in a network.
2. To verify that the linear response at any point in a linear circuit having
several independent linear sources is equivalent to the algebraic sum of
individual responses produced by each independent source acting alone.
3. To illustrate the principle of Linearity.

Theoretical Discussion:

A linear element is a passive element that has a linear voltage-current

relationship. By a “linear voltage-current relationship” it meant that by
multiplying a current through the element by a constant K results in multiplying
the across the element by the same constant K. One passive element that is
defined to have linear voltage-current relationship is the resistor.

V(t) = R i(t)

A linear circuit is defined as a circuit composed entirely of independent

sources and linear elements. From this definition it is then possible to show
that response is proportional to the source.

The principle of superposition states that the response (a desired current

or voltage) in a linear circuit having more than one independent source can be
obtained by adding the responses caused by the separate independent sources
acting alone. The fundamental concept involved in superposition is to look at
each independent source (and the response it generates) one at a time with
the other independent sources “turned off” or “zeroed out”. In setting a source
to zero, a voltage source is equivalent to a short circuit and a current source is
equivalent to an open circuit.

For example
+ V1 - - V2 +

I1 I2
R1 R2
+
E1 V3 R3 E2
-
I3
Fig. 7a

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let E1 act alone:

+ V1 - + V2 -

I1 I2
R1 R2
+
E1 V3 R3
-
I3

Fig. 7b
The responses produced are noted as V1’, V2’, V3’, I1’, I2’ and I3’.

let E2 act alone:

- V1 + - V2 +

I1 I2
R1 R2
+
V3 R3 E2
-
I3

Fig 7c
The responses produced are noted as V1”, V2”, V3”, I1”, I2” and I3”.

To solve for the actual response if both sources are active:

I1 = I1’ + - I1”
I2 = I2’ + - I2”
I3 = I3’ + I3”

V1 = V1’ + - V1”
V2 = V2’ + - V2”
V3 = V3’ + V3”

Superposition is a consequence of linearity so superposition cannot be

applied in circuits where the output current or voltage of the dependent source
is proportional to the second (or third, fourth, etc.) power of some current or
voltage variable in the circuit.

Superposition can only be applied in linear circuits, meaning those

circuits which are composed entirely of independent sources, linear dependent
sources, and linear elements. Only from this definition of a linear circuit it is
possible to show that the response is proportional to the source or that the
multiplication of all independent source voltages and currents by a constant k
increases all the current and voltage responses by the same factor k.

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer kit (EEC471-2 and EEC470)
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
3 pc Analog D.C. Ammeter (100mA dc)
1 pc Electronic V.O.M.
1 set Connecting wires

Procedure:

1. Measure the resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 and connect the resistances
in the circuit as shown in the diagram fig.5.1 (Refer to the connection
set-up of the appropriate trainer).
R1 R4
A1 A2

V1 V4
A3

VS1 VS2
R3 V3

R2 R5

V2 V5

Fig 7.1

2. Connect the power supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. Do
not switch on the power supply. Check the circuit connection before
switching on the power supply.
3. Ensure that the output voltages of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 20V dc (VS1) and 15V (VS2) then connect the supply to the circuit.
4. Measure the currents I1, I2 & I3 and the voltages V1, V2, V3, V4 & V5 from
fig 7.1 and record the measured readings on table 7.1 under the on – on
condition. Take note of the polarities of the responses.
5. Remove the 15V dc source by “shorting” the terminals in the circuit as
shown in the diagram fig. 7.2

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R1 R4
A’1 A’2

V’1 V’4
A’3

VS1
R3 V’3

R2 R5

V’2 V’5

Fig 7.2

6. Check the circuit connection before switching on the power supply.

Ensure that the output voltages of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 20V dc (VS1) then connect the supply to the circuit.
7. Measure the currents I1’, I2’ & I3’ and the voltages V1’, V2’, V3’, V4’ & V5’
from fig 7.2 and record the measured readings on table 7.1 under the on
– off condition. Take note of the polarities of the responses.
8. Remove the 20V dc source by “shorting” the terminals in the circuit as
shown in the diagram fig. 7.3
R1 R4
A”1 A”2

V”1 V”4
A”3

VS2
R3 V”3

R2 R5

V”2 V”5

Fig 7.3

9. Check the circuit connection before switching on the power supply.

Ensure that the output voltages of the power supply is set and adjusted
to 15V dc (VS2) then connect the supply to the circuit.
10. Measure the currents I1”, I2” & I3” and the voltages V1”, V2”, V3”, V4” &
V5” from fig 7.3 and record the measured readings on table 7.1 under
the off – on condition. Take note of the polarities of the responses.

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11. Compute for the calculated values using the following formula and
record the calculated values on table 7.1

Formula:

I1 = I1’ + I1” I2 = I2’ + I2”

I3 = I3’ + I3” V1 = V1’ + V1”
V2 = V2’ + V2” V3 = V3’ + V3”
V4 = V4’ + V4” V5 = V5’ + V5”

12. Draw the circuit diagrams fig. 7.1 to 7.3 on different worksheets and
simulate the circuits using Tina pro. Use the measured values for the
resistances and sources for the simulated circuits. Record meter
readings as simulated values on table 7.2 (Optional)

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Questions and Problems

1. What does a negative response in superposition imply?

2. How many responses are obtained from an N number of independent
sources present in a given circuit?
3. Is it possible to eliminate dependent sources on superposition?
4. What are the possible limitations of the superposition theorem?
5. Determine the voltage Vx using superposition shown in fig. h

2 15V 3 4

+
10V Vx 2 10A 1
-

Fig. h

6. Determine the voltage across 5ohm resistance using superposition shown

in fig. i

2 2 4

1
5

12V

7A

3 2
4

Fig. i

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 7: Superposition theorem and Linearity

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 5.1 (Measured Values)

Measured R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Resistances

Measured 20V 15V V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 I1 I2 I3

values ON ON
ON OFF V1’ V2’ V3’ V4’ V5’ I1’ I2’ I3’

OFF ON V1” V2” V3” V4” V5” I1” I2” I3”

Calculated ON ON V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 I1 I2 I3
values

Table 5.2 (Simulated Values) Optional

Measured 20V 15V V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 I1 I2 I3

values ON ON
ON OFF V1’ V2’ V3’ V4’ V5’ I1’ I2’ I3’

OFF ON V1” V2” V3” V4” V5” I1” I2” I3”

Calculated ON ON V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 I1 I2 I3
values

Approved by:

Instructor

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Experiment 8

Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

Objectives:
To investigate the impedance of a series RLC circuit and compare it with
the impedance of its constituent components.

Theoretical Discussion:

The behavior of a series circuit comprising all three kinds of circuit

elements (resistor, inductor and capacitor) will depend upon the relative
magnitudes of the reactances XL and XC. Remembering that inductive reactance
and capacitive reactance act opposite each other, it should be clear that the
combination behaves (1) like a R-L circuit or as an inductive circuit when XL is
greater than XC, (2) like a R-C circuit or as a capacitive circuit when XC is
greater than XL and (3) like a pure resistance R circuit or as a resistive circuit
when XL equals XC This latter condition has a special significance and is said to
produce resonance in the circuit.

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Laboratory Equipment

Quantity Apparatus
1 pc FeedBack Trainer Kit
1 pc Circuit 1 trainer power supply (Feedback Power supply PS445)
1 pc A.C. Miliammeter 0 – 250mA
1 pc Multimeter (V.O.M.)
1 pc Function generator
1 set Connecting wires

INITIAL SETTINGS:
Connect the power supply unit to the main supply line. DO NOT switch
on yet.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 8.1.
L1 C1
R1
A

Sine Wave
+
Function
- V
Generator

Figure 3.1

Preferred Settings for Figure 8.1:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4 VRMS
Resistor (R1) = 100 Ω
Inductor (L1) = 100 mH
Capacitor (C1) = 2.2 µF

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 100 Hz, with constant output
amplitude of 4 VRMS as measured on the voltmeter.
3. On Table 8.1, following the results table, record the readings of total
current, and total voltage.
4. Place the VOM across the resistor, inductor and capacitor and record the
voltage across the resistor, inductor and capacitor respectively.
5. On Table 8.2, following the results table, calculate the required
parameters.
6. Switch off the power supply unit.

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Determination of internal resistance and inductance of a practical inductor

(coil):
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 8.2.

L
R1 r
A
practical inductor
Sine Wave (coil)
+
Function
- V
Generator

Figure 8.2

Preferred Settings for Figure 8.2:

Sine Wave Function Generator = 4 VRMS
Resistor (R1) = 100 Ω
Practical Inductor (coil) = 100 – 200 mH

2. Set the sine wave function generator to 60 Hz, with constant output
amplitude of 4 VRMS as measured on the voltmeter.
3. On Table 8.3a and Table 8.3b, following the results table, record the
readings of total current, voltage across the resistor and then the voltage
across the coil. And then calculate the required parameters
4. On another sheet of paper, solve the internal resistance (r) and inductance
(L) of a coil using an analytical solution.
5. Switch off the power supply unit.

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Preliminary Data Sheet

Experiment 8: Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

Name: Date:
Crs/Sec: Group no:

Table 8.1

Total Total Resistor Inductor Capacitor

Frequency Voltage Current Voltage Voltage Voltage
Hz (VT) (IT) (VR) (VL) (VC)
VRMS mARMS VRMS VRMS VRMS
100
200
300
400
500

Table 8.2:

Frequency
Formula Hz
100 200 300 400 500
Ohm’s Law VR
(Measured R
Values) IR
V
XL  L
IL
V
XC  C
IC
V
| Z | T
IT
Equation RR
Impedance
X L  2fL
1
XC 
2fC

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Frequency
Hz
Formula 100 200 300 400 500
Pythagorean X  X L  XC
Theorem
(Impedance | Z | R 2  X 2
Triangle)
X
 z  tan 1
R
Complex Z  R  j( X L  X C )
Number
(rectangular form)
Z | Z |  z
(polar form)

Table 8.3a:

Measured Values
Total Total Resistor Coil’s
Frequency Voltage Current Voltage Voltage
Hz (VT) (IT) (VR) (Vcoil)
VRMS mARMS VRMS VRMS

60

Table 8.3b:

Calculated Values
Total Total Coil’s Coil’s Internal Coil’s
Current Impedance Impedance Resistance Inductance
(IT) (ZT) (Zcoil) (r) (L)
mARMS Ω Ω Ω mH

Approved by:

Instructor

Laboratory Manual for Elementary Electrical Engineering (Non EE Major)