Physical Science Grade

12: Physics
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with the
Western Cape Education Department
 MOMENTUM AND
IMPULSE
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with the
Western Cape Education Department
 What is momentum?

Definition: The product of the mass of

an object and its velocity

p= 𝑚𝑣

P = momentum
Unit = kg.m.s-1

v = Velocity of object (m.s-1)

m = mass of object (kg)

 Momentum in action

The momentum of an object can be increased

by increasing its velocity or its mass or both

Consider two cars of the same mass of m kg. Car A

standing still in the drive way and car B travelling with
the velocity of 40 m.s-1 to the right:
 Change in momentum
According to Newton’s second law the
net/resultant force acting on an object over a
time interval(∆t) will cause the object to slow
down or speed up.

When velocity of an object change the momentum of that

object changes

Lets consider a ball of mass m travelling with a velocity of

Vi eastwards.

m pi

The ball bounces off the wall and changes direction and
moves west with the same mass but different velocity Vf .

m
pf
Change in momentum formulae

We know that the final momentum must be

equal to the sum of the initial momentum and
the change in momentum
 Momentum and Newton II
A ball bouncing off the wall will change its momentum but what
causes it?. The wall applies a force onto the ball in the opposite
direction which therefore causes the ball to bounce off the wall
(Newton III)

In grade 11 you have learnt about Newton’s laws of motion which

says an object will continue in its state of motion unless
acted up on by an unbalanced force, so momentum will not
change unless a force acts on the object.

Newton’s second law of motion stated in terms of momentum is

more generally applicable because it can be applied to systems
where the mass is changing, such as rockets, as well as to
systems of constant mass.

Restating Newton’s second law in terms of

momentum
∆𝒗
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒂=
∆𝒕 Therefore:

∆𝒑
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 =
∆𝒗 ∆𝒕
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
∆𝒕
 Impulse
Definition: the product of the resultant/net
force acting on an object and the time the net
force acts on the object.

Fnet∆t= ∆p

(ma)∆t = (mvf – mvi)

(ma)∆t = m(vf – vi)

The unit for impulse can therefore be expressed as

N.s-1

The theory of impulse applies to safety considerations

in everyday life, e.g. airbags, seatbelts and arrestor
beds.
 Systems

A system is a collection of two or more particle

or objects colliding with each other

m pi

A system on which the net external force is

zero

In reality, no system is completely isolated.. Like

previously when we look at the ball hitting a wall it
makes sense to ignore the force of gravity, its effect is
not exactly zero but it is too small that it will not make
any real difference in our results
Law of CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The total linear momentum in an

isolated/closed system does not change (is
conserved)

Consider two objects, travelling at different velocities towards

each other, that collide and move together after collision:

Before collision
Object A Object B
vbefore vbefore

pbefore pbefore
m 2m

After collision

vafter

pafter
m+ 2m
 Elastic collisions
An elastic collision is a collision where both
total momentum and total kinetic energy are
conserved

The kinetic energy is not transformed permanently through

work or deformation of the objects. During the collision
energy will be transferred but will be recovered by the
elastic response of the system.

Before collision

vbefore vbefore

m m

After collision

vafter vafter

m m
Types of problems relating to collisions
Two objects collide and continue to move as
separate objects after the collision:

Two objects collide and then stay joined with

each other
Types of problems relating to collisions
Two moving objects that are initially joined,
then separate

Two stationary objects that are initially joined

separate (during an explosion)
 EXAM QUESTIONS

WORKED: Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2022) - Q2

4.1 What is meant by an isolated system in physics? (2)

During an experiment, a rocket of unknown mass is mounted on a toy cart

of mass 20 kg. The cart-rocket combination moves at a constant speed of
2,5 m/s along a horizontal floor.

At a certain instant, the rocket is fired horizontally in the direction of

motion at a speed of 30 m/s. As a result, the cart slows down to a speed
of 0,6 m/s as shown in the diagram below.

Ignore frictional effects.

4.2 Use relevant physics principles to explain why the firing of the
rocket will slow down the cart. (2)

4.3 Calculate the mass of the rocket at the instant the rocket was
fired from the toy cart. (5)

[9]
WORKED: Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2021) – Q4

A ball X, of mass 10 kg, is moving eastwards with a velocity of 2 m/s. It

collides ELASTICALLY with another ball, Y, of mass 2 kg which was
moving with an unknown velocity vY (Diagram A). Immediately after the
collision, ball X comes to rest and ball Y moves eastwards with a kinetic
energy of 36 J (Diagram B). Ignore friction

4.1 Explain the meaning of the term elastic collision. (2)

4.2 Calculate velocity vY. (5)

The balls were in contact with each other for 0,1 s during the collision.

4.3 Calculate the magnitude of the force that ball X exerted on ball Y
during the collision. (3)

[10]
WORKED: Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2021) – Q4

A simple rocket system consists of two parts, A of mass 3m, and B of

mass 2m, as shown in the diagram below. B is stacked on top of A.

4.1 State the principle of conservation of momentum in words. (2)

The rocket is travelling vertically upwards at a constant speed v when an

𝟏
internal explosion causes A to move DOWNWARDS at a speed v.
𝟑

Ignore ALL external forces on the rocket.

4.2 Calculate the velocity of B in terms of v immediately after the

internal explosion. (5)
Continued…

The graph below shows the average force exerted by A on B during the
internal explosion as a function of time.

4.3 Name the physical quantity represented by the area under

the graph. (1)

4.4 Redraw the graph in your ANSWER BOOK. On the same set
of axes, sketch the graph of the average force that B exerts
on A as a function of time. (2)

[10]
VERTICAL PROJECTILE
MOTION
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre

In collaboration with Astron Energy (Pty)

 Understanding Vertical
Projectiles
Definition: Projectile
A projectile is an object or particle that is projected or launched
and then moves under the influence of only gravity

In vertical projectile we ignore air resistance(drag) we only

consider the force of gravity. In projectile motion an object is
considered falling even though it starts with an initial velocity
upwards.

Projectiles moving upwards or downwards in the Earth’s

gravitational field always accelerate downwards with a constant
acceleration (g).

NOTE: Non-zero acceleration means the velocity is changing.

Gravitational acceleration has a constant value of 9,8 and its
alwaysm.s-2 downwards

Object
moving Object
g g moving
upwards
downwards
 Objects in freefall
Definition of Freefall

Freefall refers to the unimpeded motion of an object with gravity

being the only influence on the object.

Gravitational acceleration

The gravitational acceleration is the

constant acceleration of an object in
freefall due to gravity

All objects experience the same

gravitational acceleration (with air
resistance being ignored).

This would therefore mean that a

feather would fall towards the ground Fg
at the same speed as a bowling ball if
we ignore the effects of air resistance.

The gravitational acceleration (g) on

earth = 9,8 m.s-1
 Equations and Formulae
Equations of motion
You must always remember that when you use these equations you are dealing
with vectors which means they have both magnitude and direction. Therefore,
you need to decide on which direction will be position and which one will be
negative.
The equations of motion that you learnt in grade 10 are:

𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂∆𝒕

𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇
∆𝒙 = ∆𝒕
𝟐

𝟏
∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂∆𝒕
𝟐

𝒗𝒇𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂∆𝒙

In the case of vertical projectile motion, the only force that we are considering
is the force of gravity or gravitational force, therefore acceleration will be a = g

Therefore;
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒈∆𝒕 Where:
vi = initial velocity (m/s)
𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇
∆𝒙 = ∆𝒕 vf = Final velocity
𝟐
∆x = change in vertical position
𝟏
∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒈∆𝒕 a = g = gravitational acceleration
𝟐
(m/s2)
𝒗𝒇𝟐 = 𝒗𝒊𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈∆𝒙
∆t = time interval (s)
 Vertical Projectile Motion
Graphs
The 3 graphs below depict the SAME EVENT (a
object thrown upwards and back down)
 Vertical Projectile Motion
Types
A projectile projected vertically upwards which falls
back to the same level (take down as positive)

The vi of A as the object leaves

your hand is negative as it is
moving in an upward direction
(down is positive).

The velocity of the ball decreases

as it travels in the air until it
reaches its highest point (hmax) at
point B. At this point the velocity is
zero(Vf = 0).

The object then falls down from

point B to C, then the Vi is 0. The
object picks up speed until it
reaches its final velocity (Vf) at C.

The time taken from A to B is equal

to the time take from B to point C.
t(AB) = t(BC)

The objects displacement is zero

as it returns to the same spot.

a = 9,8 m.s-1 (-9,8 m.s-1 if up is

positive)
 Vertical Projectile Motion
Types
A projectile projected vertically upwards which falls
back to the BELOW the original level (take upwards
as positive)
The vi of A is positive as it is moving
upwards. As A moves upwards the velocity
decreases until it reaches it maximum
height where the final velocity is 0 (vf = 0)

As the object falls downwards the velocity

increases as the object falls down
(remember the vi(BC) = 0). The magnitude of
vi(A) = vf(C).

The time taken from A to B is equal to the

time take from B to C
t(AB) = t(BC)

The TOTAL time taken from ABC to D =

t(AB) + t(BC) + t(CD)

The displacement is down (the ball passes

the starting point as it falls down).

The object’s displacement (A to D) is equal

in magnitude to the height from which it was
released.

The vf(CD) is the highest as the object hits

the ground at D.

a= 9,8 m.s-1 down.

 Vertical Projectile Motion
Types
HOT AIR BALLOON
When an object is dropped from a moving hot air balloon, the vi is
equal to the velocity of the balloon. The acceleration of the object
would always be down regardless of the acceleration of the
balloon.

Direction of
rising hot air
balloon Due to inertia the
projectile moved
upward temporarily

Direction of
projectile

vhot air balloon) = vi (projectile)

a (projectile) = 9,8 m.s-2 DOWN
 Vertical Projectile Motion
Types
THE BOUNCING BALL

When a ball is bounced off the ground it

rises to a maximum height while slowing
down due to gravity (a = - 9,8 m.s-1).

The highest point (hmax) at B the velocity

is zero and then the ball will accelerate
downwards due to gravity. The velocity
of the ball would increase until it hits the
ground at C.

From C to D the ball will remain on the

ground until the ball accelerates
upwards (remember the ground applies
an upwards force on the ball (Newton
iii)).

The collision with the ground releases

energy in the form of sound, heat, etc.
which means the vi of the ball leaving
the ground from DE is less than vi from
AB). This is called an inelastic collision.

After each bounce the hmax gets less

and less due to the loss of energy.

The change in time is from 2 points is:

∆ t = (t1 + t2) ÷ 2
Vertical Projectile Motion Types
Balls projected at different heights
A

𝜟𝒙𝑨
Total Height of Ball A:

B HT(A) = 𝜟𝒙𝑨 + h

Total Height of Ball B:

h 𝜟𝒙𝑩
HT(B) = 𝜟𝒙𝑩

When both balls meet:

B
HT(A) = HT(B)
𝜟𝒙𝑨 A
𝜟𝒙𝑨 + h = 𝜟𝒙𝑩

𝜟𝒙𝑩
These types of questions
h often involve
SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS
 EXAM QUESTIONS
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2022) Q.3

A small disc, C, is thrown vertically upwards at a speed of 15 m/s from the

edge of the roof of a building of height 30 m. AFTER 0,5 s, a small ball B
is shot vertically upwards from the foot of the building at a speed of 40
m/s in order to hit disc C.

Ignore the effects of air resistance.

3.1 Explain the term projectile. (2)

3.2 Calculate the:

3.2.1 Time taken by disc C to reach its maximum height (3)

3.2.2 Maximum height above the ground reached by disc C (4)

 Continued…

3.3 Calculate the time from the moment that disc C was thrown
upwards until the time ball B hits the disc. (6)

3.4 On the same set of axes, sketch graphs of velocity versus time for
disk C and ball B from the moment that disc C was thrown upwards until
ball B hits disc C.

Label the graph for ball B as B and the graph for disc C as C.

Clearly indicate the following on the graphs:

• The initial velocities of ball B and disc C

• The time at which ball B was shot upward
• The time at which disc C reaches its maximum height
• The time at which ball B hits disc C

(5)

[20]
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1, Oct/Nov 2021, Q.3

A hot-air balloon is moving upwards at a CONSTANT

UNKNOWN speed.

3.1 Is the hot air balloon in free fall? Choose from YES or NO.
Give a reason for the answer.
When the balloon is 200 m above the ground, a small stone A is dropped from
the balloon. See the diagram above. Another small stone B is dropped 5 s later
from the balloon while the balloon is still moving upwards at constant velocity.
Stone A strikes the ground at a speed of 62,68 m∙s-1. IGNORE AIR
RESISTANCE.

3.2 Calculate the:

3.2.1 Speed of the hot air balloon (3)

3.2.2 Time it takes stone A to strike the ground (3)

3.2.3 Distance between the hot-air balloon and stone B at the

instant when stone A strikes the ground (6)
Continued…
Paper 2, Oct/Nov 2019, Q.7
3.3 On the same set of axes, draw position-time graphs for both the
hot-air balloon and stone A from the moment the stone is dropped
until it strikes the ground.

Use the ground as zero reference.

Label your graphs BALLOON and A. (4)

[18]
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2020) Q.3

A small ball is dropped from a height of 2 m and bounces a few times after
landing on a cement floor. IGNORE AIR RESISTANCE.

The position-time graph below, not drawn to scale, represents the motion of the
ball.

3.1 Define the term free fall. (2)

3.2 Use the graph and determine:

3.2.1 The time that the ball is in contact with the floor before the first bounce.
(2)

3.2.2 The time it takes the ball to reach its maximum height after the first
bounce (2)

3.2.3 The speed at which the ball leaves the floor at the first bounce (3)

3.2.4 Time t indicated on the graph (6)

[15]
WORK, ENERGY & POWER
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with the
ASTRON Energy
 What is work?
In order for work to be done, a forced (F) which is
applied to an object must result in a certain
displacement (∆𝒙).
FURTHERMORE…

The displacement (∆𝑥) must be in the same direction as

the applied force (F)
 Formula for Work done
The formula for work can be expressed in the following
formula:

𝐖 = 𝐅∆𝒙 cos 𝜽
Where:
F = the force applied (N)
∆𝒙 = displacement (m)
cos 𝜽 = the angle between the force and displacement

The NET WORK changes the motion of a body

A net force acting on a body will change

the velocity

Wnet = ∆𝐊

𝟏
𝐅𝐧𝐞𝐭 ∆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝒎(𝒗𝒇𝟐 − 𝒗𝒊𝟐)
𝟐

Ek ALWAYS changes when a Fnet does work on

an object
Conservative Forces and Non-
Conservative forces

When a CONSERVATIVE FORCE does work,

mechanical energy would be conserved.

Emech(A) = Emech(B)

When a NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCE does

work, mechanical energy would NOT be
conserved.

Emech(A) ≠ Emech(B)
Work done for conservative
and non-conservative forces

Conservative Forces: Examples

Gravity
Wnet = ∆𝑲
Electriostatic Force
Emech (top) = Emech (bot) Elastic Force

Non-conservative Forces:
Wnc= ∆𝑲 + ∆𝑼
𝟏
Wnc= 𝟐 𝒎∆𝒗 + 𝒎𝒈∆𝒉

Examples
Friction
Air Resistance
Applied Force
Tention Force
 Steps for solving Work and
Energy problems

1 Determine what is required

2 Write down what has been given to

you.

Draw a free body diagram of all the

3
forces which are acting on your
object.

4 Consider the forces which are doing

work.

Solve for work using one of the

5 equations at the back of your formula
sheet.
 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done

𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡

𝐹Δ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑃= 𝑊 = 𝐹Δ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
𝑡

𝐹Δ𝑥
𝑃= If θ = 0 then 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 1
𝑡

Δ𝑣
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 = Δ𝑥
𝑡
 Exam Questions
Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2022) Q.5
A 12 kg block is initially at rest at point A at the bottom of a
ROUGH inclined plane. The block is pulled up the incline by a
constant force F acting parallel to the incline. The block reaches
point B, which is at a vertical height of 4,5 m above the horizontal,
with a speed of 2,25 m/s. See the diagram below.

5.1 Define the term non-conservative force. (2)

5.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram for the block when it is

pulled up the inclined plane. (4)

5.3 Calculate the total work done on the block by the NON-
CONSERVATIVE forces when the block moved from point A
to point B. (4)
Continued…
The same constant force F now moves the block at a
CONSTANT VELOCITY across a rough horizontal surface from
point B to point C, as shown below. Force F acts parallel to the
horizontal surface.

The magnitude of the constant frictional force acting on the block

while moving from point B to point C is 42 N LARGER than the
magnitude of the constant frictional force acting on the block
when it moves from point A to point B.

5.4 Calculate the distance from point A to point B. (5)

[15]
Exam Question Paper 1 (Jun 2022) Q.5
Arrestor beds are used to help moving trucks to come to a stop
when their brakes fail.
The driver of a 30 000 kg truck driving down a steep road drives
onto an ASCENDING arrestor bed inclined at 28° to the
horizontal, as shown in the diagram below.

5.1 State the work-energy theorem in words. (2)

The truck with failed brakes passes point A at the beginning of the
arrestor bed at a speed of 33 m/s. The average frictional force on
the truck is 31 000 N while the truck moves up the arrestor bed.
Ignore the rotational effects of the wheels.

5.2 Give a reason why the net work done on the truck, while
moving on the arrestor bed, is negative. (1)

5.3 Use ENERGY PRINCIPLES to calculate the minimum length

of the arrestor bed needed to bring the truck to a stop. (5)
Continued…
The diagram below shows the same truck entering a
DESCENDING arrestor bed inclined at 28° to the horizontal. The
initial speed of the truck and the average frictional force on the
truck are 33 m/s and 31 000 N respectively.

5.4 Which arrestor bed, ASCENDING or DESCENDING, will be

able to stop the truck in a shorter distance?

Explain the answer in terms of the forces acting on the truck.

(3)

[11]
Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2022) Q.5
A roller-coaster car of mass 200 kg, with the engine switched off,
travels along track ABC which has a rough surface, as shown in
the diagram below. At point A, which is 10 m above the ground,
the speed of the car is 4 m/s.

At point B, which is at a height h above the ground, the speed of

the car is 2 m/s.
During the motion from point A to point B, 3,40 × 103 J of energy
is used to overcome friction.

Ignore rotational effects due to the wheels of the car.

5.1 Define the term non-conservative force. (2)

5.2 Calculate the change in the kinetic energy of the car after it has
travelled from point A to point B. (3)

5.3 Use energy principles to calculate the height h. (4)

Continued…
On reaching point B, the car's engine is switched on in order to
move up the incline to point C, which is 22 m above the ground.
While moving from point B to point C, the car travels for 15 s at a
constant speed of 2 m·s-1, while an average frictional force of 50 N
acts on it.

5.4 Calculate the power delivered by the engine to move the car
from point B to point C. (5)

[14]
THE DOPPLER EFFECT
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with
ASTRON Energy
 What is sound?

Sound is a longitudinal wave caused by

movement (vibration) which needs a medium to
travel through (air, water, etc.)

Sound may be shown mathematically as

transverse wave where low pressure (refraction) is a
trough and high pressure (compression) is a crest.
 Parts of a sound wave
Period and Wavelength
Period (T) is measured in seconds and is the time it take a wave
to complete a single cycle.

Wavelength (𝝀) is measured in meters and is the distance

travelled during one period. Graphically it is the distance between
two consecutive points which are in phase.

Frequency (f)
Measured in Hertz (Hz) and is the number of cycles per second

For sound, frequency is perceived at pitch (high or low)

Speed equation 𝐯 = 𝒇𝝀
Relationship 𝟏
between T & f 𝒇=
𝐓

Low Frequency High Frequency

 Parts of a sound wave
Amplitude

Measured in meters and is the maximum

displacement of the medium from the equilibrium
position.
For sound, amplitude is perceived as loudness

Large Amplitude

Small Amplitude
 Understanding Doppler Effect
An apparent change in observed frequency
(pitch) as a result of the relative motion between
a source and an observer

Hear higher Hear lower

Pitch Pitch
 Calculating the Doppler Effect
The doppler effect can be represented in the
following equation:

𝒗 ± 𝒗𝒍
𝒇𝑳 = 𝒇𝑺
𝒗 ± 𝒗𝒔

𝒇𝑳 – Frequency of the sound the listener hears

(Hz)
𝒗𝑳 – Speed of the listener (m.s-1)
𝒇𝑺 – Frequency of the sound transmitted by the
sound source
𝒗𝑺 – Speed of the sound source (m.s-1)
𝒗 – Speed of sound in specific medium (in air it is
340 m.s-1)
A quick summary of the scenarios

Draw this table to help you during your test!

Towards Away

𝒗𝒍 + -
𝒗𝒔 - +
 Different Scenarios
The source is MOVING relative to listeners

A B

For Listener A For Listener B

𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑳𝑨 𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑩
𝒇𝑳𝑨 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝑳𝑩 = 𝒇𝒔
𝒗 ± 𝒗𝒔 𝒗 ± 𝒗𝒔

𝒗 − 𝒗𝑳𝑨 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑳𝑩
𝒇𝑳𝑨 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝑳𝑩 = 𝒇𝒔
𝒗 + 𝒗𝒔 𝒗 − 𝒗𝒔
 Different Scenarios
The source is STATIONARY and listeners are
moving

A B
For Listener A For Listener B

𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑳𝑨 𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑳𝑩
𝒇𝑳𝑨 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝑳𝑩 = 𝒇𝒔
𝒗 ± 𝒗𝒔 𝒗 ± 𝒗𝒔

𝒗 − 𝒗𝑳𝑨 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑳𝑩
𝒇𝑳𝑨 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝑳𝑨 = 𝒇𝒔
𝒗 + 𝒗𝒔 𝒗 − 𝒗𝒔
When solving Doppler Effect
Problems
Steps:

① Determine what needs to be solved

② Identify the source and listener

③ Define the motion of the source and

listener

④ Use the equation and change the sign to

match the motion of the source and the
listener
Importance of the Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is used in astronomy to
help understand the motion of celestial
objects.

Red Shift

Moving away from observer

Blue Shift

Moving towards observer

 Exam Questions
Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2022) Q.6
A learner investigates the relationship between the observed frequency
and the frequency of sound waves emitted by a stationary source.

The learner moves towards the source at a constant velocity and records
the observed frequency (fL) for a given source frequency (fS) . This
process is repeated for different frequencies of the source, with the
learner moving at the same constant velocity each time.

The graph below shows how the observed frequency changes as the
frequency of sound waves emitted by the source changes.

6.1 Name the phenomenon illustrated by the graph. (1)

6.2 Name ONE application in the medical field of the

phenomenon in QUESTION 6.1. (1)
Continued….

6.3 Write down the type of proportionality that exists between fL

and fS, as illustrated by the graph. (1)

6.4 The gradient of the graph obtained is found to be 1,06.

If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.

Calculate the magnitude of the velocity at which the learner

approaches the source. (5)

The investigation is now repeated with the learner moving at a

HIGHER constant velocity towards the sound source.

6.5 Copy the graph above in your ANSWER BOOK and label it
as A. On the same set of axes, sketch the graph that will be
obtained when the learner is moving at the HIGHER velocity

Label this graph as B. (2)

[10]
Exam Question Paper 1 (Jun 2022) Q.6
A car moves at a constant speed of 10 m/s TOWARDS a
stationary sound source. The sound source emits sound waves of
frequency 880 Hz.

A sound detector A is attached to the car and another sound

detector B is attached to the sound source. Detector B detects
the sound waves reflected from the car.

The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.

6.1 State the Doppler effect in words. (2)

6.2 Calculate the wavelength of the sound waves emitted by the

source. (3)

6.3 Calculate the frequency of the sound waves detected by

detector A. (4)
Continued….

The sketch graph below shows the frequency recorded by

detector A.

6.4 Redraw the graph above for detector A in your ANSWER

BOOK. On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the
frequency recorded by detector B. Label this graph as B. (2)

[11]
Internal Resistance
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with
ASTRON ENERGY
 Introduction
In electric circuits you will cover 3 fundamental quantities which
are very important to understand

1 Electric current (I): the flow of electrical charge per

unit time beyond a certain point.
Voltage/Potential difference (V): the amount of
2 energy needed to move a charge between 2 points of
a circuit

3 Resistance (R): a measure of how the opposition to

the flow of current in a circuit.

Ohm’s law – recap

Ohm’s laws states that the current which flows through a metal
conductor is proportional to the voltage across the conductor
and inversely proportional to the resistance, provided that the
temperature stays constant.

This relationship can be represented in the following equation:

𝐕
𝐑=
𝐈
Where:
𝑰 = current (amps)
𝑽 = potential difference (volts)
𝑹 = resistance (𝛺)
Resisters in series and parallel

Resisters in series:

Some tips to remember:

• The current which flows in each resistors is the SAME

• Voltage is DIVIDED PROPORTIONALLY depending on

RESISTANCE

• Rs = R1 + R2…..Rn

• Vext =VR1 + VR2…..VRn

• Always use voltage with its corresponding resistor

 Continued…

Resisters in parallel:

Some tips to remember:

• The voltage in each resistors are the SAME

• The current DIVIDES INVERSELY (the least resistance will

have more current flow through it)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• = + ….
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏
//

• IT = I1 + I2…..In
 Introduction into Internal
Resistance
Internal resistance causes a decrease in the
measured potential difference across the battery
terminals when a current is flowing.
This is due to energy being lost as the electrons move from
one part of the battery to another.

You can imagine the electrons colliding with the other

molecules of the atom as it passes from one end of the
terminal to the other.

This energy is usually lost in the form of heat

+ e- -
Battery/cell

This would then mean that the potential difference (V)

flowing across the circuit would be less than the emf of
the battery (𝜺)
 Internal resistance
We can represent internal resistance (𝑟) inside a battery in the
following way:

The volts ‘lost’ due to The voltage that is used

internal resistance can by the circuit can be
be represented as: represented as:

𝑽𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕/𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝑰𝒓 𝑽𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑰𝑹
The emf of a cell (ε) is the sum of the internal and external
potential difference (V) in any given circuit
The emf (ε) is the sum of internal and external voltage

𝜺 = 𝑽𝒆𝒙𝒕 + 𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒕/𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝜺 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓
𝜺 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
Decreasing external resistance increases current, and vice versa.
Increasing current will increase 𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒕 .
 Power
Electrical power (P) is the rate at which electrical energy is
converted in an electric circuit (measured in Watts).
This can be represented in the following equations:
𝑽
P = I(IR) P= 𝐕
𝑹
P = IV
= I2 R 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑹

Measuring Voltage and Current

Here are some important things you would need to remember
about voltmeters and ammeters

Ammeters Voltmeters

A V
MUST be placed in MUST be placed in
SERIES PARALLEL
Has a resistance of 𝟎𝜴 Has a resistance of ∞𝜴
 Exam Questions
Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2022) Q.8

The circuit diagram below shows four resistors connected to a battery of

emf Ɛ and internal resistance r. The resistances of the ammeter and the
connecting wires are negligible, while the voltmeters have very high
resistances.

8.1 State Ohm's law in words. (2)

Switch S is CLOSED.

8.2 The reading on the ammeter is 3,5 A.

8.2.1 Calculate the total external resistance of the circuit. (4)

8.2.2 Calculate the reading on voltmeter V1. (3)

8.2.3 How does the reading on voltmeter V2 compare to the

reading on voltmeter V1? Choose from SMALLER THAN,
EQUAL TO or GREATER THAN. (1)
Continued…
8.3 A learner concludes that the emf of the battery is equal to the
reading on voltmeter V1.

8.3.1 Define the term emf. (2)

8.3.2 Is the learner's conclusion CORRECT? Choose from YES

or NO. (1)

8.3.3 Give a reason for the answer to QUESTION 8.3.2. (1)

Switch S is now removed and replaced by voltmeter V2, as shown in the

circuit diagram below.

8.4 How will EACH of the following change?

(Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME).

8.4.1 The power dissipated by the 4 Ω resistor (1)

8.4.2 The reading on voltmeter V1 (1)

8.5 Explain the answer to QUESTION 8.4.2. (4)

[20]
Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2023) Q.8
In the circuit below a battery of UNKNOWN emf and an internal resistance
of 0,5 Ω is connected to two resistors of 4 Ω and 8 Ω each, and a resistor
R of unknown resistance.

Ignore the resistance of the connecting wires.

8.1 The three external resistors are ohmic conductors.

Explain the meaning of the term ohmic conductor. (2)

8.2 When switch S is OPEN, voltmeter V1 reads 3,2 V.

Calculate the:

8.2.1 Current through the battery (3)

8.2.2 Emf of the battery (4)

Continued…
8.3 When switch S is CLOSED, voltmeter V2 reads 8,8 V.

8.3.1 Calculate the resistance of resistor R. (5)

8.3.2 The battery becomes heated when voltmeter V2 is

replaced by a connecting wire. Explain this
observation. (3)

[17]
 ELECTRODYNAMICS
(MOTORS & GENERATORS)
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with
ASTRON Energy
 Generation of Electricity
A method for generating electricity is via ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION.
Faraday discovered a voltage was produced across a wire when
a magnet, near the wire, was moved. This voltage was called the
induced emf (𝜺).

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The emf, 𝜺, produced around a loop of conductor is proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux, 𝝓, through the area, A, of the loop
∆𝝓
𝜺 = −𝑵
∆𝒕
Where 𝑁 is the number of circuit loops and 𝝓 = 𝑩. 𝑨 , 𝐵 is the
magnetic field strength

Induction of a Magnetic Field

When there is a current that flows through a wire, there is an
INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELD.
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the
right-hand rule.
 Lenz’s Law
An induced current flows in the direction which creates a
magnetic field that opposes the change in magnetic flux (𝜙).
If a magnet is moving towards the solenoid, the induced current
would flow in such a way that the magnetic field generated will
push against the magnet
If a magnet is moving away the solenoid, the induced current
would flow in such a way that the magnetic field generated will
pull the magnet

In all methods of inducing a current, the wire and magnetic field

must move perpendicular to each other. If they move parallel to
each other, no current is induced.
The magnitude of the induced current can be increase by:
o Moving the conductor faster.
o A stronger magnetic field (using stronger magnets)
o Increasing the length of the conductor (using a coil with
more turns of wire).
 Generators
Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy. This is achieved by rotating a conductor in a
magnetic field which creates a change in flux, thus inducing
a current.

Generators can be summarized in the flowing table:

Generators
Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)
Coil connected to split
Coil connect to slip rings
ring commutator
Current in the external
Current in the external
circuit does not change
circuit changes direction
direction
Flemming’s Right Hand Rule
 AC Generators
AC Generators are connected by TWO SLIP RINGS. The
direction of the current would change for every half-turn.

The DIRECTION of
the INDUCED
CURRENT changes
with every half turn of
the coil, REVERSING
after the coil moved
through the vertical
position.

The direction of the current is changing every half turn in an AC-

Generator which therefore means that it can be graphically
represented as:

The induced current is The induced current is

maximum when the coil ZERO when the coil is
is HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
 DC Generators
AC-Generators are connected by a SPLIT RING. The direction of
the current would change for every half-turn.

The SPLIT RING

COMMUTATOR
ensure the
DIRECTION of the
INDUCED
CURRENT DOES
NOT change with
every half turn of the
coil.

The current in a DC generator DOES NOT change direction and

can thus be graphically represented as:

When the coil is VERTICAL, The induced EMF and current

the induced EMF and current is at a MAXIMUM when the coil
is ZERO. is HORIZONTAL.
 Determining the direction of
induced current
Fleming’s Right Hand Dynamo Rule is used to determine the
direction of the induced current in a generator

Remember: Gene-RIGHT-or
• Thumb = direction of force (2)

• Index Finger = direction of magnetic field (1)

• Middle finger = direction of induced current (3)

 Root Mean Square (RMS) for AC
The potential difference in an AC generator has positive and
negative maxima which would thus cancel out. We therefore must
use AVERAGE POWER by multiplying the maximum voltage and
current. This would make the following graph
Power (W)

Pmax

0 time (s)

The average power can be

calculated as: 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝟐
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 . 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
= 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐 𝟐
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
=
𝟐 𝟐 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
𝑹=
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 . 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
Root Mean Square (RMS) for AC
The RMS values are the AC equivalent of determining values
such as current, voltage and resistance.

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝟐
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰 =
𝟐 𝑹
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽
𝑹= 𝑹 =
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 . 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑷 = 𝑰.𝑽

= 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 . 𝑹 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 . 𝑹

𝑽𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝟐
= =
𝑹 𝑹

NB: if you are given a scenario,

dealing with an AC circuit, the
voltage/current given is always
your RMS value unless stated
otherwise!
 Electrical Motors
An electrical motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical
energy

This is based on the motor effect where a CURRENT

CARRYING CONDUCTOR in a MAGNETIC FIELD experiencing
a MAGNETIC FORCE which thus results in the conductor
moving.
Fleming’s Left Hand Motor Rule is used to determine the
direction of the magnetic force.

The force is the GREATEST when the conductor, and therefore

the direction of current, is placed PERPENDICULAR to the
magnetic field.

The force is ZERO when the conductor, and therefore the

direction of the current, is placed PARALLEL to the magnetic
field.
AC Motor vs DC Motor
AC Motors have SLIP RINGS

• Uses an AC power supply

• Both AC & BD experience a

turning force (torque)

• The frequency of the alternating

current will affect the speed of
rotation

• The direction of the current

constantly changes which allows
coil to spin in the same direction

DC Motors have SPLIT RINGS

• Uses an DC power supply

• Both AC & BD experience a

turning force (torque)

• The split ring allows the current

to alternate in every half-turn
thus allowing the coil to spin in
the same direction.

• The speed of rotation can be

changed by increasing the
current or magnetic field strength
or number of turns on the coil.
 EXAM QUESTIONS
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2022) Q.9

9.1 The diagram below shows the initial position of the coil in a simple
DC generator. The coil is rotated in an ANTICLOCKWISE direction,
as shown.

9.1.1 Name the component in this generator that ensures that

the Induced current in the external circuit is in one
direction only. (1)

9.1.2 Is the direction of the induced current from X to Y or

from Y to X? (1)

A maximum voltage of 90 V is generated when the coil is rotating at a

frequency of 20 Hz.

9.1.3 Write down the time taken for the coil to complete ONE
rotation. (1)
9.1.4 The coil starts rotating from the initial position, as shown in
the diagram above.

Sketch a graph of output voltage versus time for one

complete rotation of the coil. Indicate the maximum voltage
and the relevant time values on the graph. (4)
Continued…

9.2 Wall sockets supply rms voltage and current.

A 220 V AC voltage is supplied from a wall socket to an electric kettle
having a resistance of 32 Ω.

Calculate the average energy dissipated by the kettle in TWO

minutes. (4)

[11]
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2022) Q.9

9.1 The simplified sketch of an electric MOTOR is shown below.

9.1.1 Write down the energy conversion that takes place in this
motor. (1)

9.1.2 Is the motor above an AC motor or a DC motor? (1)

9.1.3 What is the function of the commutator in this motor? (1)

A resistor Y is rated 220 V, 100 W and is connected to a 220 V AC source,

as shown in the circuit below.

9.2.1 Calculate the resistance of resistor Y. (3)

Continued…
Another resistor Z with a rating 220 V, X W, is now connected in series to
resistor Y and to the same AC source. See the diagram below.

The power dissipated by resistor Y changes to 80 W, while its resistance

remains constant.

9.2.2 Calculate the power rating X of resistor Z, assuming that

resistor Z has constant resistance. (6)

[12]
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (Sep 2022) Q.9

The diagram below shows a simple model of a DC motor.

9.1 Describe the energy change that occurs in a DC motor. (2)

9.2 Explain the term DC. (2)

9.3 In which direction will the conventional current in the coil flow?
Write only FROM P to Q or FROM Q to P. (1)

9.4 Explain the change that needs to be made for this motor to be an AC
motor. (2)

9.5 A heater labelled 2 000 W, 220 V and 50 Hz is connected to an AC

circuit.

Calculate the maximum current that flows through the heater. (5)

[12]
THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
Developed by the
Cape Town Science Centre
In collaboration with
ASTRON Energy
 Light as a wave
Before the 20th century, light was believed to propagate as waves
and thus had certain abilities:
Reflection Refraction

Interference
Diffraction

Attributes of a wave
Since light is seen as a wave, there are certain attributes of this
wave

Wavelength (𝝀) – distance between two consecutive points that are in

phase [m]

Amplitude – maximum distance of the wave from its equilibrium position.

Frequency (𝒇) -The amount of wave cycles that are completed in a

second [Hz]

Period (T ) – How long it takes for a wave cycle to be completed [s]

Intensity of light is represented by the amplitude (brightness)

 Einstein and the Dual Nature of Light
In the 1920s, Einstein conducted an experiment which showed that a light source of
a certain frequency was able to eject electrons from a metal’s surface

Einstein obtained the following results from his experiment:

An increase in the intensity of the light, increases the number of photoelectrons

escaping
An increase in the frequency of the light increases kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.

There exists a threshold frequency in which an electron will not be emitted if the
light has a frequency less than the threshold frequency

Different metals have different threshold frequencies

This became known as the PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s experiment changed the way we viewed light as it revealed that light has a
wave-particle duality, meaning light can act as a wave OR particle if placed under
certain conditions

In 1921, Albert Einstein won the Nobel

Prize in Physics for his explanation of the
Photoelectric Effect where he presented
that light is made up of particles which are
small ‘energy packets’ called photons.
And it was these photons that caused the
electrons to be emitted. This showed that
light has a particle nature.
 Photoelectric Effect: Applications
The photoelectric effect has many uses in today's world, such as aiding in the
detection of cosmic rays in astronomy or automated alarms, but the most important
use of the photoelectric effect are SOLAR PANELS

What is the Photoelectric effect?

The process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface when
light of suitable frequency is incident on that surface

Electrons removed like these are called photoelectrons

The amount of energy (𝑬) in a photon is directly proportional to the

frequency (𝒇) of the light and inversely proportional to the wavelength
(𝝀) of the light being shone onto the metal .

Electron emission
Light rays

Metal
 Photon Energy (E) and Work Function
(W0)
The work function (𝑊0 /Φ) is the minimum amount of energy that
an electron in a metal needs to be emitted from the metal surface
and be represented in the following equation:

The minimum frequency

of the incident photon that
𝑊0 = ℎ𝑓0 is required to emit a
photoelectron from the
surface of the metal is
called the threshold
frequency (𝒇𝟎 )

𝑬 < 𝑾𝑶 𝑬 = 𝑾𝑶

𝑬 > 𝑾𝑶
 Photoelectric Effect: Equation
The energy of the photon (𝐸) that was used to eject the electron can be
described sum of the electron’s work function and its kinetic energy when
ejected. This is because ALL THE ENERGY of the photon is transferred
to an electron.
This can be represented as:

𝐸 = 𝑊0 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 Where:

𝒉 = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s-1

1
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓0 + 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
2 𝒄 = 3 x 108 m.s-1

ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 1 𝒎𝒆 = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
= + 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
𝜆 𝜆0 2

Graphical Representations
The kinetic energy of the photoelectron is dependent on the frequency of
the light. They follow a linear relation. When the frequency of the light is
greater than the threshold frequency the photoelectron will have kinetic
energy

E = W0 + Kmax

Straight-line graph: y = mx + c

Kmax = E - W0

Kmax = 𝒉𝒇 – hf0
 Increasing the intensity of the
incident light
Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the light would
only increase the number of photon BUT NOT THE
ENERGY.

Intensity of the light is directly proportional to the

number of photoelectrons emitted. The higher the
intensity, the more the photoelectrons get emitted.

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝒏𝒆 =
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝑵𝑬 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏

How current is affected:

An increase in intensity increases the number of

photoelectrons emitted which increases the charge which
increases the current.

An increase in the frequency increases the speed of the

photoelectrons and decreases the time it takes for the
photoelectrons to travel therefore it increases the current.
 Absorption and Emission Spectra
The atomic emission spectrum is formed when electromagnetic radiation
of certain frequencies are emitted due to the atom’s electron (𝑒 − ) making
a transition from a higher energy state to a lower energy state.

Colour
Different elements would Element
emitted
release electromagnetic
waves of different colours 𝑳𝒊 Red
which therefore means
𝑲 Purple
they would release
different colours of light. 𝑪𝒂 Yellow/orange

Energy of emitted photon

The value of the energy emitted by the e- is a negative value which indicates that
the energy has been lost in the form of a photon (𝛾).

Energy of emitted photon can be determined

by the following equation:

∆𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇 – 𝑬𝒊
∴ 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟐 – 𝑬𝟑
= −𝒉𝒇

The energy values are usually very small (10-19J ) therefore the energy values are
given as electron volts (eV)

𝟏𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

 Atomic Absorption
When light is passed through a certain gas, some of the
wavelengths of the light is absorbed by the elements present in
gas, which results in the electrons ascending to a higher energy
level.
The wavelength absorbed varies depending on the elements
present in the gas

This would therefore mean that there would be parts of the gas's
spectrum would be missing (i.e., some colours would be missing)

Emission & Absorption Spectra

There are three types of spectra:
 Exam Practice
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (Nov 2022) Q.10
A photoelectric cell is connected in a circuit. The lowest frequency of light
that will emit
electrons from its caesium surface is 5,1 x 1014 Hz.
Violet light of wavelength 400 nm is incident on the caesium surface.

10.1 Define threshold frequency. (2)

10.2 Calculate:

10.2.1 The work function of caesium (3)

10.2.2 The amount of energy carried by the incident photons of

violet light (3)

10.2.3 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted

from the caesium surface when violet light shines on it (4)

10.3 Give ONE application, other than a photovoltaic cell, which

makes use of the particle nature of light. (1)

[13]
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2021) Q.10
When light of various frequencies is incident on the metal cathode of a
photocell, photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of the cathode.

The graph below shows the relationship between the maximum kinetic
energy (Ek(max)) of an emitted photoelectron and the wavelength of the
incident light.

10.1 Use the graph to determine the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron when the wavelength of the incident light is 1,0 x 10-7 m. (1)

10.2 What relationship between the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron and the wavelength of the incident light can be deduced from
the graph? (2)

10.3 Define the term work function in words. (2)

10.4 Use the graph to calculate the work function of the metal used as cathode of
this photocell. (4)

10.5 Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron when the
wavelength of the incident light is 0,5 x 10-7 m. (4)

[13]
WORKED Exam Question Paper 1 (June 2022) Q.10
10.1 The apparatus illustrated in the simplified diagram below is
used to demonstrate the photoelectric effect.

10.1.1 Define the term photoelectric effect. (2)

Incident light of frequency 1,2 x 1015 Hz is shone onto the metal plate and
electrons are emitted.

Calculate the:

10.1.2 Number of photoelectrons emitted in one second if the

total energy transferred by the light to the metal plate per
second is 1,75 x 10-9 J (4)

10.1.3 Maximum speed of a photoelectron if the threshold

frequency of the metal plate is 9,09 x 1014 Hz (5)

10.2 Briefly explain how an emission spectrum is formed in terms of

energy transitions. (2)

[13]