Instructional Material for

Forensic Photography

JEZREEL B. VICENTE, PhD Crim.

Faculty, SCJPS, University of Baguio
MODULE CONTENTS

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 MODULE LESSON PAGE

Module 1 FIRST GRADING LESSONS 6

CHAPTER 1. INTRO TO POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

Brief History of Photography
Principles of Photography
Importance of Photography in Law Enforcement
Fundamental Requisites of Photograph to be
Judicially Recognized
Types of Photography

CHAPTER 2. LIGHT
Photographic Light Rays
Two Mains Sources of Light
Classification of Daylight According to its Intensity
Sources of Artificial Light
Types of Electronic Flash

CHAPTER 3. CAMERA and its ACCESSORIES

Three Basic Parts of a Camera
Other Parts of a Single Lens Reflex Camera
Different Types of Camera
Three Basic Controls of Camera
Camera Accessories
Two General Types of Photographic Filter
How Contrast Filter Work?
Color Combinations of Photographic Filters

Module 2 MIDTERM LESSONS 36

CHAPTER 4. CAMERA LENS

Classification of Lens
Classification of Camera Lenses According to its
Focal Length
Lens Aberrations
Types of Lenses According to their Degree of
Correction

CHAPTER 5. EXPOSURE
Three Factors that Affect Exposures
Camera Exposure Modes
Determining the Correct Exposure
Two Types of Hand-held Exposure Meter

CHAPTER 6. DEPTH OF FIELD

Three Factors Used in Controlling the Depth of Field

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 How to Obtain a Maximum Depth of Field

Module 3 FINAL LESSONS 49

CHAPTER 7. SURFACES SENSITIVE TO LIGHT

The Major Constituents of Film
Three Layers of Color Film
Types of Photographic Film
Different Film Speed Rating System
Type of Film According to the Image it Produced
Types of Film According to Color Balance
Types of Film According to Spectral Sensitivity
Types of Film According to its Size
Photographic Papers

CHAPTER 8. CHEMICAL PROCESSING

Three Basic Chemicals Needed to Develop Film and
Photographic Paper
Developing Time for Film and Print Paper
Stages of Making Photographs
The Printing Process
Print Paper Development

CHAPTER 9. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Objectives of Crime Scene Photography
Guidelines in taking Crime Scene Photography
Photographic Views
Two General Methods of Photography
Autopsy Photographic Procedures

EVALUATION OF THE MODULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE

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 Course Code FRSCST3

Course This 3-unit course was given the course description “Forensic
description Photography.” This course is composed of three (3) modules
with sub-lessons. Each module is provided with its specific
objectives, the lessons proper, assessment questions to be
answered after reading each module, and references. Additional
instructions may be given by the subject facilitator.

Requirements 1. Compiled answers to all the assessment questions of the modules

of the course 2. Reflective Essays
3. Quizzes
4. Assignments
5. Major examinations
Facilitator Dr. Jezreel B. Vicente

Official Email: [email protected]

Official mobile no. 0977-88-77-300 (Globe)

Office: SCJPS Faculty office, 8F, FGB Building (or Building A),
University of Baguio, Gen. Luna Rd., Baguio City

PREFACE TO THE MODULE

This module contains three modules with sub-lessons, designed and arranged
accordingly to meet the standards of practitioners and students. Each module contains
specific objectives and references in order to help criminology and criminal justice

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practitioners as well as students/researchers in finding related topics from other
references thereby enhancing classroom discussion.

This course is one of the subjects in Criminalistics (one of the six (6) areas in the
Licensure Examination for Criminologists) as identified in the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) Memorandum Order Number 21. The contents of this book were
based from the syllabus issued by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC).

This instructional material is a product of intensive research from several books,

compilations and electronic sources. Some of the contents of this book were part of the
author’s formal review/lectures to outside schools/ universities. No part of this module
be reproduced commercially without the written permission of the author.

JEZREEL B. VICENTE
Faculty, SCJPS, University of Baguio

MODULE 1. FIRST GRADING LESSONS (CHAPTERS 1-3)

OBJECTIVES:
1. To trace the historical development of photography;
2. To understand the photographic rays, sources of light, classification of
daylight and light in general; and

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3. To identify the parts of a camera and explain the functions each part.

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
THE PHILIPPINE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM REQUIRES THAT, AN EVIDENCE MUST BE
PRESENTED IN ORDER TO CONVICT OR ACQUIT THE SUSPECT. “NO EVIDENCE, NO CASE”, IS
THE LEGAL GUIDING PRINCIPLE. THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF EVIDENCE, ONE OF WHICH IS
PHOTOGRAPH. THROUGH PHOTOGRAPHS, THE CRIME SCENE AND ALL PHYSICAL EVIDENCES
WITHIN IT ARE PRESERVED, WHICH ARE VERY NECESSARY IN THE SUCCESSFUL PROSECUTION
OF THE ACCUSED.

THEPHOTOGRAPHS PRESENTED BY THE INVESTIGATOR MUST PASS THE LEGAL

SCRUTINY OF THE COURT OR MUST COMPLY WITH THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN ORDER FOR
THE PHOTOGRAPHS TO BE ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE. ONE OF WHICH , IS THAT THE
PHOTOGRAPHS MUST BE FREE FOM ANY DISTORTION. TO SATISFY THIS BASIC REQUIREMENT,
THE CRIME SCENE PHOTGRAPHER MUST BE HIGHLY SKILLED IN TAKING CRIME SCENE
PHOTOGRAPHS. IN CASE OF DOUBT AS TO THE EXPOSURE SETTING HE USED, HE SHALL
ADOPT THE GENERAL RULE IN TAKING CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS- THAT IS, “TAKE MANY
PHOTOGRAPHS AND SELECT THE BEST”. IT IS A GOOD POLICY TO TAKE TOO MANY
PHOTOGRAPHS RATHER THAN TOO FEW, BECAUSE THE INVESTIGATOR CANNOT GO BACK TO
THE CRIME SCENE LATER TO PHOTOGRAPH THE SCENE IN ITS ORIGINAL CONDITION. JUST A
SLIGHT MISTAKE IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE COULD EITHER ACQUIT A GUILTY
PERSON OR CONVICT THE INNOCENT, REMEMBER THAT FILM IS CHEAPER, THAN LOSING A
CASE IN COURT.

BRIEF HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

THE FIRST CAMERA
THE EARLIEST FORERUNNER OF THE CAMERAS WAS NOT ANYTHING LIKE
WHAT WE USE TODAY. NO ONE ACTUALLY KNOWS WHO CONSTRUCTED THE FIRST CAMERA
KNOWN AS THE CAMERA OBSCURA, A LATIN PHRASE MEANING DARK ROOM. IT WAS SIMPLY A
DARK ROOM WITH A SMALL HOLE IN ONE OF THE WALLS THAT LETS LIGHT IN AND PROJECT
THE UPSIDE-DOWN IMAGES OF THINGS OUTSIDE THE ROOM ON THE OPPOSITE WALL OR ON
THE INTERIOR WALL OPPOSITE THE APERTURE. THE IMAGE WAS NOT SHARP BECAUSE NO
LENSES WERE ATTACHED TO THE SMALL HOLE IN THE WALL. WHAT WAS OBSERVED,
HOWEVER, WAS THAT THE SMALLER THE HOLE, THE SHARPER THE IMAGE. ACCORDING TO
MANY HISTORIANS, THE CAMERA OBSCURA BEGAN TO BE EQUIPPED WITH LENSES IN ABOUT
THE 16TH CENTURY.

AS
INTEREST IN THE CAMERA OBSCURA GREW, THE DARK ROOM
BECAME SMALLER AND SMALLER UNTIL IT BECAME A BOX AND FINALLY, IT BECAME MORE OR
LESS PORTABLE. IT IS USUALLY MADE OF WOOD WITH A LENS ATTACHED AT ONE END. ON
THE OTHER END OF THE BOX, A MIRROR WAS PLACED AT A 45-DEGREE ANGLE. ABOVE THIS

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WAS PLACED A FROSTED OR GROUND GLASS PLATE. AN ARTIST WOULD PLACE THIN PAPER OR
TRACING PAPER OVER THE GROUND GLASS AND TRACE THE INMAGES THAT WAS PROJECTED
THERE.

IN 1558, GIOVANNI BATTISTA DELL PORTA

WAS THE FIRST TO SUGGEST THAT THE
CAMERA OBSCURA BE USED AS A GUIDE FOR DRAWING, AND IT IS FOR THIS IDEA THAT HE IS
REMEMBERED.

IN 1676, THE FIRST “REFLECT” CAMERA APPEARED. IN THIS CAMERA, AN INCLINED

MIRROR BEHIND THE LENS REFLECTED THE IMAGE ONTO A TOP-MOUNTED
VIEWING SCREEN. ALL THE ARTIST OR DRAFTSMEN DO WAS TO PUT A PIECE OF TRACING
PAPER ON TOP OF THE VIEWING SCREEN AND TRACE THE OUTLINE.

NOTE: THE OPTICAL TECHNIQUE CAME ABOUT WITH THE REALIZATION THAT A
SMALL HOLE IN A WALL OF A DARK ROOM COULD PROJECT INVERTED
IMAGES ON AN OPPOSITE WALL. WITH THE CHEMICAL TECHNIQUE, ON THE
OTHER HAND, PEOPLE REALIZED THAT CERTTAIN CHEMICALS TURNED DARK
WHEN EXPOSED TO LIGHT.

The earliest successfully recorded instances of photography are

attributed to the following persons.
JOHANN HEINRICH SHULZE (1727) - A German physicist, Johann Heinrich Schulze
discovered that light could be used to alter substances. He put silver, chalk, and nitric
acid together in a bottle, did the hokey, pokey, and shook it all about. He then exposed
the mixture to bright sunlight and found that the mixture darkened to black. To prove
that this was a photosensitive reaction as opposed to heat-induced reaction, he
repeated the process but exposed the mixture to intense heat. Proving his theory, this
experiment produced no change in the mixture.
JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE (1765-1833)

- Although Daguerre and Fox Talbot are usually credited with the invention of
photography, it was niepce, in the 1820s, who was actually the first to capture and
reproduce lasting images.
- He found that bitumen of Judea, a compound that hardens when exposed to
light, could produce negatives.
- He called his process “Heliography” meaning “writing of the sun’’.
- One of his early heliographs from 1827, a view from a window that required an
eight-hour exposure, is the earliest photographic image in existence.
- In 1833, Niepce, the inventor of photography died.

HELIOGRAPHY – A forerunner to the earliest photographic process, invented by

Niepce in 1822. It entails using bitumen, a material that hardens and becomes
insoluble in light. He hoped to use this process to transfer images to be printed on a
press.
NOTE: Although heliography was unsuccessful, it was an early breakthrough that
led to the development of the Daguerreotype.

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LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1787-1851)
A French inventor, who, after collaborating with Niepce, devised the first
practicable photographic process.
 He was experimenting with photo-reactive chemicals at the same time with
Niepce.
 He formed a partnership with Niepce in 1829
 He called his process a “Daguerreotype”
 He was considered as the “FATHER OF PHOTOGRAPHY.”
DAGUERREOTYPE – An early photographic process using silver coated, light-sensitive
metallic plates developed by mercury vapor.
The Daguerrotype photographic process was primarily a portrait medium that
was executed in a studio, announced in 1839 by Daguerre, which consisted of a copper
plate coated with silver that was highly polished. The plate was then treated with iodine
vapor and became light sensitive. It was then put in a camera and a photograph was
taken. After the plate was developed in mercury vapor, which is highly toxic, a distinct
photographic image appeared on the polished silver surface.
A Daguerreotype can be identified by the polished silver surface, which
resembles a mirror, with an image upon it.
Serious Defects of the Daguerreotype:
a. The daguerreotype produced only one image that could be made from each
exposure, since it was positive process; it only yielded one-of-a-kind images.
b. Exposure times were still lengthy, about 30 minutes.
WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT (1800-1877)
 The inventor of positive-negative photographic process.
 It was Talbot, who first used a process that produced a negative picture on
paper, projecting lights of an image as a dark and darks as lights.
 A positive was then made another on another sheet of chemical sensitized paper
exposed to light through a negative. In other words , he invented the negative-
positive photographic process that enabled the production of multiple prints on
paper from a single negative, which continues to be the basis for photography
today.
 Attributed as the person who discovered first true modern photography.
 Talbot is generally regarded as the father of photography.
 He called his process “Calotype”
SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL (1792-1871)
 A British astronomer and photographic chemist.
 Inspired by Daguerre and Talbot, English astronomer Sir John Frederick William
Herschel also began experimenting with the photographic process.
 He discovered that thiosulphate of soda, the chemical now referred as “Hypo”,
would fix images on photosensitive paper by stopping the chemical action of
silver salts.
 Herschel is noted for his 1819 discovery of thiosulfates and their ability to
dissolve silver salts completely, which led, 20 years later, after Daguerre and Fox
Talbot claimed invention of photography.

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  He suggested to both inventors that sodium thiosulfate, or hypo, could be used
as a fixing agent to wash away the unaltered salts after the photograph was
processed
 The chemical, still in use and known as “fixer”, makes photographic negatives
and prints permanently.
 He did not only discovered fixer, but also coined the word photography, which
comes from the Greek word meaning “light writing”
 Herschel used the term photography to differentiate between Talbot’s negative
paper prints and Daguerre’s positive image method that used copper plates.
FREDERICK SCOTT ARCHER (1831-1857)
 In March 1851, he invented a wet-plate collodion photography or wet-plate
process now known as Archerotype, by which finely detailed glass negatives
were produced.
 The process entailed using a glass plate coated with collodion that was
sensitized and used while wet.
 Archer is generally accepted as the creator of the process that replaced
daguerreotypes. It was popular from about 1855 to 1880, when the dry collodion
process gained acceptance.
 He reduced exposure times from minutes to seconds.
NOTE; Collodion process is an early method for producing glass negatives.
The procedure began with the use of a sticky substance that could hold the silver
that produces a photographic image. This was invented by Frederick Scott
Archer in 1851. It derived from Greek word for glue.
RICHARD LEACH MADDOX
 An English physician who took Archer’s discovery a step further with his “dry
plate” process, which used an emulsion or gelatin and silver bromide or a glass
plate.
 By 1880, collodion was replaced by gelatin, which was used in dry plate-hence
the name, dry plate photography. For short time, there was a dry-collodion
process, but it was very slow. Dry plate usually refers to the gelatin process.
GEORGE EASTMAN (a.k.a.Mr. Kodak)(1854-1932)
 An American photographic inventor and manufacturer.
 The founder of Kodak Company.
 He introduced the Kodak box camera in 1888 with the promotional slogan “You
press the button, we do the rest.” It was sold for $25 and came already loaded
with a 20-foot roll of paper film, enough for 100 exposures. After all frames were
exposed, the user sent the entire camera back to Eastman’s company. There,
the film was processed, printed, and the camera was loaded with a new roll, after
which it was sent back to its owner with the negatives and a set of prints.
 He gave us the flexible roll film and the daylight-loadable camera in the late
1880s or the first “point-and-shoot” camera.
 In 1932, at the age of 78, Eastman killed himself, leaving a note that said, “My
work is done. Why wait?”

DR. EDWIN H. LAND (1909-1991)

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An American inventor in 1947, he invented instant photography and introduced the first
Polaroid camera, which produced a sepia monochrome print in just 60 seconds.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY
The ability of film to record color is due to the presence of three layers of color-
yellow, red, and blue-on the film. When combined, these three colors represent the
majority of colors that we see.
PHOTOGRAPHY AND ITS PRINCIPLES
PHOTOGRAPHY
IS defined as an art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through
the action of light on sensitized material (film and photographic paper) with the aid of
camera and its accessories and the chemical processes involved therein.
It is the process of producing images of objects by the action of light, on
sensitized materials with the aid of an image forming device known as camera and its
accessories and the chemical process involved therein.
The process of forming and fixing images of an object or objects by the chemical
action of light and other forms of radiant energy on photosensitive surfaces.
The word photography is derived from two Greek words photos (light) and
graphos (chart or drawing or writing). Literally, photography means, “to draw with
light”
PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The mechanical and chemical result of photography is known as
PHOTOGRAPH. In making a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized
materials (film and papers). Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach the film
while all other lights are excluded. The exclusion of all other light is achieved by placing
the film inside a light tight box (camera).
The effect of light on the film is not visible in the formation of images of objects.
To make it visible, the exposed film must be process chemically called development,
using a chemical known as developer.
The visual effect of light on the film after development depends on the quantity or
quality of light that reached the emulsion. Too great in the amount of light will produce
an opaque of a very black shade after development. Too little light will produce a
transparent or white shade after development.

The quality of light reaching the film is dependent upon the following factors:
a. Lighting conditions
b. Lens opening
c. Shutter speed
d. Film speed
e. Photographic filter

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NOTE: All objects reflect a certain amount of light. However, a light-colored object
reflects more light than a dark-colored object. A dark-colored object absorbs more light
than a light-colored object.
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
Is defined as art or science that deals with the study of principles of photography,
preparations of photographic evidence and its application to police work.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Is the process of photographing or recording the crime scene or any objects for
court presentation.
IMPORTANCE/USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK
 It serves as evidence.
 It preserves all evidences.
 It refreshes the mind of the investigator.
 It records the illegal activities and identities of criminals.
 It provides a second look and often reveals detail that is not apparent during the
physical examination.
 It is useful in personal identification as well as in the identification of missing
person, identification of wanted person, and identification of stolen and lost
properties.
 It records all things that an investigator may fail to notice.
 It makes the accused admit his crime.
 It assists the court in understanding the case.
 It helps reconstruct the crime scene.
 It helps the expert witness in illustrating their findings.
 Photographs are used to supplement, explain, and replace the descriptive
testimony of witnesses.
 It serves as lecture materials and illustrations during police personnel training.
 It is also used to reproduce and copy documents.
 Photographs are used in crime prevention and control programs as well as in fire
prevention programs.
 Photography is a valuable tool for recording the crime scene and explaining
evidence to others
In general, there are four (4) primary ways of using photography in law
enforcement work, namely:
 As a means of identification.
 As a method of discovering, recording, and preserving evidence.
 As a way to present in the court room, an impression of the pertinent elements of
a crime.
 As a training and public relations medium for police programs.
FUNDAMENTAL REQUISITES PHOTOGRAPH TO BE JUDICIALLY RECOGNIZED
1. Faithful representation or accurate representation of the original object or
subject.

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 2. The photograph must be free from distortion and must not misrepresent the
scene or object
Faithful representation
Means the same likeness as the original or as seen by the naked eye. So what is
required by law is likeness of the original, a mere shadow of an object is not a faithful
and accurate representation of an object.
In the case of the City of Manila vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil.151, it was held that
photographs are admissible in evidence when shown to be the true and faithful
representation of object as seen by the naked eye (upon proof of their exactness and
accuracy).
Photographs that have been identified and found relevant must be shown to be
the accurate reproduction of the matter they depict.
This essential element in qualifying photographs for admission is usually supplied
by a witness who testifies that the photograph is a fair and accurate representation of
the scene as he observed it firsthand.
Proof of accuracy – Preliminary proof that such is a correct representation or
reproduction is required before admitted (Cabangis vs. City of Manila)

It is an error to admit a photograph in evidence when there is no evidence

identifying it or proving its accuracy (Hammond Packing Co. vs. Dickey 106, California
Court of Appeals, 317)
It is a constant practice of courts to receive evidence of pictures, drawings, and
photographs of objects that cannot be brought inside the courtroom, upon proof of their
exactness and accuracy as representation of the original subject or object (Jones on
Evidence, Vol. 2, Sec. 597, cited in city of Manila vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil. 155)
Photographs, which are relevant and materials are qualified for admission by the
supportive testimony of witness, usually persons who witness the matter being
photographed. The verifying witness is often the photographer who took the
photograph, but it may be anyone who can identify the subject matter and state that the
reproduction is accurate. A photograph standing alone, without authenticating or
verifying testimony cannot become part of the evidence.
Photographs are dependent for their accuracy upon the skill of the person
making them and truthfulness of the one testifying for them.
b. Relevant/ material and competent
“Evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the issue and is not excluded by the law
or rules of court.“ (Rule 128, Sec. 3 of the Rules of Evidence)
Material – refers to the probative value of the evidence
Relevant – relates to the case under investigation
Competent – not sanctioned by the rules of court
Photographs are relevant if they either assist witnesses in presenting and
explaining their testimony or aid the court in understanding the issues in the suit. All
photographs must relate to the matter at hand. They must be appropriate and must not

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show anything that has nothing to do with the case. One of the most frequent faults in
crime scene photographs is the presence of many police officers in the photograph.
These men are not relevant. The crime scene should be photographed empty of
everything that was not used there when the police arrived.
c. No inflammatory content/unbiased
Another thing to avoid in police photography is the inclusion of emotional things
that might be classed by the court as inflammatory, or tending to affect the emotions of
the viewer. An example of this would be photograph of a murder scene with hysterical
female relatives of the victim crying in the background, or a photograph of the wounds
on the corpse including the exposed sexual organ of the victim. If these private parts
are not relevant, they should be decently covered.
Inflammatory – arousing strong or uncontrolled feelings
Inflammable – easily exceeds, esp. to anger or outrage
Inflame – to arouse too strong or excessive feelings; to intensify
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY
It is the process of obtaining photographic magnification of minute objects
by using a camera attached to a compound microscope.
The art or process of photographing minute objects and magnified by means of
the microscope and enlarged from 10x up.
2. PHOTOMACROGRAPHY
The process of obtaining magnified photograph of a small object without the use
of a microscope using a short macro lens or close up attachments.
The process of photographing an object at greater than 1:1 ratio up to nine (9)
times magnification.
It is the making of enlarged copies of prints such as photographs of tampered
serial number of firearms, engine number, and chassis number of motor vehicle and the
likes.

Macro Lens
The camera lens that is capable of taking photograph of extreme close-up shots
without the need of close-up attachment.

Reverse Fixed Mounted Lens Method

A method of enlarging a minute object using normal lens by detaching it from the
camera, then attach the lens in inverted position and move the camera itself nearer or
farther from the subject for focusing.
1. ULTRA-VIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY – The process of photographing unseen object with
the use of ultraviolet rays and filters.
The process of taking photograph using ultra-violet rays or more specifically
light energies with a wavelength of 300-400 nanometer of the electro magnetic
spectrum.

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 The underlying principle of ultra-violet photography lies on the fact that some
materials will absorb ultra-violet rays while others reflect these radiation, some have
partial absorption and some partial reflection. The difference in reaction can be
recorded photographically by the use of said radiation.
NOTE: The main purpose is to provide information about an object or materials that
cannot be obtained by ordinary photographic methods.

Methods of ultra-violet photography:

1. Reflected method (straight UV Photography)
In reflected method, ultra-violet rays are the only one permitted to enter the
camera by using a light source that emits ultra-violet rays using a filter over the lens.
Procedures:
a. Illuminate the subject by means of UV lamp
b. Exclude all visible light from the camera by placing a filter over the lens of the
camera that transmits any UV rays. (a wratten filter no. 18-A is used for this
purpose)
c. Record the image in the camera with a suitable film.
1. Fluorescence or Fluorescent Method
In fluorescent method, only the visible light reflected from the subject being
photograph when it glows upon exposure of the ultra-violet rays will be allowed to enter
the camera.
Procedure: (Done inside the darkroom)
a. lluminate the subject with ultra-violet lamp so it will fluoresce or glows
b. A wratten filter no. 2B (ultra-violet absorbing filter) is then placed over the lens of
the camera so only the visible light coming from the subject will be the one to
react on the film.
c. Record the image in the camera.
To solve the problem of difficulty in focusing, pre-focus the lens of the camera
under normal room condition. When it is ready, put off the room light. Since the light
source and emission speed ratings of films are for normal visible light rays and not for
ultra-violet rays, the ideal exposure time could be determined by test or trial method or
bracketing technique.
Any type of film could be used for both methods of ultra-violet photography
because the film sensitivity or all films covers this type of radiations. Practically all types
of cameras could be used and processing procedures of the film is the same as that of
ordinary photography.
INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY
The process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means of infrared
film and infrared light.
The process of taking photographs with the region between 700-1000 nanometer
of the electromagnetic spectrum by using specifically sensitized film.

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 The underlying principle of infra-red photography lies on the fact that many
objects reflect, transmit, or absorb infra-red radiations much differently than the visible
light or other rays of shorter wavelengths. In effect, like ultraviolet photography, it
extends our eyesight letting us see and interpret phenomena that might otherwise
escape our attention.
Any camera, which is suitable for taking ordinary photographs, is also suitable
for taking infrared photographs.
The difference in taking photographs with ordinary visible light to that of infrared
photography lies on the following factors:
1. FILM – In infrared photography, one must use an infra-red film. Infrared films come
in the form of 35mm cartridges. There are infrared black and white films and there are
also infrared color films. These color film comes in color reversal process and not in the
negative color process. Example: Kodachrome, Ectachrome, etc.
2. FOCUSING – After focusing the lens visually by visible light, the lens should be
extended beyond the visual focusing mark by a distance of ¼ or 25% of 1% of the focal
length of the lens. Failure to make this correction of focus will make the image unsharp.
Some lenses have special mark (a red dot) for use in focusing infrared images. This
could be found in the focusing scale of the focusing ring of the camera.
3. FILTER – For infrared photography, one can use a red filter such as wratten A or F.
However, red filter of this type transmit a little visible light in the extreme red range and
therefore they are not always completely satisfactory. Oddly enough though, an
infrared photograph made with these types of filters. The wratten 87, which is
completely opaque when held up against the light, will produce the best results with
infrared film in legal work.
Procedures:
 Filter the light source so that it emits nothing but infrared rays. This procedure is
done in the dark.
 A filter is placed over the lens of the camera to strain out visible light and permit
only infrared rays to pass through the lens and form the image done with ordinary
lighting.
LIGHT SOURCES FOR INFRA-RED PHOTOGRAPHY
a. Sunlight
b. Almost any incandescent light source can be used for taking infrared
photographs indoor as in the laboratory. Photoflood lamps are excellent but even
ordinary light bulbs will do.
c. Fluorescent tubes are ineffective in infrared work because of their low heat
output.
d. The infrared lamp found in the market is not also advisable because it is used for
therapeutic purposes. The wavelength it emits is of the longer band of the
electromagnetic spectrum beyond the sensitivity of the infrared film.
X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY
The process of taking photographs with the use of x-rays.

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MUG-SHOT OR MUG PHOTOGRAPHY
The process of taking photographs of the suspect in full length, right and left side
views, two quarter views and unidentified cadavers to include marks on the victim’s
body especially tattoo/scar for identification. It is also defined as identification
photography.

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 CHAPTER II

LIGHT

Light
Is a form of energy which makes it possible to see. The radiant energy that makes
things visible.
Speed of light – 299,793 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second
KINDS OF RADIANT ENERGY
 Infra-red rays
 Ultra-violet rays
 X-rays
 Visible lights (or simply light) (for normal photography)
 Cosmic rays
 Gamma rays
 Radio waves
Note: Visible light is only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Visible
Electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the normal, unaided human
eye and has wavelengths between 3,900 and 7,700 angstroms (Riverside Webster’s II
Dictionary, revised edition; page 398)
Angstrom – a unit of length equal to one (1) hundred-millionth (10-8) of a centimeter.
Electromagnetic spectrum – The whole range of radiant energy that includes infrared
rays, ultra-violet rays, x-rays, radio waves, gamma rays, cosmic rays, microwaves and
visible light. The term for the entire spectrum of energy, that includes visible light.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHT RAYS
1. X-RAYS – These are radiations having a wavelength between .01-30 millimicrons or
nanometer. They are produced by passing an electric current through a special type of
vacuum tube. It is used to detect and identify hidden object in boxes and other
containers. It penetrates objects which are impervious to visible light.
2. ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS – These are radiations having a wavelength of 30-400
millimicrons or nanometer. When this invisible light comes in contact with a particular
substance or matter, it will produce the phenomenon known as fluorescence.
The continued emission of light without accompanying heat after exposure to and
removal of a source of stimulating radiation will produce a phenomenon known as
Phosphorescence.
For photographic purposes, ultra-violet rays are produced artificially by means of
specialized electric light called mercury- vapor lamp or quarts mercury vapor lamp.
Aside from ultra-violet lamp, it is necessary to place a filter over the artificial ultra-
violet lamp or over the lens of the camera to strain out visible light and permit only

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ultraviolet rays to pass through the lens, and records only the fluorescent light radiated
or reflected by a particular substance or object.
In using ultraviolet light for photographing the fluorescence or fluorescent light, it
is necessary to use dark room so that its full effect may be clearly recorded.
Uses of Ultra-violet rays
To restore writings which have been erased chemically or mechanically
1. To detect substitutions, erasures, overwriting and secret writings.
2. To detect and photograph fingerprint on multicolored background.
3. To detect invisible inks.
4. It is also used for locating seminal and urine stains on clothing.

1. VISIBLE RAYS – These are radiations having a wavelength between 400-700

miliimicrons or nanometer. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affects the
human sense of sight.
2. INFRARED RAYS – These are radiations having a wavelength between 700-
1,000 millimicrons or nanometer.
 It also referred to as heat rays or heat wave.
 It is called infrared because they adjoin the red spectrum of visible lights.
 Infrared rays are also artificially produced by infrared lamp.
 It can be made only in total darkness.
Uses of Infrared Photography in Police Work
 To show photographically erasures, forgeries writing on charred documents,
dirty, or faded documents.
 To detect differences of different ink and papers.
 To detect stains in cloth, particularly gunpowder residues that are hidden by
bloodstains.
 To take photographs in the dark or fogs.
 It is used in night surveillance.
 Detection of Secret Writings
 It is used to photograph latent fingerprints on multi-colored
background(lampblack powder is used)

TWO MAINS SOURCES OF LIGHT

1. NATURAL LIGHT – It refers to the daylight coming from the sun, which is in
general utilized for outdoor photography.
 Natural lights are lights, which come to existence without the intervention of man.
 Is that which is produced by the sun, including direct sunlight, the soft light in a
shadow, and/or light bounced off a reflective surface, moonlight, which is light
reflected from the sun, and starlight are also sources of natural lights.

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 Daylight photography depends as much on the quality of the daylight as its
strength. The quality of daylight is a combination of contrast and color temperature or
color of the daylight.
CONTRAST – The difference in brightness between the bright highlights and deepest
shadows in a subject, negative or print.
1. The range or brightness in a subject.
2. In a black and white photography, contrast is the difference between the shades
of black and white in a photograph.
3. The difference in intensities of light falling on various parts of a subject.

The contrast depends upon the sunlight available in the daylight, when the sun is
not covered by clouds, the contrast is high and the photograph or negative is said to be
contrasty. On the other hand, when the sun is covered by clouds, the contrast is low
and the photograph or negative is said to be “FLAT“.

High Contrast (Contrasty) – A term used to describe a high-contrast image on a

negative or printing paper. One with strong blacks, brilliant whites, and only a few mid-
tones.

Low Contrast (Flat) – A term used to describe a low-contrast image on a negative or

printing paper. One with weak, grey, grayish blacks and many mid-tones.

COLOR TEMPERATURE - A measure of the relative amount of red or blue light in a

particular light source. 5600 K
 A tungsten light has relatively high proportion of red and orange light (and a low
color temperature)
 While an electronic flash has a higher proportion of blue light (and has a higher
temperature).
 Color temperature is measured in units called Degrees Kelvin, color
temperatures may vary between 4600 k for tungsten light, to approximately 9600
under clear blue daylight conditions.
 This rates different light sources according to their color content.

KELVIN – A unit of measurement used to describe the color temperature of light

sources.
COLOR TEMPERATURE OF LIGHT SOURCES

Source Color temperature

Candle light - 2,000K

Domestic tungsten - 2,800K
Photographic tungsten - 3,200K
Noon daylight - 5,500K
Blue sky - - 10,000K

Kelvin scale is used to describe the color temperature of different sources of light.

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Note: The bluer, the higher the color temperature and the more red, the lower the
color temperature.

Color-Cast - The unnatural color affecting the whole image. It occurs when daylight-
balanced film is exposed to tungsten light, or vice versa. Casts can also occur when
flash is bounced from a colored wall or ceiling, or when daylight is reflected from a
colored building.

Classification of Daylight According to Its Intensity

1) Bright light – A lighting condition wherein objects in open space cast a deep or
uniform shadow.
 In bright light, the subject will produce strong shadow, because the source of light
is not covered by clouds.
 The object in open space under bright light appears glossy and the color is
saturated.
 In black-and-white photography, the object or subject looks contrasty.

2) Hazy light – A lighting condition wherein the objects in open space cast a
transparent shadow.
 In hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by the clouds and shadow appears bluish
because of the decrease of light falling on the subjects in open space.
 The shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this
lighting condition than in bright sunlight.
 When the sunlight is obscured by light clouds, the intensity of the direct light
falling on subject in open space is decreased. In effect, the light coming from the
sky becomes stronger that the shadows appear more bluish than in bright
sunlight.

3) Dull light – A lighting condition wherein the objects in open space cast no
Shadow.
 In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadows are
formed, due to the uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects in open
space.
2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT – It refers to those lights, which are man-made.
 It refers to the man-made sources of light which is used or utilized for indoor
photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.
 Artificial light includes all non-natural sources, such as continuous light from
incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs, electronic flashes, and studio strobes.

Note: It is also utilized to augment the hazy or dull light in outdoor

photography.

Sources of Artificial Light

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a. Continuous duration

1. Fluorescent lamps
2. Incandescent lamps/tungsten light
 Household incandescent or domestic tungsten
 Photo incandescent or photographic tungsten

3. Photoflood lamps
4. Infrared lamp
5. Ultraviolet lamp

Short duration
1. Flash bulb (chemical flash lamp) - Flash bulbs are good for only one flash and
then thrown away, so a photographer has to carry many of them.
2. Flash cube – powered by batteries in the camera. Can take 4 pictures. Light from
flash cubes lasts about 1/30 of a second.
3. Flash bar – powered by batteries in the camera.
4. X-Cube – it does not require batteries. It fires mechanically like a cap pistol.
5. Electronic flash – A short intense burst of light produced by an electronic flash for
use in illuminating a situation. Unlike old-fashioned flash bulbs, it could be used
only once, electronic flashes are powered by batteries and can be used
indefinitely.
 Type of flash that discharges an electric current through a gas-filled tube to
produce a short burst of bright light. Batteries usually provide power, although
studio flash requires plug-in power.
 It is produced by an instantaneous electric discharge between two electrodes in a
gas-filled bulb.
 A lighting unit utilizing the flash of light produced by discharging a current
between two electrodes in a gas-filled tube.
 Artificial light source produced by passing a charge across two electrodes in a
gas.
 A brief, intense source of artificial light.
 Flash can be used both outside and inside, and can be modified with a huge
range of diffusers, reflectors, and other materials.
 By examining natural light and its qualities, you will get a good idea of how to use
flash lightings. (Encyclopedia by Davies)
 The light created by an electronic flash also has the same color balance as
daylight, which is an important consideration when you are using color film.
(everything)
 The burst of light made by an electronic flash unit lasts only about 1/1,000 th to
20,000th of a second. This makes flash great for delivering sharp photographs as
it eliminates blur caused by motion.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC FLASH

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1. STROBE LIGHT – A low-output flashlight that is capable of delivering many
thousands of flashes per second.
 An electronic flash that fire repeatedly at rapid rate.
 It is used to produce motion- study special effects.
 You must position the flash unit close to the subject because the strobe function
works only at low power settings.
 In strobe mode, the flash fires repeatedly at a rapid rate. This allows you to
capture several points of an action in single shot.

2. SLAVE UNIT OR SLAVE FLASH – A flash unit used to supplement light from a
main flash.
 It fires every time it senses a flash going off.
3. RING LIGHT – A flash unit used for close-up photography that encircles a camera
lens.
4. ACCESSORY FLASH UNIT – This unit attaches to the accessory shoe (also called
a hot shoe) on top of the camera or to a flash bracket that attaches to the camera.
 More powerful than built-in flash units.
 They are also more versatile. You can make their light more diffuse by aiming
them upwards or sideways.
 They also make possible variety of special flash techniques that are far beyond
the capabilities of built-in flash.

Three (3) Types of Accessory Flash Units:

a. Manual- These flash units require you to figure out the correct exposure for your
shooting conditions. Because the duration and intensity of the flash from a manual unit
does not change, you have to adjust lens aperture to control the amount of light that
reaches the film. Aperture settings are determined by dividing the flash’s guide number
(which indicates the flash’s light output) by the distance to the subject. The resulting
number is the correct aperture. Most manual flashes have calculator dials or scales for
making these calculations.

b. Automatic: These flash used automatic sensors to control light output and duration
based on the distance from the camera to the subject. When you set the aperture you
want to use, the flash will automatically calculate how much light is needed to illuminate
a specific distance range, such as 3 to 15 feet., the flash unit will have an electric eye
that reads the amount of light bouncing back from the subject. When the correct amount
of light has been reached, the flash is turned off. Most automatic flashes have several
different range and aperture settings and can be set manually as well.

c. Dedicated flash unit- They’re made to work with your camera’s specific electronic
(hence The name), and they’ll do all the thinking for you, automatically Setting the
correct shutter speed and aperture and controlling the expose by regulating flash
duration (that is, its intensity).

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Dedicated Flash unit – A Type of flashgun designed to be used with a specific camera
or range of cameras.

Once attached to the camera, the flashgun effectively becomes an extension of

that camera’s circuitry, controlling shutter speed, receiving film speed information, and
using the exposure meter.

Note: Flashgun is any type of add-on flash unit.

It is designed to tap into the camera’s circuitry when you slip it into the
camera’s dedicated hot-shoe a top the viewfinder. Thus connected and switched on, it
automatically sets the right flash-sync shutter speed, activates the viewfinder’s flash-
status indicator (flash changing, flash read), and automatic exposure control.

This flash fits into the hot shoes on top of the pentaprism. Electrical contacts
connect with the camera shutter, automatically triggering the flash.

This type of flashgun can be very sophisticated for its size, and fully
integrated unit (dedicated flash) allows greater versatility.

5. BUILT-IN FLASH UNIT – A flash unit built into the camera.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited operating ranges, usually between 3 to 12 feet. Meaning anything farther

the flash’s maximum range will be under exposed. Objects that are too close will
be over- exposed.
2. Light is projected directly into subjects, making them look flat and harshly lit.
3. Mounted so close to the lens axis, they’re notorious for creating red-eye.

4. Can’t be adjusted to create more pleasant illumination, such as bouncing the light
off the ceiling to lessen shadows.
5. Light reflects directly off subjects, meaning they often create flash glare from
glasses or even skin if it’s shiny enough.

6. OFF –CAMERA FLASH – A flash unit not mounted on a camera.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Flash range – The maximum and minimum distances that a flash will cover.

Red-eye – The effect caused when flash illuminates the retina.

It is a fault caused by light reflected from a subject’s eye when exposed by flash.
A problem common to a compact cameras with built – in flash since the lens axis is
parallel and very close to the direction of the light from the flash.

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 If possible, move the flash unit to one side or bounce the light before it reaches
the subject. Red-eye occurs because the flash unit is too close to the camera. The light
goes straight into the eyes and is reflected off the retinas right back into the lens.

Remedy: Move the flash unit away from the camera lens. Obviously, this cannot done
this with built-in flash units.

Red-eye reduction flash mode - It emits a pre-exposure light burst to “stop-down” the
subject eye so less light can be reflected back from the retinas.

Flash synchronization speed is a shutter speed you can use when working with flash
unit to obtain evenly lit results.

A shutter speed that ensures the shutter has completely cleared the film plane
when the flash is fired.

Guide Number is a rating of the flash unit’s illuminating power, provided by the
manufacturer.

Just divide the number the flash-to-subject distance into the guide number, and
the result is the f- stop or the size of lens opening. If the guide number is 80 for the film
speed you are using, and the flash unit is 10 feet from the subject, 80 is divided by 10
equals f/8.

Measure of the maximum output of an electronic bulb or flashgun that varies

according to the film speed used
Lens apertures can be calculated by dividing the guide number by the distance
between the subject and the flash.

Supposed the number is 160, and then at 10 feet (3m) the lens would be set at
f/16, at 20 ft. 8m f/8 and so on.

Note: The farther away you get from the subject, the larger the aperture you must use.
When the subject is a long way off, you won’t be able to open the lens enough to
provide proper exposure.

 Guide number determines the amount of light that a flash unit will yield at a given
distance.
 The strength of a flash unit is described by its number.
 The bigger the number the more light output can reach a particular distance.
Flare – Non-image forming light which reduces image quality by lowering the contrast
and washing out colors?

It causes whitish appearance, less color saturation and poor detail.

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 CHAPTER III

CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES

CAMERA is defined as light tight box capable of recording images on sensitized

materials equipped with lens, shutter, film holder, and aperture.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Vignette
 A darkening of the corners of a picture.
 A darkening of an image around the edges.
 It occurs if a lens hood is too small, producing a circle of darkness around a
picture.

Panning – A technique for photographing moving objects in which the camera is moved
in the same direction as the subject.
 Following action in the camera’s viewfinder.
 A method of moving the camera in line with a moving subject such as a racing
car.
 This produces a blurred background but keeps the subject sharp, thereby giving
a greater effect of movement in the final image.
Photogram – An image made in photographic paper without a negative.
 A photograph made without a camera by positioning one or more objects
between a light source and photographic film or paper.
 The image is made by placing objects directly on the paper and exposing it to
light. Opaque objects lying flat against the paper produces a clearly defined
silhouette.
 Also called camera less photography.
Lens Barrel – A metal cylinder where a lens is, and usually consists of several pieces
of glass.
Lens elements – Series of lenses inside the camera tube or lens barrel.
DX Code – A bar code on a 35mm cassette that contains information such as film
speed. This is read by sensor inside the camera, which adjusts itself automatically.
 All new film cassettes have a printed set of squares that are detected by sensors
in the film chamber of most modern cameras.
 Each speed of film has a unique combination of squares, allowing the camera to
read and set this information on the exposure meter.
The camera will set ISO 100 if it encounters an old cassette without these coded.

THE BASIC PARTS OF A CAMERA

1. Light-tight box - The frame of the camera in which all other parts are mounted.
An enclosure, which would prevent light from exposing the sensitized material
inside the camera.
2. Lens – A medium which converges or diverges light passing through it to form
images.

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  It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of the image forms through which light
passes during the exposure.
 The function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject.

3. Shutter – The device that regulates the amount of time that light reaches the
film.

The mechanism that opens and closes to allow light into the camera. Shutter
opens and closes for a certain timed intervals that are called shutter speed.

4. Film holder – An essential part of a camera which is designed to hold the film in
place at the back of the camera so that the image produced by the lens will be sharp
over the whole picture area.

5. Viewfinder – The optical window used to view the subject being photographed.
- it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent of the
coverage of the lens.

OTHER PARTS OF A SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA

1. Film advancer – A part of the camera that advances the film one frame each
time the shutter is released.
2. Diaphragm – A device that controls the amount of light that passes through a
camera’s aperture to strike the film. It is also called as adjustable aperture.
3. Shutter release button – A button used to open the shutter during exposure.
4. Pentaprism – A five-sided prism usually found on the top of a 35mm SLR
cameras.
5. Hot shoe – The slot with electrical contacts on top of a camera where a flash
mounts. Electrical contacts in the base of the shoe trigger the flash to fire when the
camera shutter is open.
6. Shutter speed dial 23. Film sprockets
7. Film speed dial 24. Film take-up spool
8. Frame counter 25. Film anti-curl roller
9. Self-timer lever 26. Aperture/focusing index
10. Aperture ring 27. Film plane indicator
11. Hand grip 28. Motor drive coupling
12. Hot shoe contact 29. Motor drive shutter coupling
13. Viewfinder/eyepiece 30. Film rewind button
14. Shutter curtain/focal plane shutter 31. Distance scale/focusing scale
15. Depth-of-field preview lever 32. Tripod socket
16. Sync cord terminal 33. Motor drive electrical contacts
17. Lens mounting index 34. Film rewind knob
18. Reflex mirror 35. Battery chamber lid
19. Lens release button 36. Film pressure plate
20. Film cartridge chamber 37. Multiple exposure lever
21. Film guide rails 38. Camera Back
22. Film guide pin 39. Shutter speed dial

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAMERA

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 1. Single Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera – A type of camera that allows the
photographer to view the subject through the actual lens, via a mirror that moves out of
the way when the picture is taken. SLR is the ideal type of camera available for police
photography due to its versatility, compactness, and interchangeability of camera lens.

 Interchangeable lens – Lens that can be removed from a camera body and
exchanged from a different focal-length lens or other accessory.
 There is no parallax error in this type of camera. The difference in view between
the scene encompassed by the lens and that seen through the viewfinder.
 This effect is more pronounced the closer you are to the subject. Distant objects
are unaffected.

2. Twin Lens Reflex (TLR) Camera - A camera that uses two lenses of the same
focal length – one on top for viewing and focusing the image, and one on the bottom for
taking the picture.
 Twin lens reflex cameras use medium format film and make 2¼ x 2¼ inch
negatives, such as a Rolleiflex TLR camera.
 A camera that uses two lenses of the same focal length – one to focus with and
the other to expose the film. The top lens is used to focus the camera using
reflex mirror and ground glass viewing the area. The lower lens contains the
shutter and aperture control to expose the film.

3. Compact Camera – A small, highly automated camera with a non-

interchangeable lens, and a direct-vision viewfinder.
Compact cameras are sometimes called or known as “direct vision” camera,
because the subject is viewed directly through the lens in the viewfinder (rather than
through a mirror system that transfers the image from the picture-taking lens to the
viewfinder window).

4. Digital Camera – A camera that changes visual data into electronic digital
information, which then can be viewed or manipulated on a computer.
5. View Camera – A large-format camera, using individual pieces of 5x4 inch (12.7
x 10cm) film or larger (5x7, 8x10, 11x14), with a lens panel mounted on a flexible
bellows and a ground-glass screen at the image plane for viewing and focusing.
 This type of large and cumbersome camera is normally mounted on a sturdy
tripod. Also known as a technical camera.
 View/technical cameras are used most often by professionals, either in the studio
or on location for subjects such as buildings.

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  View cameras or technical cameras are slow and cumbersome to use, but give
superb results.
6. Polaroid Camera or Instant-print Camera – This type of camera can produce a
black and white or colored print in less than a minute after the picture has been
snapped.
 The photograph in this type of camera is self-developed either inside or within the
camera or outside the camera.
 Instant cameras are very useful on social occasions such as parties.
 Also employed by people like the police and insurance investigators, who may
require an instant record of a crime scene, for example.
 Professional photographers often use instant film in medium or large format
cameras so that they can judge the exposure or lighting quality of a shot before
shooting on conventional film.
 They lack detail, the print can fade, and there are no negatives for duplicates.

7. Spy Camera – It usually refers to a camera disguised as a matchbox, card case,

pocket watch, or other small item and used surreptitiously.
8. Infrared Camera – A camera with detectors that respond to infrared energy
radiated by any heat.
 It is used to take photographs without the presence of light.
 It works as well by day or night
 Commonly used in surveillance during nighttime.

9. Pinhole Camera – A simple camera consisting of a light-light box with a piece of

film at one end and a tiny pinhole in the other (instead of a lens) through which light is
transmitted.
 This camera has no lens.
 A paper flap controls its aperture.

10. Disposable Cameras – Cameras that are supplied with pre-loaded film. When
the film has been exposed, the whole camera is taken into the processing laboratory.
11. Cell phone Cameras

THREE (3) BASIC CONTROLS OF CAMERA

1. Focusing Control

Focusing is the setting of proper distance in order to form a clear or sharp image/s.
A lens maybe focused by any of the following:
1. Split-image - The image of a straight line in the object appears to be cut into
halves and separated from each other when the lens is not in focus.
2. Coincident image – They are focused by matching two images of the subject. In
this type of focusing, a single image is seen double when the subject us out of
focus.
3. Ground glass – A type of focusing where the image or images are directly
focused at the ground glass screen behind the taking lens.
If the image being focused is blurred or not clear, the lens is out of focus.
When the image is sharp or clear, the lens is in focus.

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2. Aperture - The hole through which light enters a camera.
 The size of the aperture is controlled by a diaphragm.
 It refers to the physical size/diameter of the lens opening.
F/1.4 f/2.8 f/4 f/5.6 f/8 f/11 f/16 f22
 The size of the lens opening or aperture is measured by f-numbers.
F-number- A series of numbers used to describe the size of the lens opening.
The higher or bigger the f-number/f-stop, the smaller the lens opening or
aperture meaning, less light enters through the camera lens.
The smaller the f-number, the bigger the lens opening or aperture – meaning,
more light passes through the camera lens.
Diaphragm – A device that controls the amount of light that passes through a camera’s
aperture to strike the film. It is calibrated in f/stops or f/numbers.
 The smaller the lens opening or aperture, the or wider the depth of field.
 The bigger the aperture, the shallow or less the depth of field is.
Depth of Field is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.
3. Shutter speed – This refers to the time the shutter will open and close at a given
time.
 The shutter speed will control the duration between the opening and the closing
of the shutter.
 Shutter speeds are usually timed in fractions of a second.
 The smaller numbers represent longer exposure time and the bigger numbers
represent shorter exposure time.
 B, 1, 2, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000
 Letter “B” stands for bulb setting
Bulb – The shutter speed setting at which the shutter release is triggered and closes
when the shutter released button is released.
 It is a shutter setting found on many cameras that holds the shutter open for as
long as the shutter-released button is pressed.
 This setting is used for the time exposures longer than one (1) second.
 The number stands for a whole second and others are fractions of a second.
 The shutter speed of 125 and above is capable of stopping the movement of the
subject.

CAMERA ACCESSORIES

1. Tripod - Three-legged device used to support or hold the camera during

exposure, particularly when using a slower shutter speed.
The tripod will keep the camera steady throughout the panning action or longer
exposure.
2. Cable release - A flexible cable that screws into the shutter release, used to
prevent camera movement (also called camera shake)
 A mechanical or electrical device used to trigger the shutter.

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  A cable release is usually used when a camera is mounted in a tripod, because it
is particularly important that the camera is not jarred at the moment of exposure.
3. Light meter/exposure meter - A device used to determine the intensity of light
that strikes the subject and affect the film.
 It is an instrument used by photographers to help them determine the correct
lens opening and correct shutter speed.
 A handheld or built-in device that reads the intensity of light falling on or reflected
by a subject.
4. Extension bellows - An extendable device that fits between the lens and
camera body that enables the photographer to take close-up shots with a variable
degree of magnification.

The bellows unit is made of flexible material and mounted on rails.

5. Extension tube - A tubular device that fits between the lens and the camera
body to enable the photographer to take a close-up picture.
 The degree of close-up available varies with the length of the tube used.
 Extension tubes are made of metal in different lengths and can be used singly or
in combination to give fixed degrees of subject enlargement.

6. Lens Hood - A device used to eliminate some reflections of light, which might
destroy the image cast by the object especially when the light is coming from the top
or side portion of the camera.

 A device that is attach to the front of the camera lens to prevent flare.
Flare is a non-image forming light which reduces image quality by lowering the
contrast and washing out colors.
 It causes whitish appearance, less color saturation and poor detail.
 Flare is caused by pointing the camera toward a light source, and/or not using a
lens hood.
 It refers to unwanted light within the lens, resulting in a loss of contrast in the final
image.

7. Motor drive - A device, either built into the camera or available as add-on
accessory which is used for advancing the film continuously after each exposure the
shutter-release button depressed.
Rate of exposure varies depending on the motor drive model and shutter speed,
but up to six frames, a second is possible.

8. Flash unit - A portable light source, usually electronic, that produces an

intense beam of short-duration light when an electrical current is discharged through
a gas-filled glass tube.
9. Photographic Filter - A transparent medium which transmits and absorbs
different wavelength of lights.
 It is an auxiliary optical system placed generally in front of the camera lens to
modify the real image being recorded.
 It will correct and control the rays of light that will produce a good color or black-
and-white photographs.

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  It can distort the reality intentionally by changing the way film responds and by
adding special effects filter.

TWO (2) GENERAL TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

1. NONE-SPECIAL EFFECT FILTERS – these filters are intended to manipulate

the way film react to subject colors, in order to correct.

Kinds of None-Special Filters

a. Polarizing filter – A lens filter used to eliminate glare and reflections.

 A lens filter used to eliminate or minimize glare or reflections from non-metallic
surfaces, such as glass or the surface of water and to increase color saturation.
 It is used also to deepen blue sky,
 It is used to darken the blue skies and cut out unwanted.

b. Contrast Filters – These filters are used to lighten or darken certain tones in black-
and - white images.
 Contract filters are available in six colors: Red, green, blue, yellow, magenta and cyan.
 To lighten the color – use a filter of the same color
 To darken the color – use a filter of complimentary color
For example, if you want to darken a blue sky, use a yellow filter, if you want to lighten,
like a green board, use a green filter.

In black- and – white photography, photographic colored filters are generally used to
provide contrast between objects of different colors that would reproduce as about the
same shade of gray if no filter were used.

HOW CONTRAST FILTERS WORK?

The primary color filters allow only that particular primary color to pass through
– that is, red allows red to pass through, blue allows blue, and green allows green.

Complimentary color filters work in the same way. Yellow, a mixture of red and
green, so yellow filter allows only those two colors to pass through, and so on.

COLOR COMBINATIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS

 Yellow and magenta = Red

 Cyan and Magenta = Blue
 Cyan and yellow = Green
 Red and green = Yellow
 Blue and Red = Magenta
 Blue and Green = Cyan

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Note: The purpose of contrast
filters are mainly to increase or
decrease the tone contrast between
the colors of objects, which would
appear in photograph
as similar tones of gray in a black-
and-white photograph.

Examples of the application of contrast filters in black-and-white photography:

1. A finger impression made from a stamp pad ink (violet colored), while very legible to
the eye is a problem when photographed with an ordinary film because it lacks contrast.
To improve contrast, the use of YELLOW FILTER will help tremendously.

2. GREEN FILTER is used to improve the contrast of a latent fingerprint impression

dusted with black powder in a green background.

3. Skylight Filter – A lens filter used to diminish the amount of ultraviolet light reaching
the film.
a. A very pale filter used to absorb ultraviolet light. It has the effect of reducing blue
casts on color photographs.
b. Also haze filter or ultra-violet filter
c. It is a colorless filter designed to remove excessive ultra-violet from the light from
passing through the lens.
d. A UV filter may be left on the camera lens all the time to protect the lens from
dirt, knocks, and scratches
e. UV filters do not affect exposure.
f. The skylight filters (UV absorbing) is a general-purpose filter that has two
important uses:
 Absorbs UV light, which human cannot see but to which the film is sensitive.
 Protects the lenses from rain, sand, grit, and so on.

4. Light Balancing Filters – These filters are used to warm up or cool down the colors
in content of a scene.
 Also called as color correction filter.
 Pale-colored filter used to warm up or cool down slightly the overall color content
of a scene.

5. Color conversion filters – A light filter used to convert a film balanced for a
particular color temperature to another light source; example: daylight-balanced film
used in tungsten lighting requires an 80A filter.

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  These filters convert a particular color film to a particular light source for
example, to enable you to use tungsten-balanced film in daylight.
 Lens filters that allow film balanced for one type of light to be used with other
light.

6. Color compensating filter – A light filter used to make small changes to the balance of
an image.

Color compensating filters are available in six colors (red, green, blue, yellow,
magenta, and cyan) and in various lengths.

7. Neutral Density filter – A transparent piece of glass or plastic that cuts down the
light entering the lens without changing its color.

A gray-colored lens filter that reduces the amount of light reaching the film
without affecting colors of the subject.

2. SPECIAL EFFECT FILTERS – These filters are intended to give special effect to
pictures.

Some of the special effect filters:

a. Multi-images
b. Speed filter
c. Double exposure filter

Note: A filter transmits light of its own color and absorbs light of complementary colors.
Therefore, it causes objects of its own color to appear lighter and objects of
complementary colors darker on the photograph.

Because filters absorb some light, you must increase the exposure to
compensate the loss of some light.

Each filter is given a “Filter Factor”, which indicates how many times the initial
exposure needs to be multiplied to make for the loss of some light reaching the film.

Filter Factor – A number indicating how much exposure needs to be increased when
using filters.

Example: A yellow filter has a factor of x2. If the proper reading without the filter were
1/250 at f-8, then with the filter, it would be either 1/125 at f-8 or 1/250 at f-5.6.

Generally, it is best to change the f-number or f-stop rather than the shutter
speed, unless depth of field is a concern.

CONVERSION TABLE

Filter Stop F-Stop/F-Number

X2 +1
X4 +2
X6 +2-2/3

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X8 +3
X10 +3-1/3
X12 +3-2/3

Note: Many filters reduce the amount of light reaching the film, so you may need to
compensate the exposure when using them. The amount of increase required is
indicated by a number called Filter Factor.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. Make a summary of the historical development of photography. Link all the
pioneering personalities with their major contribution to the history of
photography.
2. Explain the photographic rays, sources of light, classification of daylight
and light in general.
3. To identify and explain each part of the camera.

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 MODULE 2. MIDTERM LESSONS (CHAPTERS 4-6)

OBJECTIVES:
1. To identify and explain the classification of lenses according to focal
length, lens aberrations and degree of correction
2. To identify and explain the factors that affect the exposure and all other
modes and type of exposure.
3. To explain the three factors used in controlling the depth of field; and
4. To show how to obtain a maximum depth of field.

CHAPTER IV. CAMERA LENS

CAMERA LENS is the medium or system which converges or diverge rays of light
passing through it to form an image/s.

 A piece of transparent glass or plastic designed to focus light rays into an image.
 The primary function of lens is to focus the light rays coming from the subject.
 It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of a picture.

Focal point – It refers to the point of convergence.

 It is the point where the light rays converge when the lens is focused at infinity.
 A point of light on the optical axis where all rays of light emanating from a given
subject converge and come into sharp focus.

Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film
when the lens is set to be focused at infinity position.
 The distance between the center of the lens and the point at which light rays
passes through it in focus.
 It is the optical distance at infinity, to the focal point.
 Focal length is the determining factor of how wide the area of coverage of a lens
as well as the size of the image that is produce.

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  The focal length of a lens determines the size or magnification of the image on
the film, that is, the area of the subject included in the photograph.

Focal plane – A plane at which light from the lens is brought into focus.
Infinity – Any distance beyond he point where a lens no longer needs to be focused to
produce a sharp image.

Lenses are classified according to its shape

1. Positive lens is a convex lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker on
the middle than the edge and formed a real image on the opposite side of the lens.
 A lens that converge light, that is why it is also called as a converging lens.
 It requires proper focusing.
 It forms inverted image.
 It is used in camera lens.

2. Negative lens is a concave lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thinner
on the middle than the edge and formed a virtual image on the same side of the lens.
 It done not require focusing at all.
 It forms virtual image.
 It is used in viewfinder.
 Negative lens is also known as diverging lens.

FOCAL LENGTH is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film
when lens is set to focus at infinity position.

It refers to the magnification power of the lens and is measured in millimeters.

CLASSIFFICATION OF CAMERA LENSES ACCORDING TO ITS FOCAL LENGHT

1. Standard or normal lens – A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal of its
negative material.
 The normal lens produces “normal”-looking images.
 A 35mm camera produces 24 x 36mm images on the film.
 The diagonal measurement of the 24 x 36mm frame is 43mm.
 50mm is the closest focal length to the figure.
 50mm is considered normal lens.
 Called normal or standard vision.
 It has an angle of view of 46 degrees similar to the angle of view of human eye.
 It neither distorts perspective nor magnifies or diminishes or reduces the size of
the subject.

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 Focal length – 50mm

Perspective – It refers to the apparent relationships among elements of a photograph.

Angle of view – A measurement of how much a lens sees and indirectly related to focal
length. It is measured by degrees.

2. Wide angle lens – A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative
material.
 It covers a wider field than normal lens.
 It is used to take photographs or pictures of limited space or narrow.
 It is useful in a photographing a crime scene with a very narrow space.
 24mm, 28mm, and 35mm are considered wide-angle lens.
 Useful for broad panoramic scenes or landscapes or when space is tight or you
cannot move far back from your subject.
 Also known as short focal length or short focus lens.

Focal length – 28mm

3. Telephoto lens – A lens with focal length of approximately equal or more but not
more than twice the diagonal of its negative material.
 A lens with longer focal length with small area of coverage.
 In this lens, the subject will appear closer to the lens and the resulting image/s of
the subject or object in the negative will be large.
 It is used to capture distant subject or object.
 It is useful in stake out surveillance photography where the photographer or
police photographer cannot get close to the subject.

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  80mm to 1200mm are considered telephoto lens or long focal length or long-
focus lens.
 24mm, 28mm, and 35mm are considered wide-angle lens.

 Useful for broad panoramic scenes or landscapes or when space is tight or you
cannot move far back from your subject.
 Also known as short focal length or short focus lens.

4. Telephoto lens – A lens with focal length of approximately equal or more but not
more than twice the diagonal of its negative material.
 A lens with longer focal length with small area of coverage.
 In this lens, the subject will appear closer to the lens and the resulting image/s of
the subject or object in the negative will be large.
 It is used to capture distant subject or object.
 It is useful in stake out surveillance photography where the photographer or
police photographer cannot get close to the subject.
 80mm to 1200mm are considered telephoto lens or long focal length or long-
focus lens.

Focal length – 200 mm

5. Super wide or ultra wide angle lens – a lens with a shorter focal length but has
larger area of coverage or angle of view than a wide angle lens.
 It is not advisable in photographing a crime scene of limited space because it will
distort the objects of the scene itself.
 21mm down are considered super wide angle lens.

5. Zoom lens – A. lens with variable focal length.

 This gives you an option to capture near and far objects or subject without
changing the lens of your camera and aperture.
 Example of zoom lens: 28-80mm, 28-105mm, 70-210mm and 28-200mm
 Allows you to fine-tune subject framing by adjusting the focal lens.

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6. Macro lens – a camera lens that is capable of taking photograph of extreme
close-up shots without the need of close-up attachments.
 The available focal length is ranging from 50mm to 200mm
 Because of the high magnification involved, it is best to use macro lenses on
tripod, or with electronic flash.
 In the absence of macro lens, use REVERSED FIXED MOUNTED LENS
METHOD.

Reversed Fixed Mounted Lens Method – A method used to take extreme close-up
shots of minute objects, by detaching the normal lens in the camera, then attaching the
lens in inverted position and moving the camera itself nearer of farther from the subject
for focusing.

LENS ABERRATIONS

LENS ABERRATION– The failure of the reflected or refracted light to give a point
image of a point source, due either to the geometry of spherical surfaces of mirror or
lenses.
 It produces blurring or distortion image due to the abnormal shape of lens.
 Meaning, lens defect or error.

Kinds of Lens Aberrations:

1. Chromatic aberration – It is an inability of the lens to focus all colors in the

same plane.
 A lens defect, which has trouble bringing all the different wavelengths of visible
light into focus at the same point on the film.
 This is the most difficult lens aberrations to correct.

Achromatic or Apochromatic lens – A lens corrected for chromatic aberration. It

brings all wavelengths of light into focus at the same place or at a single point – the film
plane. They do this by means of multiple elements made of different dispersion
materials.

2. Spherical aberration – A lens defect, wherein the photographic rays passing

through the edges refracts more sharply than those passing through the central part of
the lens, thus, they come to focus at the edges than those of the central rays.

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Aspherical lens – A lens corrected for spherical aberration. A spherical lens elements
have non-spherical shapes designed to bring all the light rays to focus at the film plane
for sharper images.

3. Astigmatism – The inability of the lens to focus in both horizontal and vertical
plane at the same time. The inability of the lens to focus in both lines running in different
direction likes for example, a cross.

Anastigmatic lens – A lens corrected for astigmatism.

4. Distortion - outer parts of the image produced by the lens will be magnified
either less or more than the outer image.

Distortion comes into two (2) basic forms:

a. Pincushion distortion – In pincushion distortion, there are straight lines near the
edges of the frame bow toward the center of the frame. The curving is inward.

b. Barrel distortion – In barrel distortion, straight lines near the edges of the frame bow
outward from the center. The curving is outward.

5. Coma – This is known as lateral aberration. It is concerned with rays entering the
lens obliquely. A lens defect that produces a blurred comet-like image.

6. Curvature of field – The image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus on

curved surface than on a flat surface.

The image of a flat subject does not appear flat because of the sharpness of the
center and the edge is out of focus. Therefore, direct focusing of the center will make
edges blurred.

7. Chromatic difference of magnification – The inability of the lens to produce images

sizes of object with different colors.

Types of lenses according to their degree of correction

1. Achromatic or Apochromatic – A lens corrected for chromatic aberration.

A corrected lens that does not produce colored fringes in the image.

2. Aspherical lens – Lens corrected for spherical aberration.

3. Anagmatism lens –A lens corrected for astigmatism.

4. Process lens – A lens corrected for astigmatism but with higher correction to
color. A super corrected lens for astigmatism.

Rapid Rectilinear lens - A lens corrected for distortion. It is a combination of two

achromatic lens with almost the same focal length.
CHAPTER V. EXPOSURE

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Exposure is defined as the product of time and intensity of illumination acting upon the
photographic material. (Intensity x Time = EXPOSURE)

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:

Correct Exposure or Normal Exposure - It refers to the right amount of light in order
to produce good quality image on the film.

Generally, a proper exposure is one that results in a picture that looks like the
scene you photographed with details in both dark and light areas. Films produce the
best photographs when exposed properly.

Overexposure – It refers to allowing the film to receive too much light, giving rise to a
pale print.
Underexposure – It refers to allowing the film to receive too little light, giving rise to a
dark print.

THREE (3) FACTORS THAT AFFECT EXPOSURES

1. Lens Aperture is defined as that, which controls the amount or intensity of light
passing through a camera lens before reaching the film.

Aperture – The hole through which the light enters a camera. A diaphragm controls the
size of the aperture.

Diaphragm – A device that controls the amount of light that passes through a camera’s
aperture to strike the film. It works by controlling the size of the aperture opening.
Diaphragm is calibrated in f-stops or f-numbers.

 The light gathering power of lens is expressed by f-numbers.

 By increasing and decreasing numerically the f-numbers, you can control the
following:

a. The amount of light

b. The depth of field
c. The degree of sharpness due to lens defects.

F-number is a series of numbers used to describe the size of lens opening or aperture.
“The higher or bigger the f-number, the smaller the lens opening, meaning,
less light enters through the camera lens”.

“The smaller the f-number, the bigger the lens opening, meaning, more
light enters through the camera lens”.

“The larger the opening, the greater the amount of light that reaches the
film”.

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2. Shutter Speed –It refers to the time the shutter will open and close at a given
time.

The shutter speed dial is calibrated in speed of fractions of a second, or multiple

of seconds. The smaller number represents longer exposure time and the bigger
numbers represent shorter exposure time.

Shutter speed numbers:

B,1,2,4,5,15,30,60,125,500,1000,2000,3000,4000

 Letter “B” stands for bulb setting

 The number 1 stands for a whole second and the others are fraction of a second.

Bulb setting – The shutter speed setting at which the shutter release is triggered and
closes when the shutter release button is depressed.
 The shutter speed of 1/125 and above is capable of stopping the movement of
the subject.
 The shutter speed of 1/60,1/125 and above is recommended speed to be used
when handholding a camera with a 50mm focal length but if the lens used is
300mm, you should use a shutter speed higher than 300mm which is either 500
of a second or higher.

3. Film Speed – The factor that determines the exposure necessary to

produce a satisfactory image

The following aperture and shutter speed combinations, allow the same amount
of light, and thus will produce the same exposure.

1/1000 at f-4 f-16 at 1/30

1/500 at f-5.6 f-11 at 1/60
1/250 at f-8 f-8 at 1/125
1/125 at f-11 f-5.6 at 1/250
1/60 at f-16 f-4 at 1/500
1/30 at f-22

CAMERA EXPOSURE MODES

1. Aperture Priority – A type of semi-automatic exposure system whereby the

photographer sets the aperture and the camera selects the corresponding shutter speed
to ensure correct exposure. Use this mode of exposure if you need to have control over
the depth of field.

Shutter priority – A type of semi-automatic exposure system, whereby the

photographer sets the shutter and the camera selects the corresponding lens aperture
to ensure correct exposure of the scene. Use this mode if you need to have control over
the subject’s action or to freeze the subject’s action.

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2. Program Mode – An automatic exposure mode whereby the camera controls both
the shutter speed and aperture.

3. Manual Mode – An exposure set manually by the photographer. An exposure mode

whereby the photographer completely control both the shutter speed and the aperture.
In this exposure mode, the built-in light metering system can be used to assist the
photographer’s judgment over both shutter speed and aperture.

DETERMINING THE CORRECT EXPOSURE

1. By using an exposure meter.

EXPOSURE METER – A handheld or built-in devise that reads the intensity of light
falling on or reflected by a subject and, taking the film speed into account, recommends
a shutter speed and aperture to achieve correct exposure. Also known as light meter.

Two (2) Types of Exposure Meter

b. Built-in light or exposure meter
c. Hand-held light or exposure meter

Two (2) types of hand-held exposure meter:

 Incident light meter – An exposure meter that reads the light falling on an
object.
 Reflected light meter – An exposure meter that reads the light reflected by the
subject.

2. By taking into consideration the exposure factors like:

a. Emulsion speed
b. Lighting condition
c. Kind of subject
Example: When using a film with an ISO rating of 100 for normal subject, set the
shutter speed at 1/125 of a second, and adjusts the lens aperture in accordance with
the following lighting conditions:

a. Bright sunlight--------- f-16

b. Hazy light-------------- f-8 or f-11
c. Dull light--------------- f-5.6 or f-4

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 3. Estimating light using sunny f-16 rule meaning, the exposure required for a
bright sunny day is the reciprocal to the film speed at f-16. So, with a 100 ISO film, it
would be 1/125 at f-16 (1-125 second is the nearest shutter speed to 1/100).

4. By using the Bracketing Method:

Bracketing Method is a method of taking a series of photographs of the same scene

with each frame at a different exposure setting.

 It is useful when you want to select slightly darker or lighter prints than the
exposure system would normally produce, or when it is different to judge the best
exposure.
 In any case where you are not sure about your exposure or when it is difficult to
judge the best exposure, use “Bracketing Method”
 Also known as “Trial and Error Technique”
 To bracket exposures, you can vary either the lens aperture or the shutter speed,
depending on the effect you want and the type of subject.
 If Depth of Field is important, work out the aperture required and then alter the
shutter speed only in order to change the exposure each time.

1/30 at f-5.6 1/30 at f-11 1/30 at f-22 1/125 at f-5.6

Exposure errors affect the following:

 Detail
 Tone reproduction
 Contrast

2. By using Calculator Exposure

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 Meters 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.5 5 7

DIN ASA LENS OPENING

15 25 8 5.6 4 2.8 2 1.4

18 50 11 8 5.6 4 2.8 2

21 100 16 11 8 5.6 4 2.8

27 400 - 22 16 11 8 5.6

30 800 - - 22 16 11 8

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 CHAPTER VI. DEPTH OF FIELD

DEPTH OF FIELD is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at particular distance.

 The term depth of field is used to describe how much of what the camera sees in
focus.
 Also known as the zone of focus.
 This is the distance in front of, and behind the main focus that is acceptably
sharp.
 This will vary depending on the aperture selected, the focal length of the lens,
and the focal distance.
 The DOF you select normally covers an area of 1/3 in front of your point of focus
and 2/3 behind.

Depth of focus – It refers to the distance that a camera back can racked back and forth
while preserving satisfactory image detail in focal plane for a given object point

THREE (3) FACTORS USED IN CONTROLLING THE DEPTH OF FIELD

1. Lens aperture – The smaller the aperture, the greater the depth of field.

2. Dist
anc e to

subject (focal distance) – The farther the camera-to-subject distance, the greater the
depth of field.

5o
mm-f-5.6 50 mm-f-5.6 50 mm-f-5.6

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3. Focal length – The shorter the focal length of the lens, the greater the depth of
field.

35mm-f-5.6 50mm-f-5.6 180mm-f-5.6

Note: Whatever the depth of field you select, it normally covers an area one-third in
front of your point of focus and two-thirds behind.

HOW TO OBTAIN A MAXIMUM DEPTH OF FIELD?

a. The problem of obtaining the optimum or maximum depth of field is what point to
focus. This can be done by using a HYPERFOCAL FOCUSING METHOD
b. To do this. Set your focus at infinity distance, and check your depth of field scale
to see what is the nearest point of sharp focus at the aperture you are choosing.
Then refocus again using the hyper focal distance or nearest distance.

Hyperfocal Distance is the nearest distance at which a lens is focus with a given
particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field. It is a point of
focus at which you can use and obtain maximum depth of field at a particular given
aperture.

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. Identify and explain the classification of lenses according to focal length;

lens aberrations; and degree of correction.
2. Identify and explain the factors that affect the exposure and all other
modes and type of exposure.
3. Explain the three factors used in controlling the depth of field.
4. Performs how to obtain a maximum depth of field.

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 MODULE 3. FINAL LESSONS (CHAPTERS 7-9)

OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the use and concepts of film;
2. To identify and explain the types of photographic film, photographic
papers;
3. To identify the basic chemical needed to develop film and paper;
4. To be able to develop a film and print paper;
5. To identify and explain the processes in print paper development
6. To define crime scene photography and to apply the methods of crime
scene photography.

CHAPTER VII. SURFACE SENSITIVE TO LIGHT

Sensitized Materials – It refers to film and photographic paper, which are composed of
an emulsion containing light-sensitive dyes (in color films and paper) silver halides
crystals (in a black-and-white film and paper) suspended in a gelatin and coated in a
transparent or reflective support.

A. FILM – A sheet of celluloid coated with an emulsion of silver halides suspended in

gelatin which imprints an invisible image when exposed to light.

2 PARTS OF FILM

1. Emulsion – A light-sensitive layer on film and photographic paper consisting of

silver halide grains (in a black-and-white film and paper) and light sensitive dyes (in
color film and paper) suspended in gelatin.
 The shiny side.

2. Film Base – The transparent material on which an emulsion is coated.

 The dull side
 Act as the support of emulsion.

Black and White film consists of four (4) various layers:

1. Silver Halides Crystals

2. Gelatin
3. Film Base
4. Anti-halation backing or anti-Halation Layer

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The major constituents of film are:

A. Silver Halide
B. Gelatin

Film is divided into two main categories:

1. Black-and-white film – It records the actual intensity of light as shades of gray.

The developing stage of the photographic process turns the silver halide crystals that
have been exposed to light into minute grains of metallic silver. Light from a bright area
of the subject will affect more silver halide crystals than light from a dark area when
these are developed. They are changed to grains of metallic silver, forming a dark area
on the negative, when the film is printed to a positive, it becomes a light area again.

Note: There is no need to worry about the color balance in black and white film,
because B & W film can be used in any lighting conditions.

Composition of black-and-white film

a. Film base
b. Silver Halide
c. Gelatin Emulsion
d. Layers of Adhesive
e. Scratch-Resistant Coating
f. Anti-Halation

Anti-halation backing – A coating usually gelatin at the back of a film, containing a dye
or pigment for the purpose of absorbing light rays thus preventing the light from
reflecting back from the film base through emulsion.

Function of Anti-halation backing is to prevent light from passing through film base to
emulsion.

2. Color Film is more complex and consists of three layers of light-sensitive emulsion
with layer sensitive to a particular color – red, green, or blue. During exposure, blue light
from a subject will affect the silver halide crystals in the blue-sensitive layer of the film
and so on.

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 During development, a colored dye forms in the relevant layer of a
complementary or opposite color to the layer in which it is formed – that is, yellow dye
forms in the blue-sensitive layer, magenta dye in the green-sensitive layer, and cyan
dye in the red-sensitive layer.

The silver crystals are then bleached out, leaving just the complementary colors.
Various combinations of the same colors produce all the other colors in the photograph.

When a color negative is printed, a similar process takes place in the three layers
of the printing paper, whereby the complementary colors of those in the negative form in
the relevant layer of the paper. This therefore, reverses the colors on the negative back
into the colors of the original image.

Color transparency film goes through a reversal process during film processing
so that the image on the film is a positive-that is, the color of the original image are the
same as the colors on the processed film.

Three (3) Layers of Color Film:

1. Blue-sensitive layer
2. Green-sensitive layer
3. Red-sensitive layer

Types of Photographic Film

A. According to Film Speed

Film Speed –A Scale used to indicate the sensitivity of film to light. All films have
different speed sensitivity to light, they are recognized as follows:

1. Slow Film (ISO 25-100) – Less sensitive to light but deliver sharper, more finely
grained images, more saturated colors and more contrast.

 Used for outside photography

 Used for shooting non-moving objects and brightly lit outdoor shots

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  Used for sunny day/bright light condition
 Best for enlargement
 It cannot freeze action
 Tripod is needed
 The ideal film for taking pictures in daylight conditions on bright sunny days,
perfect for portraits, landscapes, and enlargement.

2. Medium-Speed Film (ISO 200-400) – These are used for moderate action.
 Ideal for general purpose in a wide range of lighting conditions.
 Can be used both in outdoor and indoor photography.
 Can be used day and night.

3. Fast Film (800-3200) – A film that is very sensitive to light.

 It produces coarser, more visible grain structure than a slow film.
 The saturation of the colors on a fast color film will be lower than a slow color
film.
 Used in lower light levels.
 Used for faster action.

Note: In night surveillance photography, the film speed recommended is from 800 to
1600 ISO. In general, slow films are less sensitive to light but deliver sharper, more

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finely grained images. Fast films are more sensitive to light, but the images will have
more grain.

Grain – The particles of silver compounds that form an image on photographic film and
paper.
Graininess – The term used to describe the visual appearance of the clumps of light-
sensitive material making up the film emulsion sometimes seen on prints.

 This normally occurs only on very large prints (or projected transparencies). Fast
higher-ISO film shows grain more readily than does slow lower ISO film.
 The grainy appearance of photographic enlargement is more prominent on
higher speed film

FILM SPEED AND GRAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Slow Medium Fast Ultra-Fast
ISO 25-50 ISO 100-200 ISO 400-800 ISO 1600-3200
Very fine grain Fine grain Coarse grain Very coarse grain

Note: The higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film is and the less exposure
it requires.

Different Film Speed Rating System:

1. ISO – An abbreviation for International Standards Organization.

An internationally agreed system of rating the speed or sensitivity of film to light,
replacing the ASA system. This is a combination of ASA and DIN rating system. A
combination of logarithm and arithmetical value.

2. DIN – The abbreviation for Deutsche Industrie Norm, the European Film Rating
System superseded the ISO System. This is expressed in logarithmic value system or
logarithm numbers.

3. ASA – The abbreviation for American Standard Association. This is expressed

arithmetical value system.

Types of Film according to the Image it Produced

1. Color negative film – A color film that produces a negative image for prints. Also
called color print film.

2. Color reversal film – A color film that produces direct-positive transparencies or

slides. Also called color positive film

B. Types of Color of Film According to Color Balance

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1. Daylight-Balanced Film – A type of film that is color balanced for use in daylight and
flash situation at 5400 K.

2. Tungsten-Balanced Color Film – A color film that is color balanced for use in
artificial light sources at 3400 K, Tungsten light.

C. Types of Film According to Spectral Sensitivity

1. Panchromatic Film – A type of film that is sensitive to all colors wavelength of the
visible spectrum.

Note: B&W Panchromatic Films are sensitive to every color in the spectrum. They are
more sensitive to certain colors, because of this, filters are use to lighten or darken
object of a particular color.

2. Orthochromatic Film – A Film that is sensitive to all colors of the visible spectrum,
with exception of red.

3. Blue Sensitive Film – A Film that is sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue color only.
Suitable for ultraviolet photography.

4. Infrared Film – This is a special type of film that is sensitized with colored dyes to
make it record only invisible infrared or heat waves.
 It is also sensitive to blue light so special filters have to be put over the lens.
 Film that has the longest or widest range of spectral sensitivity in the
electromagnetic spectrum.

5. X-Ray Film – A type of film, which is sensitive to x-ray radiation of the

electromagnetic spectrum.

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D. Types of Film According to its Size (Film Format)

1. Small Format (35mm) – The most common type and is used in compact and SLR
cameras.

36 mm Width
24 mm
35 mm Width
43 mm Diagonal Depth

Small Format (35mm Film), (24x36mm)

2. Medium Format (120 Roll Film) - Different formats can be achieved from 120 Roll
film which is 2 ¼ inches (6cm) wide by altering the length of the frame such as

2 ¼ x ¾ inches (6 x 4.5 cm)

2 ¼ x 2 ¼ inches (6 x 6 cm)
2 ¼ x 2 ¾ inches (6 x 7 cm)
2 ¼ x 3 ½ inches (6 x 9 cm)

3. Large Format (5 x 4 inches 12.5cm x 10cm) – It produces pictures with excellent

clarity and sharpness of detail.

B. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER:

I. According to contrast.
Two Factors that determined the contrast in a negative
a. Exposure
b. Development
 An overexposed or overdeveloped negative is too dark or dense.
 An underexposed or underdeveloped negative is too thin or flat.
 Because it is not always possible to produce negatives that are exactly normal in
tonal range and contrast, contact and enlarging papers are made in several
contrast grades or degrees.

Note: In printing, low-contrast prints are gray with few bright or dark areas; high contrast
prints are most light and dark with few gray areas.

CONTRAST GRADE - A number system used to describe the contrast characteristics

that are built into the photographic enlarging papers.

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  Contrast grades range from 0 to 5, indicating level of contrast.
 Number 2 paper is considered normal.
 Papers with a number lower than 2 have a low contrast and are used to make
normal contrast prints from high contrast negatives.
 Papers with numbers higher than 2 have high contrast, and are used to make
normal contrast prints from low contrast negatives.
 Low-contrast papers for printing contrasty negatives.
 Normal-contrast papers for normal negatives.
 High-contrast papers for flat negatives.

TYPICAL SCALE OF PAPER GRADES

Grade Number Contrast Level
1 Low Contrast
2 Average or Normal
Contrast
3 Slightly High Contrast
4 High Contrast
5 Very High Contrast

II. According to Chemical Contents

Three (3) Types of Emulsion Used on Photographic Paper:

1. Silver Chloride Papers – It is used primarily for contact printing.

Contact Printing – A method of making prints wherein the size of the positive print is
the same as the size of the negative used.

2. Silver Bromide Papers – It is used for projection printing or enlarging printing,

wherein the image of the negatives is projected or enlarged.

Projection Printing – A print made in an enlarger or a method of making prints by

projecting the image of the negative on a suitable easel for holding the sensitive paper.

3. Silver Chlorobromide Papers – These are coated with an emulsion that combines
silver chloride and silver bromide.

Its sensitivity to light is either slow or fast

a. Slow-Speed Chlorobromide Paper is used for contact printing.

b. Fast-Speed Chlorobromide Paper is used for projection printing.
c. Medium-Speed Chlorobromide Paper is suitable for contact printing or enlarging.

Note: These emulsions are much slower than those used on film.

III. According to Physical Characteristics

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a. Weight or Thickness

1. Single-Weight (SW) Paper is used for all ordinary photographic purposes.

2. Lightweight (LW) or Medium Weight is intended for purposes that frequently
involve folding.
3. Double-Weight (DW) is thicker than the average heavy post card.

 These are generally used for large prints because they stand up better under
rough treatment.
 DW papers are also recommended for portrait and exhibition photographs, and
for prints larger than 8 x 10 inches.

Note: RC papers are usually light or medium weight; Fiber-based papers are either
single or double weight.
b. Base or Base Type

1. Resin Coated (RC) Paper – printing paper with a plastic coating under the emulsion.
 RC papers are coated on both sides with a very thin layer of clear plastic.
 RC papers have an acetate coating, applied to the back of the base to prevent
the absorption of processing solutions, which causes the expansion and
contraction (shrinkage) of the paper.
 Expose more quickly than fiber-based papers.
 Take less time to process, wash and dry.
 In addition, they do not curl as much as fiber-based papers during drying.
 It is not a good conductor of heat.
 Water resistant.

2. Fiber-Based Paper – are used for exhibition purposes and fine art collections
because the fiber surface is more appealing that the RC surface.
3. Surface/Texture
Surfaces of photographic paper have different textures and produce photographs for so
many different purposes.

F – Glossy Paper (smooth) – Glossy surfaces give maximum detail and brilliance.
 Smooth papers are recommended for small prints that require good definition.
 The smooth photographic paper is necessary for law enforcement photography,
so that the details of the image will appear and appreciated by the viewers.

Definition – The clarity, sharpness, resolution and brilliance of an image formed by a

lens.

Note: The glossier the surface, the sharper the appearance of the image.

N - Matte or Semi-Matte paper surfaces (rough).

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 CHAPTER VIII. CHEMICAL PROCESSING

Film Processing – It refers to a series of chemical reactions.

Film processing is the most crucial part in the preparation of photograph.

Once the film is destroyed during development process, everything is ruined and no
positive print can be produce.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Agitation – the process of keeping a photographic chemical solution in motion so fresh

solution will contact the emulsion of the film or paper at regular intervals throughout the
developing and fixing process. The purpose of which is to keep dirt from settling down
on the paper.

Wetting Agent – chemical that weakens the surface tension of water, and so reduces
the risk of drying marks on film.
 It helps or is used to eliminate the water spots and streaks that form while the
film is drying.
 Is a chemical that causes liquid to run off quickly
 The purpose is to prevent water spots and streaks

Latent image – The invisible image on a photographic film or paper. The latent image
must be developed before it can be seen.
Negative image – An image on which the black and white tones are reversed.
Developing tank – A light-tight container for developing film
Contrast – The difference in the densities of various areas in the negative.
Developing reel – The device used in film wherein the film is winded along its spiral
groove so that no surface of the film will touch each other thus assuring even
development
Dodging – A printing technique used to lighten areas of a print by selectively
withholding light during the print exposure. Also known as shading.
Shading - A printing technique of increasing the amount of exposure received by a part
of a print in order to darken part of the image.
Burning – A printing technique used to darken areas of a print by selectively adding
more light after the initial exposure. A printing technique of decreasing the amount of
exposure received by a part of the print in order to lighten that part of the image.

Cropping – It is a selective enlarging of an image so that unwanted parts of the subject

are not recorded on the printing paper. A method of trimming or cutting away the
unnecessary portions of a print in order to improve composition.

Three (3) Basic Chemicals needed to develop film and photographic paper:

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 FILM PRINT PAPER
a. Developer D-76 developer Dektol developer
b. Stop bath Stop bath Stop bath
c. Fixer (or hypo) Fixer (or hypo) Fixer (or hypo)

Chemical composition of a Developer

1. Reducer of developing agents – Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulphite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or preventor – potassium bromide

Chemical composition of a Fixer

1. Dissolving agent – hypo or sodium thiosulphate
2. Preservative – sodium sulphite
3. Neutralizer – boric acid, acetic acid
4. Hardener – potassium alum

Four (4) steps in developing photograph (Each step requires specific amount of time)

1. Developing the film 3. Fixing

2. Stop bath 4. Washing in running water

CHEMICAL PROCESS

a. Film Development – The process of developing the latent image.

Factors that affect the developing time are the following:

1. Temperature 4. Concentration
2. Chemicals 5. Exposure
3. Agitation
b. Stop Bath – A chemical solution that stops the development or stops the chemical
action of developer.
 An intermediate bath between the developer and fixer.
 It is usually a combination of water and acetic acid or just plain water.
 Primarily, its function is to prevent the contamination of the two chemical solution
(developer and fixer)

c. Fixation – The process of removing, unexposed silver halides remaining in the

emulsion after first stage of development of the latent image.

Fixer – A chemical solution that stops excess emulsion from photographic film or paper.
It washes away all the emulsion that hasn’t been darkened by the developer or exposed
by light.

The usual composition of fixer:

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 1. Sodium thiosulphate or hypo
2. Anti-staining agent like acetic acid
3. Hardening agent like potassium alum

Purpose of fixation process:

1. To fix the latent image.
2. To remove unwanted silver halides.
3. To harden the gelatin which has become soft during development.

DEVELOPING TIME FOR FILM AND PRINT PAPER

FOR FILM: Developing Time – 5-7 minutes

 For D-76 developer, the required developing time for film for small
developing tank is 5 ½ minutes. For large tank or developing tank is 6 ½
minutes.
 Recommended temperature for D-76 developer is 68 degrees Farenheight or 20
degrees Celsius. Although anywhere between 65 to 75 degrees is usually
acceptable.
 Fixing time: The normal fixing time of a negative is 10-12 minutes.
 Agitation time during developing and fixing: 30 seconds interval
 Washing in running water : from 15 – 20 minutes
 Immersion in wetting agent: 1 minute

FOR PAPER: Developing time: 1-2 minutes

The normal developing time of a normally exposed photographic paper in

Dektol developer with ordinary room temperature is 1-2 minutes.

Stop bath time: 10 – 30 seconds

Fixing time: 7-10 minutes
Washing time: about 12 minutes (This is the final step in developing
photograph)

Agitation time: every 30 seconds

STAGES OF MAKING PHOTOGRAPHS

 Film Exposure
 Film Developing/Film Processing
 Film Printing/ Making a Print
 Print Developing

FOUR STEPS IN DEVELOPING PICTURES

 Developer
 Stop bath
 Fixer

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  Washing in running water.

Note: Each step requires a specific amount.

PROCEDURES IN FILM PROCESSING, PRINT MAKING, AND PRINT PAPER

DEVELOPMENT

A. Loading the film

1. Remove the protective cover.
2. Cut the film leader.
3. Roll the film into the reel.
4. Cut off the end of the film.
5. Place the reel in the tank.

B. The developing process (Film processing) using the stainless steel tank and
reel.

1. Take the temperature of the developer, and determine the correct developing
time. Usually 68 degrees Fahrenheit or 20 degrees Celsius.
2. Pour the developer into the processing tank. Start the timer as soon as the
developer is in the tank.
3. Gently tap the bottom of the tank against a table or give the tank a sharp tap with
the heel of your hand to remove any air bubbles that trapped in the developer.
4. Agitate the tank for the first 30 seconds of development. To agitate, gently rotate
the tank in a circular direction, then invert it. A typical method is to invert the tank
three times every 30 seconds.
5. At the end of the development time, open the lid of the drainage opening of the
developing tank and pour the developer away and pour in a stop bath for about
30 seconds and don’t forget to agitate.
6. After pouring the stop bath, pour the fixing solution into the tank and agitate. The
fixing process usually takes 5 to 10 minutes in a regular fixers and 2 to 4 minutes
in a rapid fixers.
7. Pour out the fixer and save it for reuse.
8. Wash the film in clean running water for a minimum of 20 minutes ( 20 to 30
minutes).
9. Rinse the film in wetting agent ( a mild form of detergent that helps the water to
flow off the surface of the film with out leaving drying marks).
10. Gently wipe it through a special film squeegee or even two fingers that you have
wetted with the wetting agent.
11. Lastly hang the film and attach a weight to prevent it from curling during drying.

A. THE PRINTING PROCESS

1. Place the negative on the negative carrier then insert the negative carrier in the
enlarger head. The negative should be placed side up, but with the image upside
down.

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 2. Turn off the light inside the darkroom.
3. Adjust the height of the enlarger head to get the desired size of print by moving
the adjuster up and down. As the head moves up the rail, the projected image
becomes bigger; as it moves down, the image becomes smaller.
4. Focus the image by adjusting the focusing knob or focus control at the enlarger
lens’s biggest aperture. This procedure not only makes the image brighter and
easier to see initially, it ensures that the image will be sharp.
5. Set the appropriate diaphragm by closing down two or three stops before the
exposure, or close down the aperture to a smaller f-stop, (f-8 or f-11) This is to
obtain the greater depth of field.
6. Set the timer with an appropriate enlarging time.
7. Turn off the enlarger with the safelight is on.
8. Take a sheet of photographic paper out of its sealed plastic bag and place it on
the easel with the emulsion side facing up.
9. Align the photo paper correctly with the guides of the easel mask and close the
mask gently. The easel has size scale on its top, bottom, or sides for setting the
image size.
10. Lastly switch on the enlarger and expose the photographic paper at the
appropriate exposure time.

Note: It is advisable to conduct a test strip with a range of exposures time. The purpose
is to enable you to determine the correct exposure and contrast for the final printing.

A primary consideration when you are printing a negative is how dark to make the
print. It must be remember that print exposure times vary with the following:
1. The density of the negative
 With a very thin negative, it is better to stop down the lens to a smaller
diaphragm rather than use a very short exposure time.
 With a dense, overexposed negative, it is better to open up the aperture, rather
than use a very long exposure time.
 Generally, try to use exposure times from 5 to 20 seconds.
2. The size of the enlargement
3. The chemistry
4. The developing time
5. The aperture of the lens
6. The enlarger itself

The exposure might be correct on one enlarging machine but may not be
correct on another. The best way to determine the print exposure times needed for a
particular negative is to make a test print or test strip.

A test strip is necessary to determine the exposure time when making a print
because density of the negatives varies, and the exposure changes with differences in
the height of the enlarger. the test strip was made with the aperture at f-22, and the
exposure was set for 5-second increments. The first exposure is the darkest and the

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last one the lightest because the paper was uncovered increment by increment, with the
last one getting the least amount.

PRINT PAPER DEVELOPMENT (PROCESSING BLACK-AND-WHITE PRINTS)

The procedure for black-and-white prints is similar to that for film, with a
developer, stop bath, fixer, and wash.

1. Pour the print developer in the first tray to a depth of ½ inch or so. Stop bath in
the second tray and the fixer in the third tray.
2. Immersed the exposed print paper in the developer emulsion-side up and shale
or agitate it well for 30 seconds. The appropriate developing time is 2 to 3
minutes. Stop the development when the desired tone has been obtained. Drain
off the developer well, and then immerse the paper in the stopper.

Note: the development time will vary depending on the developer you use.
1. Put print paper in the stop bath. The stopping time is 20 seconds. Agitate the
print paper well in the stop bath. After draining off, immerse the paper in the fixer.
2. Drain the print and put it into the third tray filled with fixing solution for the
recommended time usually 15 to 20 minutes in the reverse position (emulsion
side facing down).
3. Wash the print paper in running water for 20 to 30 minutes.
4. Dry the print paper with warm air at around 40 degrees Celsius.
Excessive temperature may result in excessive curling of the print paper.

CHAPTER IX. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

CRIME SCENE – A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence
found thereat.

It does not only refers to the focal point of the crime scene but also the
adjacent area of the crime scene.

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OBJECTIVES OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. To record the crime scene permanently.

2. To help in keeping the police officers memory accurately as possible as to where
he finds things.
3. To reconstruct the crime scene.

Note: Upon arrival at the scene of the crime, photograph the whole area before
anything is moved. Take shots from several angles to show the entire area.

GUIDELINES IN TAKING CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS:

a. INDOOR
First shot – Forensic Photographer must establish his first shot of general view by
photographing the area, to show whether the crime scene is a residential, factory, busy
street or is located at the jungle.
Second shot – the exact building where the crime was committed and it must be shown
on the photograph taken by the Forensic Photographer if it is a private home,
residential, alleys, etc.
Third shot – the main entrance, take two shots of the possible entrance and exit of the
perpetrator, usually in robbery cases the perpetrators enters at the window.
Fourth shot – before proceeding to the main scene of the crime, hallways and other
adjacent rooms must be photographed.
Fifth shot – this is the exact place. It may be a room or a toilet. It is advisable to use
the wide angle lens in a limited space to show the angles.
Sixth shot – close-up shots are applicable to the object/s attacked to show the extent of
damage and other vital evidence to locate, identity of the victim and to determine the
number of perpetrator.

OUTDOOR
1. Geographical conditions of the area around the crime scene. Each shot must be
shown it it is a residential, factory or a busy street.
2. Other related houses, passages in the vicinity.
3. Evidence left behind on the scene and other traces scattered over the crime
scene in the nearby roads.
4. Blood stains for external walls of the victim’s house.
5. Conditions of the corpse.

PHOTOGRAHIC VIEWS

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1. General view is an overall view of the crime scene that includes the reference
point.

 The first series of photographs to be taken at a crime scene.

 In evidence photography, one photograph should be taken from a distance
sufficient to show the object against the background of its setting, so that it can
be located and referred to in the over-all crime scene photographs.
 The general view could an aerial view, interior and exterior view of a building or
house. (Indoor or Outdoor scene)
 This is to show to the viewers where was the crime took place.
 In general view, always include some reference points such as bridge, river,
electric post, manhole, highway marker, monument and other reference points.

NOTE; A long-range photograph of an apartment complex may be an aerial view of the

entire area, while a long-range photograph of a room may be a view from the doorstep
to the room. Used wide-angle lens.

2. Medium view –This is to show the four angles of the crime scene including the
possible route path of the suspect.
 This is used to establish the modus operandi of the suspect.
 Mid-range photograph are taken in a manner which portrays the crime scene
from approximately ten to 20 feet from the subject.

3. Close-up shot – This is to identify the subject.

 Close-up range photographs are normally taken approximately five feet or less
from the subject.
 These photographs are essential in establishing the corpus delicti of a criminal
act.

4. Extreme close-up shot – to show the extent of damage or injury caused by the
suspect.

TWO GENERAL METHODS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Overlapping Method – A photographic method of taking a series of

photographs in a circular or clockwise direction, overlapping each other slightly to show
the entire crime scene.

Note: If a single photograph cannot show the entire crime scene, apply this method.

2. Progressive Method – A photographic method of taking a crime scene

photographs starting from a fixed point, photographing each piece of evidence as the
photographer moves toward it, and progressively gets closer. (from general to specific)

ITEMS OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED:

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 1. All materials, which serve to establish the fact that the crime has been committed
or the body of the crime.
2. Materials to prove or to determine the manner by which the crime was
committed.
3. An object to identify and the number of perpetrator/s.
4. Clues that would connect the suspect to the crime.
5. Any marks, such as fingerprints, splashes of blood.

PHOTOGRAPHING SPECIFIC CRIME SCENE:

SEXUAL OFFENSES

The crime of rape may be taken as typical of this class of offense. There must
be a written permission from the victim, the photograph must be taken in the presence
of the parents/guardians or medico legal officer. Indications of the victim’s efforts to
resist, such as bruises or black and blue marks and evidence of the presence of either
or both parties at the scene.

Photograph of the stains or marks should also be taken at the crime scene. After
the stains have been photographed, specimens should be carefully preserved for
submission to the medical doctor or other specialists whose duty is to identify them and
prepare photomicrograph for use as evidence.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE VICTIM – Evidence of resistance of the criminal act is of

particular importance in sex offenses; verify the head, neck, including parks and
discoloration of the body in general, the condition of specifically affected parts, and
presence of foreign hairs, fibers, and biological stains.

THE SUSPECT – The suspect’s body may show evidence of the physical struggle, such
as scratches or bruises, foreign hairs f fibers that may be discovered by the physician.
The garments of the suspects may reveal bloodstains, semen, hair strands, etc.

HOMICIDE – when photographing the scene of a homicide, the Forensic Photographer

relates what he has seen and defends it before the court during trial. Through
photographs, he has to show the manner by which the homicide occurred, views of the
room with all the possible entrance and exit.

He must show whether there is any evidence of struggle and try to show what
happen before, during, and after the commission of the crime. Obvious evidence such
as cigarette butts, blood stains or broken glass must not be overlooked.

The circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the body. Take
close-up shots of the wounds, bruises, weapon used and the place where it was taken.

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PHOTOGRAPHING THE CORPSE – In photographing the corpse on the scene,
several pictures of the conditions at the time of discovery including the environment of
the corpse must be taken from various photographic directions:

 Show when photographing the general conditions of the corpse, if as being

deformed as a whole.
 When photographing a damaged part of a corpse, consider the range of
photographing to the damage part clearly; take some close-up shots of the
several directions, if possible so as to clarify their relations.

AUTOPSY PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCEDURES

1. Photograph the dead body with clothes on when it was found.

2. Photograph the dead body from head to foot by standing either as high as you
can, then photograph straight down on the subject( Try to avoid taking shots from
any angle other than vertical position) or move the cadaver sideways facing the
photographer.
3. Take photographs of the dead body from head to foot and from front and back
before and after the cadaver’s clothing has been removed.
4. Take mug shots of an unidentified cadaver including distinct marks such as
scars, mole, tattoos, birthmarks, physical deformities, etc.
5. Take close-up shots on the gunshot entrance and exit wounds as well as other
external wounds succumb by the victim as directed by the medico-legal officer.
6. Take other photographs as directed by the forensic pathologist or medico- legal
officer.

NOTE: Always cover the private parts of the dead body before taking photographs
during autopsy.

SUICIDE – In responding to any cases, Forensic Photographer should not assume that
the case was a homicide. Careful work is very important to determine how the crime
was committed.

SUICIDE BY HANGING – Strangulation by hanging is the most common form of

suicide. But the investigator must not assume that the victim found hanging is suicide.
Photograph the subject at a distant from four views, showing the full body then move in
close and show the knot, and bruise marks. If it is suicide by shooting, take note of the
color of the body (discoloration).

Note: Do not untie the knot. Just cut it.

SUICIDE BY SHOOTING – Photograph both the entrance and the exit wounds. The
exit wound is always larger than the diameter of the bullet. Usually, the hair
surrounding the entrance is singeing and the skin is burned to a reddish or grayish-
brown color. If it is fired from a range of less than eight inches, lack of residue may be
evident.

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ROBBERY CASES

1. Take photographs of the general view of the building where the robbery
occurred.
2. Photograph the point of entry, begins with a distant shot, and work yourself into;
get close-up shots to show the forcible entry. Look into the windows including
the pathways.
3. Photograph each room in the house or building which was disturbed.
4. Take some shots of all furniture or articles, which show evidence of being
ransacked.
5. If you can determine the criminal’s exit, photograph it. Usually, the robber may
leave something especially when someone surprised him such as hat, gloves,
and scarf or cigarette butts.

ROAD/TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

1. Avoid unnecessary surroundings/objects that are not pertinent to the case. “See
through the driver’s eye.”
2. Take four shots and 25 feet distance from the point of impact.
3. Take close-up shots on the damaged area in low angles from a distance of 8-10
feet.
4. Photograph the following:

 All vehicles in their original positions

 Debris
 Skid/tire marks, patches of oil or water
 Take shots for reference points
 All vehicles
 Plate number

ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is film? Explain how it works in producing a positive photograph.

2. Identify and explain the types of photographic film, photographic papers.
3. Identify the basic chemicals needed to develop the film and paper.
4. Explain the process in developing a film and print paper.
5. Identify and explain the processes in print paper development.
6. Define crime scene photography and apply the methods of crime scene
photography.

Instructional Material for Forensic Photography Page 67 of 71

 EVALUATION OF THE COURSE

After finishing the modules, please answer the following questions.

1. What lesson or activity did I enjoy most? Why?

2. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life?

3. What are the new insights/discoveries that I learned?

4. What topic/s do I find least important?

5. What possible topics should have been included?

Instructional Material for Forensic Photography Page 68 of 71

 REFERENCES

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https://connect.issaquah.wednet.edu/high/ihs/staff/claudonj/advanced_photograp
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2017.

__________ (ND). Color Mixing. https://www.d.umn.edu/~mharvey/th1501color.html on

March 28, 2017.

__________ (ND). Photography. Retrieved at

http://photo.stackexchange.com/questions/139/what-is-crop-factor-and-how-
does-it-relate-to-focal-length on March 28, 2017.

Carroll, B. O. (2016). Comprehensive Beginners Guide to Aperture, Shutter Speed and

ISO. https://petapixel.com/2016/06/25/comprehensive-beginners-guide-aperture-
shutter-speed-iso/ on March 28, 2017.

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Corroll, B. O. (2016). A Comprehensive Beginner’s Guide to Aperture, Shutter Speed,
and ISO. Retrieved at https://petapixel.com/2016/06/25/comprehensive-
beginners-guide-aperture-shutter-speed-iso/on March 22, 2017.

Eliot Khuner, E. & Weiss, S. (2016). The Everything Photography Book. USA:
Thompson
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Harris, T. (2002). How cameras work. Retrieved at

http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/camera.htm on March 28, 2017.

Kalalang, A. P., Jr. and Kalalang, S. S. (2009). Instructional Handbook on Police

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Merriam Webster (11th Edition), Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster

Miller, L. L. (1991). Sansone’s Police Photography. London: Sage Publication

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accessories-guide/ on March 28, 2017.

Stroebel, L.; Compton, J.; Corrent, I.; Zakia, R. (2000). Basic Photographic Materials
and Processes, (Second Edition). United States of America: Focal Press.
Villarba, W. H. (2011). Laboratory Manual in Criminalistics 2 (Police Photography).
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Villarba, W. H. (2015). Forensic Photography for Criminology Students and Practitioners
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Wei, S. H. (2010). Photographic Film Structure. Retrieved at

http://www.optics.rochester.edu/workgroups/cml/opt307/spr10/shu-wei/ on March
28, 2017.

Instructional Material for Forensic Photography Page 70 of 71

Prepared by:

Dr. Jezreel B. Vicente

Faculty

Noted and approved by:

Dr. Charesma Grace K. Lud-ayen

Dean, SCJPS

Instructional Material for Forensic Photography Page 71 of 71