WEB DEVELOPMENT NC III

Common Competencies
Unit of Competency 2: Perform Computer Operations
LO2: Input data into computer

Information Sheet 2.2-1: Basic Ergonomics of Keyboard and Computer Use

It is important to understand the keyboard options you have when outfitting your
workstation. Different types of keyboards offer various benefits. Below are some
options when selecting a keyboard for your workstation.

Split Keyboard
 Designed to straighten wrists and arms to be in a more neutral position
 Low force needed to press keys
 Compact size
 Compatible with all major computer operating systems
 Can spread keyboard to a shoulder-width apart
 Easy to position
 Can place mouse in the middle of the keyboard (allows for less reaching)
 No number pad which creates a shorter reach when the mouse is placed on
the right side. If a number pad is necessary it is a separate attachment that
can be positioned independently of the keyboard.
 Can be used with standard mouse or roller mouse.

Arc Keyboard
 Decreases unnatural wrist positioning (ulnar deviation)
 Wireless, compact
 Easily transported

Contoured Keyboard
 Adjustable slope of keyboard—neutral, positive, or negative
 Padded wrist wrest
 Raised middle to promote neutral wrist position
 Not compatible with a roller mouse.

Adjustable Keyboard Tray

 Height adjustable
 Can change tilt on tray (0 to -15 degrees)
 Swivel feature (keyboard tray and mouse board)
 Adjustable
 Takes keyboard and mouse off of desk top creating greater desk top working
space.
 Allows for better flexibility in adjustments and allows for multiple users
Things to consider with an adjustable keyboard tray
 Ease of use
 Able to maintain its position
 Easily rotatable mouse board to allow for right of left handed mouse use.
 Dial indicating keyboard tray angle

Positioning
 The keyboard should be at or slightly below elbow height, and parallel with
your forearms.
 If your keyboard has feet on the back that prop it up, make sure to close
those feet in order to keep in flat and maintain the wrists in a neutral
position.
 Position equipment and work tasks so that your body is directly in front of
and close to your major work tasks (think letter “B” at your belly-button!)
 Utilize a gel wrist rest to provide rest breaks when typing

Prolonged use of a computer keyboard and/or mouse can lead to frequent muscle
aches and nerve pain unless a few guidelines are followed. You can work more
comfortably and safely if you incorporate the following ergonomic tips into your
work style:

Posture and Positioning

 Maintain good posture when working at the keyboard. Utilize a chair with
back support.
 Keep your feet supported on the floor or on a footrest when you work to
reduce pressure on your lower back
 Avoid twisting or bending your trunk or neck. Frequently used items should
be positioned directly in front of you and angled upward on a copyholder
when working.
 Keep your shoulders relaxed with your elbows close to your sides.
 Avoid resting your elbows on the hard surface or edge of your table. Pads can
be used to protect your elbows if necessary.
 Elbows should be positioned at 100 to 110 degrees when working in order to
keep a relaxed position at the keyboard. This could require a slight negative
tilt (front of keyboard higher than back) when working in upright positions. If
reclined in your chair, the keyboard could be at a positive angle to maintain
this relaxed position.
 Your wrists should be in a neutral or straight position when keying or using a
pointing device or calculator. Wrist rests can assist you in maintaining a
neutral position when used properly during pauses. Float your arms above
the keyboard and wrist rest when keying. Avoid planting your wrists on the
table or wrist rest. This can result in bending the wrists either up and down or
side to side.
  Take breaks. These breaks can be brief and should include stretches for
optimal results. If possible, take a one or two-minute break every 15 to 20
minutes, or a five-minute break every hour. Every few hours, get up, move
around, and do an alternative activity.

Work Technique
 Reduce keystrokes with the use of macros or software programs allowing
"sticky keys." Use scroll locks and keystroke combinations to reduce pointing-
device movements.
 Alternate tasks to make changes in your working position to avoid making the
same movements for prolonged periods of time.
 Keep your fingers and knuckles relaxed when working at the keyboard.
 Never hold a pen or pencil in your hand when keying.
 Avoid hitting the keyboard with excessive force. Studies have shown that the
average user hits the keyboard with four times the required force when
keying.
 Avoid holding your pointing device tightly. Your hand should be relaxed.
 Rest your eyes by refocusing on distant objects intermittently when working.

Work Environment
 Avoid excessive reaching. Your keyboard, pointing device, files and telephone
should be within easy reach.
 Use a keyboard tray to properly position your keyboard and pointing device.
 Use a copyholder positioned in line with your monitor and keyboard.
 When writing at the computer, avoid excessive reaching over the keyboard or
work materials. A sturdy in-line copyholder can double as a writing surface if
appropriately positioned.
 Position the monitor so that the viewed part of the screen allows you to keep
your neck in a neutral or straight position. The monitor should be centered
directly in front of you. The top of the computer screen should be slightly
below the top of your head, so that you are looking at it with a slightly
downward gaze.
 Position your monitor to eliminate excessive glare or reflections from
windows and lighting.
 Customize your computer by using your software. The screen font, contrast,
pointer size, speed, and color can all be adjusted to maximize your comfort
and efficiency.

Information Sheet 2.2-2: Storage Devices and Basic Categories of Memory

The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the
information and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of
the computer hardware which stores information/data to process the result of any
computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would not be able to run
or even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage device is hardware
that is used for storing, porting, or extracting data files. It can also store
information/data both temporarily and permanently.

Types of Computer Memory

1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This
is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and
intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.
2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to
the computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of
programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc., are
examples of secondary storage.
3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in
personal computers and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an
important one. Tertiary memory works automatically without human
intervention.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market.
These storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly
used storage devices are:

1. Primary Storage Devices

 RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information
that is used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory.
Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to process it
and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is
deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple tasks like
loading applications, browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing
the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly among these tasks,
remembering where you’re in one task once you switch to a different task. It
is also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet program,
answers commands, like all edits you made within the spreadsheet, or toggle
between multiple programs, like once you left the spreadsheet to see the
email. Memory is nearly always actively employed by your computer. It
ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are
different types of RAM, and although they all serve the same purpose, the
most common ones are :
 SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of
circuits that retain stored information as long as the power supply is
on. It is also known as volatile memory. It is used to build Cache
 memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as
compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to
DRAM.
 DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to
store binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are applied to
capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower as compared to SRAM
but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging density.
 SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.
It is faster than DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After
SDRAM was introduced, the upgraded version of double data rate RAM,
i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was entered into the market and
widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.
 ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these
devices are non-volatile, i.e., once the data is stored in the memory cannot
be modified or deleted. The memory from which will only read but cannot
write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are
used to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is also
used in other electronic items like washers and microwaves. ROM chips can
only store a few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and 8 MB
per ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:
 PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs
that can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to
enter the program on the PROM. Once the chip has been programmed,
information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is non-volatile, which
is data is not lost when power is switched off.
 EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory. It is possible to erase the info which has been previously
stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.
 EEPROM: EEPROM is electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory. Here, data can be erased without using ultraviolet light, with
the use of just applying the electric field.
2. Magnetic Storage Devices
 Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally
used on a personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made
up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case. Nowadays floppy
disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB, etc.
 Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves
data using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be
modified or deleted n number of times without any problem. Most computers
and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is actually a set
of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is
recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track
present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph
arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track. The
read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs
to a few and more TB.
 Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or
rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on
the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used like a
passcode (to enter the house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
 Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat
container in which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is
generally used to store audio recordings.
 SuperDisk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation
Corporation and it is popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240
MB.

3. Flash Memory Devices

It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly used
device to store data because is more reliable and efficient as compared to other
storage devices. Some of the commonly used flash memory devices are:
 Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory
with an integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices to
our computers and laptops and read/write data into them in a much faster
and more efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from 1GB
to 256GB generally.
 SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is
more durable because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks.
It needs less power as compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x
faster read and writes speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are costly
as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard drives, their internal
components are much different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs don’t have any
moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives. Instead of storing
data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since
 SSDs haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from
150GB to a few more TB.
 SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with
electronic devices like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is
portable and the size of the SD card is also small so that it can easily fit into
electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.
 Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game
consoles, etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data and is available in
different sizes. To run a memory card on a computer you require a separate
memory card reader.
 Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is
generally used in-car radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to
store data/information.

4. Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable storage
device. Following are some optical storage devices:
 CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface
to store data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape.
CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of two types:
 CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once
the data is written cannot be erased. It is read-only.
 CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you
can easily write or erase data multiple times.
 DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs
used to store data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer
discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs but the
storage capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to CDs. It is of two types:
 DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of
DVD, once the data is written cannot be erased. It is read-only. It is
generally used to write movies, etc.
 DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of
DVD, you can easily write or erase data multiple times.
 Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is
up to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This
Blu-ray technology is used to read a disc from a blue-violet laser due to which
the information is stored in greater density with a longer wavelength.

5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage
devices. We can store our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for
as long as we pay for the cloud storage. There are many companies that provide
cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft, etc. We can pay the rent for the
amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of it. Though it is
actually being stored in a physical device located in the data centers of the service
provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical device and its maintenance. For
example, Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of storage where users can
store data virtually instead of being stored in physical hard drive devices. These
sorts of innovations represent the frontier of where storage media goes.

Characteristics of Computer Storage Devices

 Data stored in the Memory can be changed or replaced in case of a
requirement, because of the mobility of the storage devices.
 Storage Devices validate that saved data can be replaced or deleted as per
the requirements because the storage devices are easily readable, writeable,
and rewritable.
 Storage Devices are easy and convenient to access because they do not
require much skill set to handle these resources.
 The storage capacity of these devices is an extra advantage to the system.
 Storage Devices have better performance and data can be easily transferred
from one device to another.

Information Sheet 2.2-3: Different Types of Software with Examples - A

Complete Guide

What is a Software?
By definition, software (also abbreviated as an SW or S/W) is a collection of data,
programs, procedures, instructions, and documentation that perform various
predefined tasks on a computer system. It enables users to interact with the
computer.

Different Types of Software

As mentioned above, there are two major software types in computer systems –
System Software and Application Software.

1. System Software
It aids a user and the hardware to function and interact with each other. Basically, it
is software to manage computer hardware behavior to provide basic functionalities
to users.

Simply put, the system software is an intermediator or a middle layer between the
user and the hardware. It sanctions a platform or environment for the other
software to work in. This is the reason why it is very important in managing the
entire computer system.

When you first turn on the computer, it is the system software that gets initialized
and loaded into the memory of the system. It runs in the background and is not
used by the end users. Hence, this type of software is also known as ‘low-level
software’.

Examples of System Software

Operating System
It is the most basic example of the system software used in every computing
device. It is a collection of software that handles resources and provides general
services for the other applications that run on a specific system.

Device Drivers
It is a type of software that controls particular hardware attached to the system.
Hardware devices that need a driver to connect to a system include displays, sound
cards, printers, mouse, and hard disks.

Firmware
Firmware is permanent software embedded into a read-only memory. It is a set of
instructions permanently stored on a hardware device. It provides essential
information regarding how the device interacts with other hardware. Firmware can
be considered as ‘semi-permanent’ as it remains permanent unless it is updated
using a firmware updater.

Programming Language Translators

These are mediator programs on which software programs rely to translate high-
level language code to simpler machine-level code. Besides simplifying the code,
the translators also do the following :
 Assign data storage
 Enlist source code as well as program details
 Offer diagnostic reports
 Rectify system errors during the runtime

Examples of Programming Language Translators are interpreters, compilers, and

assemblers.

Utility
Utility software is designed to aid in analyzing, optimizing, configuring, and
maintaining a computer system. It supports the computer infrastructure. They focus
on how an OS functions and then accordingly decide their trajectory to smoothen
the system's functioning.

2. Application Software
Application Software, also known as end-user programs or productivity programs,
help the user in completing tasks such as doing online research, jotting down notes,
setting the alarm, designing graphics, keeping an account log, doing calculations, or
even playing games. They lie above the system software.

End users them for a specific purpose or task. For example, a browser is an
application designed specifically for browsing the internet and MS Powerpoint is
used for creating presentations.

Application Software or simply apps can also be referred to as non-essential

software as their requirement is highly subjective, and their absence does not affect
the system's functioning. The apps we see on our mobile phones are also examples
of Application Software.

Types of Application Software

Word Processors
These applications help you create documents where you can write and edit
anything. Along with that, it also helps in storing, formatting, and printing
documents.

Database Software
A database management system is an application software to create and manage
databases. They help with the organization of data.

Multimedia Software
It is the software that is able to play, create or record images, audio or video files.
They are used for video editing, animation, graphics, and image editing.

Education and Reference Software

These types of software are specifically designed to facilitate learning on a
particular subject. There are various kinds of tutorial software that fall under this
category. They are also termed as academic software.

Graphics Software
As the name suggests, Graphics Software has been devised to work with graphics
as it helps the user to edit or make changes in visual data or images. It comprises of
picture editors and illustration software.

Web Browsers
Web browsers help us browse the internet. They help the user retrieve data across
the web.

Sources:
https://www.unh.edu/research/ergonomics/keyboard-ergonomics#:~:text=The
%20keyboard%20should%20be%20at,wrists%20in%20a%20neutral%20position.
https://www.ehs.pitt.edu/workplace/ergonomics/computer-users
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-a-storage-device-definition-types-examples/
https://www.publichealthnotes.com/ergonomics-and-its-10-principles/
https://squareboat.com/blog/different-types-of-software-with-examples
 SELF-CHECK 2.2-1

1. It is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the

information and instructions to be processed.

o Primary memory
o Secondary memory
o Storage unit
o Read Only Memory

2. It is used to store information that is used immediately.

o ROM
o RAM
o SRAM
o DRAM

3. The information is stored permanently during manufacture only.

o ROM
o RAM
o SRAM
o DRAM

4. It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with
an integrated USB interface.
o Floppy diskette
o Flash drive
o Pen Drive
o Memory device

5. Also known as end-user programs or productivity programs, help the

user in completing tasks such as doing online research, jotting down
notes, setting the alarm, designing graphics, keeping an account log,
doing calculations, or even playing games.
o Graphic Software
o Application Software
o System Software
o Device Drivers