STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

Statistical Process in Solving a Problem

INTRODUCING STATISTICS
“Do dogs eat more than cats?”
Statistical Process / Statistics
- plan or a design on how to collect the data (minimize bias in responding to the
- “statistics” comes from the word “state” because government have been involved in query)
the statistical activities, especially the conduct of censuses either for military or - get representative group of dogs and another representative group of cats (animal
taxation purposes. weight, amount of food in grams eaten per day and the breed of the animal)
- a science that studies data - how many dogs and cats are included in the group
- using data to find an answer or a solution to a problem or inquiry. - we must verify the quality of the data to make a good decision
- used in decision-making - make a decision or provide answers to the problem or question at hand
- characterizes persons, objects and phenomena;
- explain relationships among variables;
- Formulate objective assessments and comparisons; and more importantly - Planning or designing the collection of data to answer statistical questions in a way
- make evidence-based decisions and predictions. that maximizes information content and minimizes bias;
- Collecting the data as required in the plan;
- use basic checks for understanding in places when students are introduced to new
- Verifying the quality of the data after the data were collected;
material
- Summarizing the information extracted from the data; and
- whether the content is presented in a written, video, or audio format, a well-crafted - Examining the summary statistics so that insight and meaningful information can be
check for understanding helps students understand basic terminology and big produced to support decision-making or solutions to the question or problem at
picture concepts hand.

- it establishes the foundation for deeper understanding later on down the road. KEY POINTS

- ease of customization is key when setting up online learning - Difference between questions that could be and those that could not be answered
using Statistics.
- use your professional judgement and tailor the content as needed for your students. - Statistics is a science that studies data.
You want to manage assignment availability options, levels of feedback, and links to - There are many uses of Statistics but its main use is in decision-making.
the text to best meet student needs. - Logical decisions or solutions to a problem could be attained through a statistical
process
- select assessment questions that hit varying levels of difficulty—easy, moderate,
and hard—and build on previous learning.

- most educational institutions currently use digital spaces to post grades, submit Data Collection Activity
assignments, discuss material, and exchange ideas. Leverage these items as an
educator to support student learning outside of the classroom Basic Terms in Statistics

- Facts are collected for purposes of getting aggregate information, but confidentiality
should be protected
Origin: Christian Bible - Agencies mandated to collect data is bound by law to protect the confidentiality of
information provided by respondents
- Book of Numbers
- God reported to have instructed Moses to carry out a census. Data Collection
- Census ordered by Caesar Augustus throughout the entire Roman Empire before
the birth of Christ. - provide the needed information to the best of your knowledge
 - before responding to the questionnaire provided, it is recommended that each item - collection of respondents from whom one obtain the data.
in the questionnaire should be clarified
- such as Student Information Sheet
Variable
Types of Data Collection

Census - a characteristic that is observable or measurable in every unit of the information

asked
- to compile all your responses and compiling all these records from everyone in the - the set of all possible values of a variable is referred to as a population
class - subgroup of a universe or of a population is a sample
- there is only one universe but could have several populations
Data

- a collection of facts from experiments, sample surveys and censuses, and Broad Classification of Variables
administrative reporting systems
- facts and figures that are presented, collected and analyzed Qualitative
- either numeric or non-numeric and must be contextualized
- variables express a categorical attribute
- do not strictly take on numeric values
- answer questions “what kind.”
Contextualize Data - e.g. sex (male or female), religion, marital status, region of residence, highest
- Identify its six W’s or to put meaning on the data educational attainment
1. Who? Who provided the data? Quantitative
2. What? What are the information from the respondents and What is the unit of the
measurement used for each of the information (if there is any)? - otherwise called numerical data, whose sizes are meaningful
3. When? When was the data collected? - answer questions such as “how much” or “how many”
4. Where? Where was the data collected? - have actual unit of measure
5. Why? Why was the data collected? - e. g. height, weight, number of registered cars
6. HoW? HoW was the data collected?

Once the data are contextualized, there is now meaning to the collection of number
and symbols.

Quantitative Classification

Discrete Data

- data that can be counted

- e.g., the number of days for cellphones to fail, the ages of survey respondents
measured to the nearest year, and the number of patients in a hospital
- these data assume only (a finite or infinitely) countable number of values

BASIC TERMS IN STATISTICS Continuous Data

- data that can be measured

- e.g. the exact height of a survey respondent and the exact volume of some liquid
Universe substance.
- the possible values are uncountably infinite.
- the collection or set of units or entities from whom we got the data
  e.g., gender, martial status, religious affiliation and numbers on the
uniforms of basketball players

Ordinal Level

- has order but no distance or unique origin

- deals with categorical variables like the nominal level, but in this level ordering is
important, that is the values of the variable could be ranked
- determination of greater or lesser values
 socio economic status (A to E, where A is wealthy, E is poor), difficulty of
questions in an exam (easy, moderate, difficult), rank in a contest (first
KEY POINTS place, second place, etc.), and perceptions in Likert scales

- a universe is a collection of units from which the data were gathered Likert Scale
- a variable is a characteristic we observed or measured from every element of the
universe
- a population is a set of all possible values of a variable
- a sample is a subgroup of a universe or a population
- in a study there is only one universe but could have several populations
- variables could be classified as qualitative or quantitative, and the latter could be
further classified as discrete or continuous

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Apply a statistical process to investigate on the validity of this statement

- Plan or design the collection of data to verify the validity of the statement in a way
that maximizes information content and minimizes bias;
- Collect the data as required in the plan;
- Verify the quality of the data after it was collected;
- Summarize the information extracted from the data; and
- Examine the summary statistics so that insight and meaningful information can be
produced to support your decision whether to believe or not the given statement NOTE

- while there is a sense or ordering, there is no zero point in an ordinal scale

- there is no way to find out how much “distance” there is between one category and
another
Nominal Level - in a scale from 1 to 10, the difference between 7 and 8 may not be the same
difference between 1 and 2
- no order, distance, or origin
- determination of equivalence
- measurement arises when we have variables that are categorical and nonnumeric or Interval Level
where the numbers have no sense of ordering
- both with order and distance but no unique origin
 - tells us that one unit differs by a certain amount of degree from another unit  e.g., a reporter recorded the number of minutes to travel from one end to
 e.g., celcius scale, intelligence quotient (iq) of a person another of the Metro Manila Rail Transit (MRT) during peak and off-peak
- interval level allows addition and subtraction operations, but it does not possess an hours
absolute zero  students getting the height of the plants using a meter stick
- zero is arbitrary as it does not mean the value does not exist
- zero only represents an additional measurement point
- determination of equality of intervals or difference Subjective

- obtains data by getting responses through a questionnaire

 e.g., the website of Philippine Airlines provides a questionnaire instrument
Ratio Level
that can be answered electronically.
- has order, distance and unique origin  PSA enumerator conducting the Labor Force Survey goes around the
- tells us that one unit has so many times as much of the property as does another country to interview household head on employment – related variables
unit Primary Data
- possesses a meaningful (unique and non-arbitrary) absolute,
- fixed zero point and allows all arithmetic operations - obtained the data directly from the source
- determination of equality of ratios or means
 e.g., mass, heights, weights, energy and electric charge

Variable Level of
Measurement
Class Student Number Nominal
Sex Nominal
Number of Siblings Ratio
Weight (in kilograms) Ratio
Height (in centimeters) Ratio
Use of Existing Records
Age of Mother Ratio
Usual Daily Allowance in Ratio - data collected by other entities for certain purposes these data are secondary data
School (in pesos)  e.g., data from the Philippine Statistics Authority, administrative records,
Usual Daily Food Ratio news articles, internet
Expenditure in School (in
 the latest series of the Consumer Price Index (CPI) generated by the
pesos)
Philippine Statistics Authority was downloaded from PSA website
Usual Number of Text Ratio
Messages Sent in a Day
Usual Sleeping Time Nominal
Most Preferred Color Nominal NOTE: Use of Existing Records
Happiness Index of the Day Ordinal
- we must be confident of the quality of the data we are using by knowing how the
data were gathered
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION - we must remember to request permission and acknowledge the source of the data
when using data gathered by other agency or people
Objective

- uses any or combination of the five senses (sense of sight, touch, hearing, taste,
and smell) to measure the variable
 - provides the label of what is being presented in a column

Row Header

- provides the label of what is being presented in a row

Body

- are the information in the cell intersecting the row and the column

Graphical Presentation

- Trends are easily seen in graphs compared to tables

- it is good to present data using pictures or figures like the pictograph
DATA PRESENTATION
- pie charts are used to present data as part of one whole
Textual or Narrative Presentation - line graphs are for time-series data
- it is better to present data using graphs than tables as they are much better to look
- detailed information are given in textual presentation at
- narrative report is a way to present data - a visual presentation of the data commonly used in oral presentation
- one describes the data by enumerating some of - forms of graphs
the highlights of the data set: highest, lowest, or the average values  pie
 The country’s poverty incidence among families as reported by the  chart
Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), the agency mandated to release  pictograph
official poverty statistics, decreases from 21% in 2006 down to 19.7% in  bar graph – values of variables in nominal or ordinal levels
2012. For 2012, the regional estimates released by PSA indicate that the  line graph – trends across time are easily seen
Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) is the poorest region  histogram
with poverty incidence among families estimated at 48.7%. The region with  box – plot
the smallest estimated poverty incidence among families at 2.6% is the
National Capital Region (NCR)

Tabular Presentation

- numerical values are presented using tables

- information are lost in tabular presentation of data
- Frequency distribution table is also applicable for qualitative variables
- applicable for large data sets
- should have at least three rows and/or three columns

Common Parts of a Statistical Table:

Table Title

- includes the number and a short description of what is found inside the table

Column Header
 FDT

- a presentation containing non-overlapping categories or classes of a variable

- the frequencies or counts of the observations falling into the categories or classes

Two Types of FDT According to the Type of Data being Organized

Qualitative FDT

- the non-overlapping categories of the variable are identified and frequencies the
percentages of observations falling into the categories are computed

Quantitative FDT

- two types: ungrouped and grouped FDT

Ungrouped FDT

- is constructed when there are only a few observations or if the data set contains only
few possible values

Grouped FDT

- is constructed when there is a large number of observations and when the data set
involves many possible values
- distinct values are grouped into class intervals

Steps in the Construction of a Group FDT

- identify the largest data value or the maximum (max) and smallest data value or the
minimum (min) from the data set and compute the range (R)
- the range is the difference between the largest and smallest value
The Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) and Histogram  R = MAX – MIN
- determine the number of classes, k using k = √N, where N is the total number of
- a special type of tabular and graphical presentation observations in the data set
- used to depict the distribution of the data - round off k to the nearest whole number; it should be noted that the computed k
- most of the time, these are used in technical reports might not be equal to the actual number of classes constructed in an FDT
- calculate the class size, (C), using C = R/k;
- round off C to the nearest value with precision the same as that with raw data
- construct the classes or the intervals;
 - a class interval is defined by a lower limit (LL) and an upper limit (UL) - refers to the total number of observations greater than or equal to the LL of the class
the LL of the lowest class is usually the MIN of the data set (>CF) or the total number of observations less than or equal to the UL of the class
the LL’s of the succeeding classes are then obtained by adding C to the LL of the (<CF)
preceding classes
the UL of the lowest class is obtained by subtracting one unit of measure (1/10 x),
where x is the maximum number of decimal places observed from the raw data from
Relative Cumulative Frequency (RCF)
the LL of the next class
the UL’s of the succeeding classes are then obtained by adding C to the UL of the - refers to the fraction of the total number of observations greater than or equal to the
preceding classes LL of the class (>RCF) or the fraction of the total number of observations less than
the lowest class should contain the MIN, while the highest class should contain the or equal to the UL of the class (<RCF)
MAX - both the <RCF and >RCF can also be expressed in percent
- tally the data into the classes constructed in step to obtain the frequency of each
class
- each observation must fall in one and only one class
Histogram
- add distributional characteristics
- a graphical presentation of the frequency distribution table in the form of a vertical
bar graph
True Class Boundaries (TCB) - frequency – vertical axis
- true class boundaries – horizontal axis
- the TCBs reflect the continuous data
- defined by a lower TCB (LTCB) and an upper TCB (UTCB)
- these are obtained by taking the midpoints of the gaps between classes or by using
the following formulas:
LTCB = LL – 0.5 (one unit of measure)
UTCB = UL + 0.5 (one unit of measure)

Class Mark (CM)

- the midpoint of a class and is obtained by taking the average of the lower and upper
TCB’s
 CM = (LTCB + UTCB) / 2

Relative Frequency (RF)

- refers to the frequency of the class as a fraction of the total frequency

 RF = frequency / N
- RF can be computed for both qualitative and quantitative data
- RF can also be expressed in percent

Cumulative Frequency (CF)