UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Circuit - Education and Research Team

EE 231-CIRCUITS I
NOTES
 COURSE OUTLINE

MODULE 1: EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

• Equivalent Resistance in Series

• Equivalent Resistance in Parallel

• Equivalent Resistance in 3 – Terminal Network

MODULE 2: BATTERY

MODULE 3: NETWORK LAWS

• Kirchoff’s Current Law and Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

• Maxwells’ Mesh Equations

• Nodal Equations

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DC Circuits

A. Resistance (R)

• Property of a resistor that resists/limits the flow of current

• Ability of a material to limit the flow of electrons and at the same time convert
electrical energy to other forms of energy (Heat, Mechanical, Sound, etc.)
• Unit is Ohms (Ω), named after George Simon Ohms

Symbol:
Commonly used symbol for DC Circuits

Commonly used symbol for AC Circuits

(Impedance)
B. Potential Difference (V)

• Work per unit charge necessary to bring a charge from a negatively charged plate to
a positively charged plate.

𝑑𝑊 𝑊
• Formula: 𝑉 = =
𝑑𝑄 𝑄

where:
- W= Work in Joules (J)
- Q = Charge in Coulombs (C), from Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
- V= Voltage in Volts (V), from Alessandro Volta

• Regarded as the potential between two points/ across two points

Note: A Voltmeter has a very high resistance

so that virtually no current passes through it.

• Misconception between the usage of E and V

E = generated voltage or supply voltage

V = Voltage across an element or between 2 points

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C. Current (I)

• Rate of flow of electrons past a given point

𝑑𝑄 𝑄
• Formula: 𝑉 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡

where:
- I = Current in Amperes (A), from Andre-Marie Ampere
- Q= Charge in Coulombs (C)

Note: An ammeter has typically very low

resistance so that current passes through it.

D. Electric Circuit/Electric Network

• An interconnection of electrical elements linked together in a closed path so that

electric current may flow

✓ Branch – composed of one or more

elements in series.
Ex. ac, eb, dc, ad
✓ Node – point where two or more
branches meet
Ex. e, d, c, b, a
✓ Major nodes- 3 or more branches
(considered in KCL and KVL)
✓ Minor nodes – 2 branches
✓ Loop- interconnection of branches
forming a closed path

1.) Circuit Elements

• Resistor

• Battery

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 2.) Classification

• Passive – absorbs energy (resistor, battery-when charging)

• Active – capable of supplying energy (battery)
o Independent sources – capable of supplying constant voltage or
current

o Dependent Sources – controlled by another voltage or current in

the circuit

E. Ohm’s Law
• Rate of flow of electrons past a given point

𝑉∝𝐼 where:
V = Voltage
𝑉 = 𝑘𝐼 I = Current
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 R = Resistance

Resistance
• opposition to the flow of electrons

Resistivity - ability of a material to limit the flow of electrons

Conductivity - ability of a material to permit the flow of electrons

❖ Elements/Materials with high resistivity are used as insulators

Examples: F, Cl, Br, I

❖ Elements/Materials with low resistivity are used as conductors

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 Examples: Li, Na, K, Cu, Ag, Au

❖ The value of a resistance of a material is determined by its physical dimensions and

composition.
Factors affecting resistance

𝑅∝ℓ Opposition of electron increases as the length increases

1
𝑅∝𝐴
The larger the cross-sectional area, the more electrons that easily pass
Note: 1,000 mils = 1in
A in CM= 𝐴𝐶𝑀 = 𝑑2
R= resistance of conductor Where d = diameter in mils
𝜌ℓ ℓ=length of conductor (m or ft)
𝑅= A= cross-sectional area (m2 or CM (Circular mil)
𝐴
𝜌=resistivity of the conducting metal (in Ωm, ΩCM/ft)

Sample Problems:

1.) Given: d = 2 in, find A in CM

Answer: 𝟒,𝟎𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪𝑴

2.) L = 2m, d = 1mm, R = 25 Ω, find 𝜌 in Ωm

Answer: 𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝛀𝐦

3.) A Copper bus bar has a dimensions of 6” by 8 “determine cross sectional area in
CM.
Answer: 𝟔𝟏.𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑪𝑴

4.) From the previous problem, find the resistance of the bus bar if its length is 10 ft.
and its resistivity is 10.37 ΩCM/ ft.
Answer: 𝟏.𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝛀

Effect of temperature on resistance

• Resistivity is directly proportional to temperature

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Derivation of formula:

𝑅2 = 𝑅1[1 + 𝛼1(𝑡2 − 𝑡1)]

Sample Problems:

1.) The filament of a tungsten light bulb has a resistance of 125 Ohms at 400O Celsius,
determine its resistance at 0O C and 25OC. *α0 of tungsten = 4.8 x 10-3 Ω/CO (t = 0O
C)

Given:

Answer: 𝑅25℃ = 𝟒𝟕.𝟗𝟒𝟓𝟐 𝛀

2.) Given:10 Ω at 200 C, 12 Ω at t0 C, and αO = 0.00393Ω/C0 (at t= 00 C). Solve for t.

Answer: 𝑡 = 𝟕𝟒.𝟗𝟔𝟒𝟑 ℃

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 3.) A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.1460 Ω at 400 C and 3.7670 Ω at 1000C. Find its
resistance at 00C and the temperature coefficient at 400 C.
Answer: 𝑅0℃ = 𝟐.𝟕𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝛀

4.) A coil consists of 3,000 turns of Copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 2mm2.
The average length per turn is 85 cm and the resistivity of the wire is 0.02 x 10 -6 Ωm.
Find the resistance of the coil.
Answer: 𝑅 = 𝟐𝟓.5 𝛀

5.) An Aluminum wire 8 m long is connected in parallel with a Copper wire 6 m long.
When a current of 9 A is passed through the combination, it is found out that the
current in the Aluminum wire is 3 A. The diameter of the Aluminum wire is 1 mm.
Determine the diameter of the copper wire. The resistivity of copper is 0.017 x 10 -6
Ωm, and that of Aluminum is 0.028 x 10-6 Ωm.
Answer: 𝑑 = 954.3230 𝜇𝑚
6.) The coil of a relay takes a current of 0.12 A when it is at the room temperature of 15 0
C across a 60 V supply. If the minimum operating current of the relay is 0.1 A, calculate
the temperature above which the relay will fail to operate when connected to the
same supply. Resistance temperature coefficient of the coil material is 0.0043 Ω/ 0C
at 60 C.
Answer: 𝑡 > 𝟔𝟑. 𝟑𝟎𝟐𝟑 ℃ (𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)

Equivalent Resistance
• This is done to simplify circuit analysis

A. Resistors in series
- Resistors are connected end to end
- Equivalent resistance is just the sum of the individual resistances

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

B. Resistors in parallel
- Resistors are connected to the same 2 nodes

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 - Equivalent resistance is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocal of the
individual resistances

- If only just two resistors are connected in parallel, the formula for the
equivalent resistance is:

Sample Problems:

1.) Find the equivalent resistance.

Answer: 2.1 𝛀

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 2.) Find the resistance between points a and b.

Answer: 2.08 𝛀

3.) Find RAB.

Answer: RAB= 3.70 Ω

4.) Find RXY.

Answer: RXY = 2.56 Ω

5.) Determine RAB.

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 Answer: RAB= 0 Ω

6.) Find the resistance between nodes a and b.

Answer: 2.17 Ω

7.) Solve for the resistance between terminals a and b.

Answer: 0.98 Ω

8.) Find the indicated resistances:

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 a) Rab
b) Rac
c) Rad
d) Rbd
e) Rbc

Answers:
a) Rab = 1.33Ω
b) Rac = 2.33 Ω
c) Rad = Rab = 1.33Ω
d) Rbd = 0Ω
e) Rbc = 1 Ω

9.) Find the indicated resistances:

a) Rab
b) Rbc
c) Rcd
d) Rac
e) Rbd

Answers:
a) Rab = 0.67 Ω
b) Rbc = 0.67 Ω
c) Rcd = 4 Ω
d) Rac = 0 Ω
e) Rbd = 4 Ω

3 Terminal Networks
• Can be a Delta/Pi/Mesh/Δ/Π network or Wye/Y/Star/tee network

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 • For use in a 3 phase supply

Delta network Wye Network

Conversion from Delta to Wye:

Conversion from Wye to Delta:

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Sample Problem:

Find RXY.

Answer: RXY = 2.17 Ω

I-V relationship in Series and Parallel Connections

Series Parallel

IT=I1=I2 IT=I1+I2
VT=V1+V2 VT=V1=V2

RT=R1+R2

Voltage Divider Theorem

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Current Divider Theorem

For two resistors in parallel:

For any number of resistors in parallel:

Sample problems:

1.) Find the indicated currents.

Answers:

IT = 3 A
I2 = 0.5 A
I3 = 1 A
I4 = 1.5 A
I5 = 1.5 A

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 2.) Determine the currents shown in the circuit below.

Answers:

I1 = 2.5 A I2 = 1.875 A I3 = 1.13 A I4 = 0.75 A

I5 = 0.625 A I6 = 1.67 A I7 = 0.833 A

Potential Difference

Examples:

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 1. Determine the following: 𝑉𝑎𝑓, 𝑉𝑔ℎ and 𝑉𝑗𝑏.

Answers:
𝑉𝑎𝑓 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐𝑽
𝑉𝑔ℎ =−𝟓. 𝟒 𝑽
𝑉𝑗𝑏 = = −𝟗𝑽

2. Solve for the current through the ohm resistor (R3)

Answer: 𝐼 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟖 𝑨

3. Determine E if Vab is 6V. (4.62/ Electric Circuits by Johnny Tan)

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 Answer: 𝐸 = 𝟗. 𝟐 𝑽

Battery

• A device that is ideally capable of supplying constant voltage independent of

current flowing through it
• Creates electron flow in a circuit by exchanging electrons in ionic chemical
reactions
• Ideal Battery (no internal resistance)

E= emf (electromotive force)

• Practical battery (with internal resistance)

E= emf r=internal resistance

2 Types of Battery

1. Primary battery – acts as a source and not a load

2. Secondary battery – acts as a source and a load (ex. Rechargeable battery)

Battery Characteristics

A. No load characteristic

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B. Short circuit

characteristic

B. With load characteristic

D. With load (receiving energy)

Examples:

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 1. When supplying a current of 5A, the terminal voltage of a battery is 15 V. The
battery is then recharged at a rate of 3A and the terminal voltage is found to be 21 V.
Determine the emf and the internal resistance of the battery.
Answer: 𝑟 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝛀 𝐸 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑽

2. The no-load terminal voltage of a battery is 24 V and the short circuit current is 20
A. Determine the emf and the internal resistance of the battery.

Answer: E = emf = 24V 𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝛀

Cells in series

Same polarity

rt = r1+r2
ET= E1 + E2

Opposite polarity

a. Case 1: E1 > E2

rt = r1+r2
ET=E1 – E2, with ET following the polarity of E1

b. Case 2: E1 > E2

rt = r1+r2
ET= E2 – E1, with ET following the polarity of E2

Cells in parallel

a. Case 1

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 b. Case 2

c. Case 3

Examples:

1. Five groups of cells, each group consisting six cells of emf 1.5V and internal
resistance 0.05 Ω in series, are in parallel. Determine the total emf and the total internal
resistance of this battery system.

Answer:
𝑟𝑇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝛀
𝐸𝑇 = 𝟗𝑽

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2. Determine the current supplied by the battery system shown below to the 4Ω resistor.
(5.17/Electric Circuits by Johnny
Tan)

Answer:
𝐼4 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟖𝑨

3. Determine the currents I1, I2 and I3. (5.22/Electric Circuits by Johnny Tan)

Answer:
𝐼1 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟐 𝑨
𝐼2 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟓 𝑨
𝟏𝟓
𝐼3 =− 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

Power
• Work per unit time (in watts or Horsepower or Joules per second)
𝑉2
• 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑅

• 1hp =746 W

Derivation:

Example:
Solve for the total power and the power dissipated by each resistor:

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 Answers:
𝑃𝑅1 = 151.38 𝑊
𝑃𝑅2 = 14.2572 𝑊
𝑃𝑅3 = 7 𝑊
𝑃𝑅4 = 85.02 𝑊
𝑃𝑅5 = 177.56 W

Current Source
• Constant source of current
• Ideal current source (cannot be converted into a voltage source)

• Practical current source (r is the internal resistance)

This current source can be converted into a voltage source by this

relationship: E = ISr

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 • The internal resistance r is still the same upon conversion to a voltage source.

Maximum Power

To get the maximum power in a circuit, we need to apply the Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem. This theorem states that when the load resistance and the internal
resistance of the source are equal, maximum power is transferred to the load. To prove
this theorem, we consider the problem below. A load with resistance R, is connected to a
voltage source E with an internal resistance r. Show the maximum power that can be
supplied to the load can be attained when the resistance R of the load is to be made equal
to the internal resistance r of the voltage source E.

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Kirchhoff’s Law

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

o The algebraic sum of the voltage rises and voltage drops in a given loop is
equal to zero.
o N number of loops = N number of equations

Consider the circuit given below:

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 • Kirchoff’s Current Law
o The algebraic sum of the current entering and leaving a major node is
equal to zero.
o N number of nodes = N-1 number of equations

The circuit below has:

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 Examples:

1. List all the possible KCL and KVL equations from the circuit.

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 2. Determine (a) the currents I1 and I2 and (b) the voltage across each
current source. (8.26/ Electric Circuit Analysis by Johnny Tan)

Answer:
𝑰𝟏 = −𝟗𝑨
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟕𝑨
𝑉6𝐴 = 𝑉𝑐𝑎
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝟏𝟖𝑽
𝑉4𝐴 = 𝟑𝟓 𝑽
𝑉3𝐴 = 𝟔𝟐 𝑽

Maxwell’s Mesh Equation

• Loop – interconnection of branches forming a closed path.

• Mesh – closed path in a given circuit that does not have any element or
branches inside the loop.

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 For the given circuit:

There are 7 loops and 3 meshes.

• Involves a set of independent loop currents assigned to meshes as it exists in the

circuit called mesh current
• N number of meshes = N number of equations.

Examples:

1. Solve the indicated currents.

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 2. Determine the mesh currents. (8.26/ Electric Circuit Analysis by Johnny Tan)

Mesh A: 𝐼𝐴 = −6𝐴
Mesh B: 𝐼𝐵 = 3𝐴
Mesh C: 𝐼𝐶 = 3𝐴 + 4𝐴 = 7𝐴

Nodal Node Equations

• Based on voltages
• A circuit with N number of nodes has a solution with only N-1 number of
equations needed
• To solve using nodal equations, set one node as the ground.

Example:

Solve for the nodal voltages.

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 Node B:

Node C:

Node A:
𝑉𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉𝑎 = −15 𝑉

Solving for the values of Vb and Vc

would give us
Vb = -1.54 V
Vc = -0.96 V

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