3.

2 RESISTANCE
LEARNING STANDARD

Student is able to:

3.2.1 Compare and contrast ohmic and non ohmic conductor
3.2.2 Solve problems involving combination of series and parallel circuits
3.2.3 Define resistivity of wire, ρ
3.2.4 Describe factors that affect resistance of wire through experiment to
conclude R = ρl/A
3.2.5 Communicate about applications of resistance in daily life
3.2.6 Solve problems involving the formula of wire reistance, R = ρl/A
 LEARNING
STANDARD 1
3.2.1 Compare and contrast ohmic
and non ohmic conductor.
 OHM’S LAW
The electric current, I flowing
through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential
difference across it if the
temperature and other physical
conditions are constant.

V = IR
V = potential difference
I = current
R = resistance
 Experiment 1
Figure (a) and figure (b) show two electrical circuits. Why do the ammeters
show different readings? Why do the bulbs light up with different
intensity?

Inferences: Current influence the brightness of the bulb

Hypothesis: The higher the potential difference, the higher the
current.
 To study the relationship between
Aim:
current and potential difference

Manipulated variable Current

Responding variable Potential difference
Fixed variable Length of conductor, diameter
of wire, temperature
Apparatus & Material
1.5 dry cell, dry cell holder, switch,
connecting wire, ammeter, voltmeter,
meter ruler, rheostat, wire
constantant s.w.g 24 (length 20 cm)
Ohm’s conductor (constantant wire)
1. Close the switch and adjust the I/A V/V V
rheostat until the ammeter reads, I
I = 0.2 A. 0.1 0.16 1.60
2. Record the voltmeter reading, V
0.2 0.26 1.30
3. Calculate ratio V/I
4. Repeat the experiment with values of 0.3 0.38 1.27
I = 0.3 A, 0.4 A, 0.5 A dan 0.6 A. 0.4 0.50 1.25
0.5 0.62 1.24
B. Non-ohmic conductor (a filament
bulb) I/A V/V V
1. Replace the constantan wire with a I
filament bulb. 0.20 1.4 7.0
2. Close the switch and adjust the
0.25 2.0 8.0
rheostat until the ammeter reads,
I = 0.14 A. 0.30 2.7 9.0
3. Record the voltmeter reading, V 0.35 3.6 10.3
4. Repeat the experiment with values of 0.40 4.0 10.0
I = 0.16 A, 0.18 A, 0.20 A dan 0.22 A
 V/V Ohmic conductor R/Ω Non-ohmic conductor
Graph V against I Graph V against I
4.5

4.0 x
0.07 3.5 x

0.06 x 3.0
0.05 x
x 2.5
0.04 2.0 x
x
0.03 1.5
x x
0.02 1.0
x
0.01 0.5

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 l / A 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 l/A
Conclusion:

Current is directly proportional to The larger the current the larger the
potential difference, V potential difference
Precaution

• Make sure the connecting wire are connected tightly.

• Avoid parallax error when taking the reading of the ammeter
and voltmeter: the pointer and the image of the pointer in the
mirror are overlapped.
• Switch off the switch if note taking any reading so that the
temperature of the constantan wire is constant.

What is the function of rheostat in the circuit?

Control the current that flows.
2. Calculate the gradient of the
graph for ohmic- conductor.
Show on the graph.

gradient = 0.062 V = 0.124 VA-1

0.5 A
3. What is the physics quantity represents
from the gradient of the graph?

Resistance
Ohmic conductor
Conductor which obeys Ohm’s law.
Shape of the graph: straight line through origin
Current is directly proportional to potential
difference.
Fixed gradient – resistance of the wire fixed

Konduktor bukan Ohm /

Conductor which does not obey Ohm’s law.
Shape of the graph: curve shape
When current, I increases, potential difference
increases.
Gradient: increases
– resistance of the bulb increases.
 Resistance
Potential difference,V R = V
Current, I I
VA-1 = ohm = Ω
LEARNING
STANDARD 2
3.2.2 Solve problems
involving combination of
series and parallel
circuits
Solve problems involving
combination of series and
parallel circuits
 Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

I = I1 + I2 + I3
I = I1 = I2 = I3 V = V1 = V2 = V3
V = V1 + V2 + V3 Effective resistance
Effective resistance 1 = 1+ 1 + 1
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 R R1 R2 R3
Activity 1
Aim: Solve problems involving combination of series and parallel circuits.

20 + 10 + 5 = 35 Ω

1/R = 1/2 + 1/5 + 1/10 = 8/10

R = 10/8 = 1.25 Ω
 1/8 + 1/8 = 2/8
RP = 4 Ω
10 + 20 + 4 = 34 Ω

1/R = 1/16 + 1/8 + 1/8

= 5/16
R = 16/5 = 3.2 Ω

1/R = ¼ + ½ = ¾
RP = 4/3 = 1.33 Ω
R = 1 + 1.33 = 2.33 Ω
 R = 10 + 10 + 5 = 25 Ω
2 + 5 + 3 + 10 = 20 Ω

1/R = 1/10 + 1/5 = 3/10

R = 10/3
= 3.33 Ω

1/10 + 1/20 = 3/20

RP = 20/3 = 6.67 Ω
6.67 + 8 = 14.67 Ω
¼ + 1/12 = 4/12 = 1/3
RP = 3 Ω
R=2+3=5Ω
4. Three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are
connecting series with a 6 V battery.

Calculate:
(a) Effective resistance, R of the circuit.
R = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12 Ω
(b) Current, I in the circuit.
I = V/R = 6/12 = 0.5 A
(c) Potential difference accross, V1, V2
and V3.

V1 = 0.5 x 2 = 1.0 V
V2 = 0.5 x 4 = 2.0 V
V3 = 0.5 x 6 = 3.0 V
5. An 8 Ω resistor and a 12 Ω resistor are
connected with a 12 V battery. What is the
potential difference across the
(a) 8 Ω resistor (b) 12 Ω resistor

(a) I = V/R = 12/20 = 0.6 A

(b) V = 0.6 x 12 = 7.2 V
V = 0.6 x 8 = 4.8 V
@ V = 12 – 4.8 = 7.2 V
@ V = [8/20] x 12 = 4.8 V
 6. The three resistors R1, R2, and R3 are
connected in parallel to the battery.

(a) The potential difference across each

resistor

V = 6 V (parallel arrangement)

(b) The effective resistance, R of the circuit

R = [ ½ + ¼ + 1/6 ]-1 (d) The current I1, I2, and I3
= 12/11 = 1.1 Ω passing through each resistor
(c) The current, I in the circuit I1 = 6/2 = 3 A
I = V/R = 6/1.1 = 5.5 A I2 = 6/4 = 1.5 A
I3 = 6/6 = 1 A
 7. A potential difference of 3 V is applied
to a network of resistance.

(a)What is the reading of the ammeter A?

(a)R = 4 + [1/6 + 1/3]-1

=4+2=6 Ω
I = 3/6 = 0.5 A
(b) What is the potential difference across the
parallel network?
V = 0.5 x 2 = 1.0 V
(c) What is the current flowing through
the 6 Ω resistor? I = 1.0/6 = 0.17 A
8. What is the ammeter reading?

R = 8 + 4 = 12 Ω
I = V/R = 20/12 = 1.67 A

R=8+1=9Ω
I = V/R = 4.5/9 = 0.5 A
I1 = 0.5/2 = 0.25 A

R = 8 + 2.5 + [1/6 + ½]-1 = 12 Ω

I = 24/12 = 2 A
V1 = 2 x 1.5 = 3.0 V
I1 = 3.0/6 = 0.5 A
 LEARNING
STANDARD 3
3.2.3 Describe factors that
affect resistance of wire
through experiment to
conclude R = ρl/A
Factors Affecting Resistance
1. The resistance of a conductor is a measure of the ability
of the conductor to (resist / allow) the flow of an electric
current through it.

2. From the formula, V = IR, the current I is (directly /

inversely) proportional to the resistance, R.

3. When the value of the resistance, R is large, the current, I

flowing in the conductor is (small / large)

4. What are the factors affecting the resistance of a

conductor?
(a) length (b) Cross sectional area / diameter of wire / A
(c) Material of the wire (d) Temperature
Length of the conductor

Length of the conductor is directly proportional to resistance of wire.

 The diameter of wire is
Cross-sectional area of a conductor shown by s.w.g unit.
When the value of s.w.g
• The bigger the cross-sectional area, A of a increases, the diameter
conductor, the smaller the resistance. of wire decreases.
• Resistance is inversely proportional with the
cross-sectional area of a conductor.
s.w.g :
standard wire gauge
Material of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor changes with the material of
the conductor.

Nichrome wire has high

resistance.

Silver wire – low

resistance
Temperature of a conductor
• The higher the temperature of a conductor, the higher the resistance.
• Resistance is directly proportional with the temperature of a conductor.
 Experiment 3.2
Diagram 4.1 shows a garden lamp lights
up brightly when it is connected to a
solar panel. Diagram 4.2 shows the
identical lamp lights up dimly when
connected to the same solar panel.

Inference

Length of wire influences the resistance of the wire.

Hipotesis:

The longer the wire, the higher the resistance.

Experiment 3.2

Aim: To study the relationship between length of wire and resistance

Manipulated
variable Length of wire, l

Responding
resistance, R
variable
Diameter of wire
Constant Resistivity of wire
variable Temperature of wire
Apparatus & material
Two 1.5 V dry cells, dry cell holder, switch,
connecting wire, ammeter, voltmeter,
crocodile clip,rheostat and meter ruler,
constantan wire of s.w.g 24.
Procedure

1. Arrange the apparatus so that the

length of wire is l = 20.0 cm.
2. Close the switch and adjust the
rheostat until the current flowing in
the circuit is I = 0.2 A.
3. Record the value of voltmeter
4. Calculate the resistance, R = V/I.
5. Repeat the experiment with l = 40.0, Open the switch of the circuit if not
60.0, 80.0 dan 100.0 cm. taking any reading so that the
temperature of the wire does not
increases.
State a precaution that needs to be The temperature must remain the
taken to ensure that the wire same throughout the experiment,
temperature is constant throughout the because an increases in temperature
experiment. will increase the resistance of the
wire.
(a) Tabulate l, I, V annd R R/Ω

4.5 x
4.0
20.0 0.50 0.4 0.8
40.0 0.50 0.9 1.8 3.5 x
60.0 0.50 1.3 2.6 3.0
80.0 0.50 1.7 3.4 x
2.5
100.0 0.50 2.2 4.4
2.0
x
(a)What conclusion can be drawn 1.5
from this experiment.
1.0
The length of wire is directly x
proportional to resistance of wire. 0.5

0 20 40 60 80 100 l / cm
 Experiment 3.3
Diagram 4.1 shows an incubator
connected to 240 V power supply by using
a thin copper wire. Diagram 4.2 shows the
same incubator is connected to 240 V
power supply using a thick copper wire.
The light bulb in Diagram 4.2 lights up
brighter.

Inference:

The cross sectional wire influences the resistance of the wire.

Hypothesis:
The larger the cross sectional area of the wire, the lower the
resistance.
Experiment 3.3
To study the relationship between the cross sectional area with
Aim resistance of the wire.
Manipulated
Cross sectional area of the wire, A
variable

Responding
Resistance, R
variable

Constant Length of wire

variable Resistivity of the wire
Temperature of the wire
Radas & bahan
Two 1.5 V dry cells, cell holder, switch,
connecting wire, ammeter, voltmeter,
crocodile clips, rheostat and metre ruler.
Constantan wire of s.w.g 22, s.w.g 24, s.w.g
26, s.w.g.28 and s.w.g 30
1. Susunkan radas. Sambungkan dawai
konstantan s.w.g 24 dengan panjang,
l = 50.0 cm.
2. Hidupkan suis dan laraskan rheostat
sehingga bacaan ammeter menunjukkan
arus, I = 0.2 A.
3. Rekodkan bacaan ammeter dan voltmeter.
4. Kira rintangan, R = V/I.
5. Ulang eksperimen untuk size dawai s.w.g
26, s.w.g 28, sw.g 30 dan s.w.g 32.
s.w.g Diameter Cross current, Potential Resistance
d / mm sectional 1/A I/A difference R/Ω
area, mm-2 V/V
A / mm2
22 0.71 0.50 1.98 0.1 0.04 0.4
24 0.56 0.31 3.19 0.1 0.06 0.6
26 0.46 0.21 4.73 0.1 0.08 0.8
28 0.38 0.14 6.92 0.1 0.14 1.4
30 0.32 0.10 9.77 0.1 0.42 4.2
R/Ω R/Ω Graf R lawan 1/A
Graf R lawan A
4.5
x 4.0 x
4.0

3.5 3.5

3.0 3.0

2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.5
x x
1.0 1.0
x x
0.5 x 0.5 x
x x
A / mm2 1/A / mm-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 2 4 6 8 10
Discussion:

1. What is represented by the value s.w.g represents the diameter for each
of s.w.g? (standard wire gauge) wire

2. State the relationship between The larger the value of the s.w.g, the
the value of s.w.g and the thinner the wire.
diameter of the wire
Inversely proportional
3. State the relationship between
the cross-sectional area and the
resistance of a wire

4. Sketch the graph (a) R against A

(b) R against 1/A
Experiment 3.4
Inference: The resistance of a wire depends on the resistivity of the wire

Hypothesis: The greater the resistivity of a conductor, the greater the resistance

Aim To study the relationship between the resistivity and the resistance
Manipulated variable Resistivity of wire, ρ
Responding variable Resistance, R
Constant variable Length of wire, cross sectional area,
Apparatus & material

Two 1.5 V dry cells, cell holder, switch, connecting wire, ammeter, voltmeter,
crocodile clips, rheostat and meter ruler, constantan wire and dawai nikrom
s.w.g. 24 with length 35.0 each.
 0.1 0.06 0.6
0.1 0.16 1.6

What conclusion can be drawn from this experiment?

The resistance of nichrome wire is larger
than the constantan wire.
Discussion
1. Based on the result of Experiment 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4, state the relationship :

Rαl Rα1
A

Rαl
A

ρ = the resistivity
of the conductor
 LEARNING
STANDARD 4
3.2.4 Define resistivity of wire, ρ
 Kerintangan dawai, ρ
• The resistivity of a
conductor, ρ is a ρ = resistivity of a wire
measure of a l = length of wire
A = cross-sectional area of wire
conductor’s ability to R = resistance of wire
oppose the flow of
electric current.
• The unit of resistivity is Formula: ρ = RA
ohm-meter (Ω m) l
• The value of resistivity Unit SI: Ω m2 = Ω m
depends on the m
temperature and the
nature of the conductor
material
2. The resistivity of different conductors at temperature of 20 ⁰C.
is given. Compare the resistance for five type of material.

High resistance wire: Nichrome and tungsten.

Low resistance wire: Iron, constantan and copper
LEARNING
STANDARD 5
3.2.5 Communicate about
applications of
resistance in daily life
Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.
1. Heating element
(a) State the energy change in heating element
Electrical energy to heat. Nichrome is always used
because its high resistivity.

(b) List electrical appliances which use heating

element.
Some of electrical appliances that release heat such as
iron, electric oven, electric kettle and hair dryer.
(c) State characteristics of material for a heating element
High resistivity – produce large heat
High melting point – does not melt easily at high
temperature.
Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.
1. Heating element
Nicchrome wire is an alloy (mixture of nickel
and chromium). High resistivity (100 x 10-8 Ω m
at 200 ⁰C) and high melting point (14 000 ⁰C)
that cause no corrosive at higher temperature
and experience small expansion when heating.
This properties make the heating element most
efficient.
Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.
2. Electrical wiring at home

(a) Connecting wire:

➢ Copper is used because it has

…………….
low resistivity which prevents the
……….
heating
wire from…………………. up too quickly
when current flows through it.
Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.
2. Electrical wiring at home

(b) Fuse

(i) Where fuse can be found?

Fuse can be found on main switch board and plug.

(ii) What is the function of fuse?

Fuse act to control exceeded electric current flows so that no
damage of electrical appliance and no burning happens

(iii) What is the characteristic of material for fuse?

The wire used is very thin with low resistivity and has specific
melting point that will melt when exceeded current flow through it.
Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.

3. The value of resistivity form conductor, non-conductors, semiconductors

and superconductors.
Non-conductors Semiconductors

A material that does not A material that

conduct electricity, conducts electricity
good insulator better than an insulator
but not as good as a
conductor
Resistivity: Resistivity:
Has the highest Has resistivity between a non-
resistivity conductor and a conductor
Example: Example:
Plastic and wood Silicone, germanium
Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.

3. Nilai kerintangan bagi bahan konduktor, bukan konduktor, semikonduktor

dan superkonduktor
Conductors Superconductors
A material that A material that conducts
conducts electricity electricity without any
resistance

Resistivity: Resistivity:
Has low resistivity Has zero reistivity at
critical temperature
Example: Example:
Iron and carbon Caesium at a 1.5 K
or lower
 Activity 2 Aim: To study and elaborate on the applications of resistivity on
conductors in daily life.
4. Superconductor
Zero resistance
(a) Superconductor is a material that has ………….
For examples are metal, ceramic and inorganic material
electricityefficiently at specific
that can conduct …………….
electrical
temperature. These materials have no ……………..
energy loss in the form of heat, sound and others.
(b) The graph shows that when the temperature of
decreases then resistance also
superconductor ……………..,
decreases until achieve specific temperature which is
critical temperature TC. Critical temperature
known as …………..……………….,
zero
is achieved when resistance suddenly reduced ……….
All conductors material have resistance. These
resistance cause loss of energy.
In 1911, a Dutch physicist, Kamerlingh Onnes
investigated the resistance of mercury. He
discovered that when mercury was cooled to a
temperature of 4.15 K, its resistance suddenly
dropped to zero. The mercury became a
superconductor.
 Superconductors are materials that conduct electricity
without any resistance.

superconductor
Therefore, not energy is lost when current
flows through the superconductor.
Magnet

Apabila satu superkonduktor diletakkan berhampiran

dengan medan magnet, berlaku kesan
superkonduktiviti. Arus aruhan dialirkan secara
berterusan dan menyebabkan superkonduktor
terapung di atas kepingan magnet.
Advantage of superconductor in daily life:
1. Can maintain high current.
2. Loss of power is too small during the transmission
of electricity through transmission cable.
3. No energy loss.
4. Small motor of generator can be used.
LEARNING
STANDARD 6
3.2.6 Solve problems
involving the
formula of wire
resistance R = ρl/A
Activity 3 Aim: Solving problems involving wire resistance
Activity 3 Aim: Solving problems involving wire resistance
Activity 3 Aim: Solving problems involving wire resistance

1. Calculate the total resistance for a roll

of copper wire with length 10.0 m and
cross-sectional area 2.0 mm2. Given
the resistivity of copper at 20 ⁰C is
1.72 x 10-8 Ω m.

l = 10.0 m R = ρl = (1.72 x 10-8)(10.0)

A = 2.0 x 10-6 m2 A 2.0 x 10-6
ρ = 1.72 x 10-8 Ω m R = 0.086 Ω
Activity 3 Aim: Solving problems involving wire resistance

2. For his wiring home, Ahmad bought a roll

of aluminium wire with radius 0.5 mm l = 500 m
and its length about 500 m. Given the ρ = 2.8 x 10-8 Ω m
value of the resistivity of aluminium at
20 ⁰C is 2.8 x 10-8 Ω m. What is the Jejari wayar, r = 0.5 mm
resistance of the aluminium wire? = 0.005 m
A = πr2 = π(0.005)2

R = ρl = (2.8 x 10-8)(500)
A π(0.005)2
= 0.176 Ω
Activity 3 Aim: Solving problems involving wire resistance

3. A coil of pure copper wire with a l = 500 m

length of 500 m and a radius of 0.5 Jejari wayar, r = 0.5 mm
mm has a resistance of 10.8 Ω. What
= 0.005 m
is the resistivity of copper?
R = 10.8 Ω
A = πr2 = π(0.005)2

ρ = RA = (10.8)(π(0.005)2 )
l 500
= 1.7 x 10-6 Ω m
Activity 3 Aim: Solving problems involving wire resistance

4. If the current flows through a zinc wire of

length 1.0 mm is 1.0 A calculate
(a) Resistance of wire
(b) The value of potential difference between
two ends of the zinc wire.
[resistivity of zinc = 5.5 x 10-7 Ω m]

R = ρl = (5.5 x 10-7)(1) V = IR = (1.0)(0.70) = 0.70 V

A π(0.0005)2
= 0.70 Ω
TUTORIAL 3.2
I = V/R = 8/4 = 2 A
I di perintang 4 Ω
= I di perintang R
=2A
Jumlah arus = 1.2 x 2 = 2.4 A
Bacaan A2 = 2.4/3 = 0.8 A
 Directly proportional

Ohm’s law

ammeter voltmeter
Diagram 3.2
decreased / berkurang
 Diagram 6.1

____
___
Diagram 6.2
 Diagram 6.1 has more bulbs
Rajah 6.1 lebih banyak mentol
Diagram 6.1

6.1 > 6.2

Diagram 6.2
As the number of bulbs increases, the reading of the ammeter
increases./ bilangan mentol bertambah, bacaan ammeter bertambah
 Resistance 6.1 < 6.2 / current 6.1 > 6.2
Rintangan 6.1 < 6.2 / arus 6.1 > 6.2 Diagram 6.1

As the bulbs increase, the resistance decreases.

/ as the bulbs increase, the current increases.
Bilangan mentol bertambah, rintangan berkurang Diagram 6.2
Bilangan mentol bertambah, arus meningkat.
 Bulb P and Q

Resistance is low , current

flow is high / voltage is higher
Rintangan rendah, arus
mengalir tinggi / voltan tinggi
 light up / menyala

If connected to 240V power

supply, it will release energy at
60 Joules per second
Jika disambung ke bekalan kuasa
240 V, ia akan bebaskan tenaga
60 J per saat.
I = 60 = 0.25 A
240 R = 240 = 960 Ω
0.25
1= 1 + 1 + 1
R 960 960 960

R = 320 Ω
series / Selari
√1 Length high / long / panjang
√2 high resistance / rintangan tinggi
√3 (produce / release) heat /energy / power //
bebaskan haba / tenaga E = I2Rt / (V2/R)t // P = I2R / P = (V2/R)
√4 heat to light // Electric → light // Electrical → light //
heat → light / haba ke cahaya / elektrik → haba → cahaya
Small cross sectional area High resistance / rintangan tinggi
Luas keratan rentas kecil
Longer wire / Wayar panjang High resistance / rintangan tinggi

Higher number of turns of wire / increase resistance

bilangan lilitan dawai banyak Tambah rintangan

High conductivity of the slider To allow current flow from the

Kekonduksian pelaras tinggi terminal to the coil / arus boleh
mengalir dari terminal ke gegelung

Brass / nichrome / nikrom High resistance / rintangan tinggi

Length of the conductor 10.2 > 10.1
Panjang konduktor 10.2 > 10.1
The ammeter reading 10.2 < 10.1
Bacaan ammeter 10.2 < 10.1
Voltmeter reading 10.2 = 10.1
Bacaan voltmeter 10.2 = 10.1
Length of conductor is directly proportional
to the resistance of the conductor
Panjang konduktor berkadar terus dengan
rintangan konduktor.

Length of conductor is inversely proportional

to the reading of the ammeter
Panjang konduktor berkadar songsang
dengan bacaan ammeter.
Resistance of the conductor is inversely
proportional with current flows
Rintangan berkadar songsang dengan arus.
• Connect terminal A and B
Sambungkan terminal A dan B
• Move / push the slider
Gerakkan atau tolak penggelongsor
• Resistance varies with length. The
longer the length, the higher the
resistance and the lower the current.
rintangan berubah dengan panjang.
Semakin panjang wayar, semakin
bertambah rintang dan semakin kecil
arus.
 Characteristics reason
Increase the number of turns of coil Increase the length / high resistance
Tambah bilangan lilitan gegelung Tambah panjang / rintangan tinggi
Material has low density Lighter / ringan
Bahan berketumpatan rendah.

Rate of oxidation is lower Difficult to oxidised / water does not

Kadar pengoksidaan rendah pollute /susah untuk dioksida / air tidak
tercemar
Smaller Diamter of wire of the coil High resistance
diameter wayar kecil Rintangan tinggi
Material heating element: Tungstein High resistance /
/ nikrom / bahan unsur pemanas: Rintangan tinggi
tungstein
 When I increases, V increases
Apabila I bertambah, V bertambah
Resistance increases
Rintangan bertambah
Temperature increases
Non-ohmic conductor which
Suhu bertambah
does not obey Ohm’s law
Konduktor bukan Ohm yang Gradient increases
tidak mematuhi hukum Ohm. Kecerunan bertambah
Decreases
berkurang
 • Short cable // panjang kabel pendek
• Low resistance / rintangan rendah
• Potential difference low/ voltan rendah
• Current low / arus rendah
• Poor conductor/ insulator// penebat
• High resistance on the bird’s leg/
Energy / tenaga rintangan tinggi pada kaki burung
Time masa • Voltage = 0/ voltan = 0
• No Current flow / tiada arus mengalir
 Characteristics reason
Thick // Tebal Low resistance// rintangan rendah

240 V / high / tinggi Voltage same with appliances rating / appliances at

normal working/ voltan sama spesifikasi alat / alat
bekerja secara normal
Parallel // selari One not working, others still work/ satu tidak
berfungsi, alat lain masih berfungsi

Fuse 20 A/ large / big / 17.5 A // (2200/240) + (200/240) = 9.17 + 8.33 = 17.5

besar A / break the circuit when the current flow bigger
than fuse limit// putuskan litar apabila arus yang
mengalir lebih besar dari nilai fius
K Thick, parallel, 240 V and 20 A fuse/
tebal, selari, 240 V dan fius 20 A
Voltage // voltan
Current arus
Bacaan 10.1 rendah // reading 10.1 low
Number of metal rods 10.1 low
Bilangan rod logam 10.1 sedikit
 1/R = ½ + ½ + ½ // R = 0.67
1/R = ½ + ½ // R = 1
Rintangan berkesan 10.2 lebih kecil
Rintangan berkesan berkadar songsang
dengan bilangan rod logam
Strong electric field
Medan magnet lebih besar
√1 material of heating element: √2 Reason:
Nichrome //Tungsten //Wolfram High resistance //high melting point
//more heat //low specific heat
capacity // rintangan tinggi //takat
lebur tinggi //cepat panas // muatan
haba tentu rendah
√4
Reason: Not heat easily //high
√3 Type of material of the handle specific heat capacity //difficult to heat
High specific heat capacity // plastic //difficult to hot //heat insulator
//penebat haba //poor heat //poor heat conductor //tidak mudah
conductor //heat insulator panas //muatan haba tentu Tinggi
//susah panas //lambat panas
//penebat haba
√5 Thermostat // thermostat √6 Reason:
Control temperature // prevent
overheat //kawal suhu // elak lampau
panas
√7 The connection √8 Reason:
Earthed wire // wire to earth // Excessive current to earth //avoid
earthing //wayar bumi //wayar ke electric shock //avoid short circuit
bumi //pembumian //earthed // arus berlebihan ke bumi //elak litar
//dibumikan pintas //elak renjatan elektrik //elak
kejutan elektrik
 √10 reason:
√9 The safety method
//putuskan litar bila arus berlebihan
Fuse // circuit breaker // pemutus litar
//cut down/off the current once the
current overload
avoid excessive current //avoid from
overload //protect from damage
//melindungi dari arus berlebihan
/beban lampau //melindungi dari
rosak //arus berlebihan tidak mengalir
//tiada arus berlebihan //arus
mengalir 4.17 A //I = 1000/240
//prevent big/huge/enormous
current.
√11 Heating element: √12 Reason:
Thin //nipis //small diameter High resistance // more heat
//small cross sectional area // rintangan tinggi //lebih haba

√13 Heating element: √14 Reason:

Coil // long //gegelung //panjang High resistance // more heat
(i) (12/1.5) – 5 = 8 – 5 = 3 Ω

(ii) 1/R = 1/5 + 1/20

R=4Ω
R total = 4 + 3 = 7 Ω

I = 12/7 = 1.7143 A

V = 1.7143 x 3 = 5.1429 V