15 Conceptual SQL Interview

Questions and Answers

John H. · Follow
6 min read · Dec 21, 2023

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Are you preparing for a job interview that involves SQL? Are you feeling
overwhelmed with the thought of facing technical questions on SQL? Don’t worry,
we’ve got you covered! In this article, we will discuss some of the essential SQL
interview questions and provide step-by-step solutions to help you ace your next
interview.

Before diving into the questions, let’s first understand why SQL is such an
important skill to have in today’s job market.

Why Learn SQL?

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard programming language used for
managing and manipulating data stored in relational databases. It is a must-have
skill for anyone working with large amounts of data, especially in roles like Data
Analyst, Data Scientist, or Database Administrator. SQL allows you to retrieve,
insert, update, and delete data from databases in an efficient and organized
manner.

Now that we understand the significance of SQL let’s take a look at some of the
common questions asked during SQL interviews.
1. What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language and is used for managing and
manipulating data stored in relational databases. It is a declarative language,
meaning that it allows you to specify what data you want to retrieve or manipulate
without needing to specify how the operation should be done.

2. What are relational databases?

Relational databases use a tabular structure to store data in tables with rows and
columns. The relationship between these tables is established by using primary
and foreign keys. This allows for efficient storage, retrieval, and manipulation of
data.

3. What is the difference between a primary key and a foreign

key?
Mixing up a foreign and primary key is a very common SQL interview mistake. A
primary key is a unique identifier for each row in a table, while a foreign key is
used to establish relationships between tables. A foreign key can reference the
primary key of another table.

Example:
Consider two tables, Employee and Department. The primary key in the Employee
table is the employee ID, while the Department table has a foreign key that
references this employee ID to establish a one-to-many relationship between
employees and departments.

4. What are the different types of SQL statements?

The three most commonly used SQL statements are:
 SELECT: Used to retrieve data from a database

INSERT: Used to insert new data into a database.

UPDATE: Used to update existing data in a database.

5. What is the use of the WHERE clause?

The WHERE clause is used to filter results based on a specified condition when
retrieving data using the SELECT statement. It allows you to retrieve specific rows
that meet certain criteria, making it easier to sort through large amounts of data. If
you want to use a dynamic SQL engine, consider using sites such as db-
fiddle.com or bigtechinterviews.com

Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE department = ‘Sales’

This query will retrieve all employees from the Sales department.

6. What is a JOIN?
A JOIN is used to combine data from two or more tables based on a common
column or relationship. There are various types of joins, such as INNER JOIN,
LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and FULL OUTER JOIN, each serving a different
purpose.

Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee INNER JOIN Department ON
Employee.department_id = Department.id
This query will retrieve data from the Employee table and join it with data from
the Department table based on their respective department IDs.

7. What is a subquery?
A subquery is a query nested within another query, used to retrieve data from a
subset of a larger dataset. It can be used in conjunction with other SQL statements
like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE department_id IN (SELECT id FROM
Department WHERE name = ‘Marketing’)

This query will retrieve all employees from the Marketing department using a
subquery to filter the department IDs.

8. What is a view?
A view is a virtual table created from a SELECT statement and stored in the
database. It contains data from one or more tables and can be used as a regular
table when querying data.

Example:
CREATE VIEW Sales_Employees AS

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE department = ‘Sales’

This query will create a view named Sales_Employees that contains data from the
Employee table filtered by the Sales department.
9. What is a stored procedure?
A stored procedure is a set of SQL statements stored in the database and executed
when called. It can accept parameters, perform complex operations, and return
results.

Example:
CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployeeCount (IN department VARCHAR(255),
OUT count INT)

SELECT COUNT(*) INTO count FROM Employee WHERE department =

department;

This procedure will accept a department name as input and return the number of
employees in that department as output.

10. What is a transaction?

A transaction is a set of SQL statements executed together as a single unit. It
follows the ACID principle (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) to
ensure data integrity and consistency in the database.

Example:
START TRANSACTION;

INSERT INTO Employee (id, name) VALUES (1, ‘John’);

UPDATE Department SET manager = ‘John’ WHERE id = 1;

COMMIT;
This transaction will insert a new employee with an ID of 1 and update the
Department table to assign John as the manager. If any of these statements fail,
the whole transaction will be rolled back, ensuring data consistency.

11. What is normalization?

Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to minimize
redundancy and dependency. It involves breaking down large tables into smaller
ones, eliminating duplicate data, and establishing relationships between them.

12. What are indexes?

Indexes are data structures used to improve the performance of queries by
allowing faster retrieval of data from databases. They work similar to an index in a
book, allowing for quicker access to relevant data.

Example:
CREATE INDEX idx_employee_name ON Employee (name)

This query will create an index on the name column in the Employee table, making
it faster to retrieve data based on employee names.

13. What is the use of LIMIT and OFFSET?

LIMIT and OFFSET are clauses used to limit the number of rows returned by a
query and specify the starting point for results, respectively. They are useful when
dealing with large datasets to improve performance and provide pagination
functionality.

Example:
SELECT * FROM Employee LIMIT 10 OFFSET 20
This query will retrieve a maximum of 10 rows starting from the 21st row in the
Employee table.

14. What is a deadlock?

A deadlock occurs when two or more transactions are waiting for each other to
release resources, causing them to become stuck and unable to continue. This can
happen when transactions are not properly managed, leading to database
performance issues.

15. What is a query plan?

A query plan, also known as an execution plan, is a set of steps or operations taken
by the database engine to retrieve data from a database. It shows how the database
will process and execute a given SQL statement, providing insight into
performance and optimization opportunities.

Example:
EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE department = ‘Marketing’

This query will generate a query plan for the SELECT statement, showing how the
database engine will retrieve data from the Employee table based on the specified
condition. Overall, having a good understanding of SQL statements and their uses
is crucial when it comes to working with databases and performing data analysis.
By familiarizing oneself with these commonly used SQL interview questions and
answers, one can confidently tackle any SQL-related interview or project.

Importance of SQL in the Tech Industry

SQL (Structured Query Language) is an essential language for working with data
and databases in the tech industry. It allows businesses to store, manipulate, and
retrieve large amounts of data quickly and efficiently. SQL is also highly versatile,
compatible with various database management systems like MySQL, Oracle, and
Microsoft SQL Server.

With the increasing demand for data analysis and management in almost every
industry, SQL skills have become a sought-after skill for technology professionals.
Many tech companies, from startups to large corporations, rely on SQL for their
data operations and require job candidates to have a strong understanding of the
language.

Moreover, with the rise of big data and artificial intelligence, there is an even
greater need for proficient SQL users who can handle complex datasets and
perform advanced analysis. Companies are constantly looking for ways to optimize
their data processes and make data-driven decisions, making SQL skills highly
valuable in the tech industry.

Conclusion
In this article, we covered some of the most commonly asked SQL interview
questions and provided examples with step-by-step solutions. We also discussed
the importance of SQL in the tech industry and its increasing demand for job
candidates. By understanding these fundamental concepts of SQL, one can
confidently tackle any SQL-related interview and excel in database management
and data analysis tasks. Keep practicing, learning, and exploring different use
cases for SQL to further enhance your skills and stay competitive in today’s tech
industry. So if you are looking to level up your SQL skills, start by familiarizing
yourself with these essential SQL interview questions and answers. Happy coding!