DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

GITAM SCHOOL OF SCIENCE

GITAM
(Deemed to be University)

Bengaluru - 561203

PHYS1291
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LABORATORY MANUAL
INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Note the cycle of experiments. Read the laboratory manual thoroughly.

2. Prepare for the particular experiment by noting the formulae, symbols, figures,

blank tabular forms and nature of graph in your observation notebook.

3. After taking observations in the practical class, note them in tabular forms, draw

graph, and calculate the result. Obtain the signature of the teacher. Fill the record

book immediately and also get it signed.

4. Note all the observations in ink only (do not use pencil). Use pencil only to draw

diagrams and graphs.

5. In case calculations are not completed, show results before the next class.

6. Keep the record book always up to date.

7. It is your responsibility to return the apparatus.

8. Heavy fines will be imposed for breakages.

9. Beware of high voltages.

 PROCEDURE

In the observation book, note the list of experiments, check list, tables and formulae for
vernier calipers, screw gauge, travelling microscope and spectrometer.

Check list

When you are coming to Physics laboratory you have to carry the following:

a. Observation notebook b. Record book c. Manual

d. Calculator e. Pen f. Pencil
g. Sharpener h. Eraser i. Ruler

Before coming to the lab to perform an experiment you have to write the following in
the observation note book and also in the record book about that experiment.

Before performing the experiment

Observation notebook
1. At the left side top corner of the page draw a box and write the Sl. No., Expt. No.
and Date.
2. Write the title of the experiment in capital letters and underline.
3. Write the aim and apparatus.
4. Write the formula and explain the symbols with units.
5. Draw well-labeled diagrams or figures and write a suitable caption.
6. Draw blank tabular forms with column headings and write a suitable caption.
7. Draw model graphs (if any).

Note: Do not write the theory or procedure in an observation notebook. However, the
procedure must be studied thoroughly and you have to perform the experiment on
your own.

Record book:

1. Write the Sl. No. and Expt. No. in the box at the left side top corner.
2. Write the title of the experiment in capital letters.
3. Write aim, apparatus, principle or theory or procedure on ruled pages.
4. Draw diagrams on white pages.

Note: Do not draw the model graph in the record book. Do not draw tabular forms in the
record book before performing the experiment.

After performing the experiment

Observation notebook
1. Note the observations in the tabular forms.
2. Draw the graphs (if any) on the graph sheet provided at the end of the observation
notebook.
3. Calculate the result showing the intermediate steps.
4. Write the precautions taken while performing the experiment.
5. Get it signed by your concerned teacher.
a. If you are unable to complete the experiment, the teacher will write Repeat
in your observation notebook. You have to repeat the experiment in the
practice class which will be given at the end of the cycle.
b. If there is no time to calculate the result after completing the experiment,
then your teacher will write Calculate. You have to calculate the result
immediately after going home and show it to the concerned teacher on the
next day. The time slot will be given by the teacher to sign in the observation
book.
c. If the calculations are over (including graph) in the same class, then your
teacher will write a Record. You have to complete the record for that
experiment and get it signed by your teacher.

Record book
If time permits, enter tabular forms and calculations in the record book on white
pages, draw the graph on the graph sheet provided at the end of the record book, write
precautions and results and obtain the signature of your teacher in the same class or in
the next class.

Note: The maximum time given to complete one experiment i.e., obtaining your
teacher’s signature in the record book is one week.

Continuous evaluation (100 marks)

1. For each experiment you will be graded for 10 marks.

2. Immediately after entering the laboratory you have to show your preparation of
the experiment to your teacher. The teacher will check your observation note
book and record book and grade you accordingly.
3. At the end of the cycle you would have been assessed for 80 marks.
4. An assessment of 20 marks will be made at the end of the cycle where you have
to perform one of the 8 experiments.

Note: You will be penalized in the following cases

i. Incomplete preparation
ii. Not completing the record book in the given time
iii. Not maintaining the record book properly and neatly
iv. Copying calculations from others
v. Wrong handling of apparatus
vi. Being absent for the lab/class
vii. Late coming
viii. Indiscipline
ix. Any kind of malpractice
x. Misbehaviour.
 VERNIER CALIPERS

To determine the length or breadth/depth/diameter of a given object using vernier

calipers.

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ……. 𝑐𝑚

Least Count (LC) of vernier calipers = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(𝑁)
= 𝑁
= … cm

S.No Main Scale Reading Vernier Coincidence VC X LC Total Reading

(MSR) (VC) (TR)
(a) cm (b) cm (a + b) cm
1. = TR1
2. = TR2
3. = TR3
4. = TR4
5. = TR5

Note: Make a minimum of 5 observations and then find the average value.

𝑇𝑅1+ 𝑇𝑅2+𝑇𝑅3+𝑇𝑅4+𝑇𝑅5
Average measurement of the given object = 5
= …….cm
 SCREW GAUGE

To determine the thickness or diameter of a thin object using a screw gauge.

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 ….. 𝑚𝑚

Least Count (LC) of screw gauge= 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑁)
= … 𝑁
= ……..
mm

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

where, Pitch of the screw = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
= ………. mm

Zero error = correction (C) =

S.No. Pitch Scale Head Scale n X LC Total

Reading (PSR) Coincidence (HSC) Reading
(a) mm Observed Corrected (b) mm (TR)
(n) (a + b) mm
1. = TR1
2. = TR2
3. = TR3
4. = TR4
5. = TR5
𝑇𝑅1+ 𝑇𝑅2+𝑇𝑅3+𝑇𝑅4+𝑇𝑅5
Average thickness or diameter of the given object = 5
= …….mm
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Basic principles of measurement and errors.

2. Simple Pendulum

3. Compound Pendulum

4. Finding the damping coefficient of an oscillator

5. Diffraction grating – Diffraction of white light

6. Newtons’ rings experiment

7. O-ray and e-ray (bi-refringence) Experiment

8. Magnetic field along the axis of circular coil

9. Faraday’s EMF experiment

10.Numerical aperture and loss – Optical fibre experiment

11.Laser light diffraction

Experiment: 01

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT AND ERRORS

Aim: To provide a comprehensive understanding about error analysis and graph plot-
ting, including the use of linear regression, using Excel.

Introduction: In science, the word “error” does not imply a mistake or blunder. Instead,
it refers to the uncertainty inherent in all measurements. These errors are not mistakes
that can be eliminated by careful work. The best we can do is to minimize errors as
much as possible and to accurately estimate their magnitude. No measurement of a
physical quantity can be entirely accurate. It is important to know how much the
measured value is likely to deviate from the unknown true value of the quantity.
Whenever you make a measurement, the number of meaningful digits that you write
down implies the error in the measurement. For example, if you say that the length of an
object is 0.428 m, you imply an uncertainty of about 0.001 m. You should only report as
many significant figures as are consistent with the estimated error.

Types of Errors

Errors can arise from various sources in an experiment:

Systematic Errors: Systematic errors arise from a flaw in the measurement scheme that
is repeated each time a measurement is made. If the same mistake is made each time,
the measurements will systematically differ from the correct result. Some sources of
systematic error include:

– Errors in the calibration of measuring instruments.

– Incorrect measuring techniques, such as parallax error.
– Experimenter bias, where the experimenter consistently reads an
instrument incorrectly or lets knowledge of the expected result
influence the measurements.
– Systematic errors do not average to zero, even if you average many
measurements.
Random Errors: Random errors arise from fluctuations that are most easily observed
by making multiple trials of a given measurement.
– Uncontrollable fluctuations in initial conditions, which cause vari-
ations in the measurements.
– Limitations imposed by the precision of measuring apparatus and the
uncertainty in interpolating between the smallest divisions.
– Lack of precise definition of the quantity being measured.
Estimating Random Errors:

There are several ways to make a reasonable estimate of the random error in a
particular measurement. The best way is to make a series of measurements of a
¯
given quantity (say, x ) and calculate the mean X , and the standard deviation σx
from this data.
The mean is defined as

where xi is the result of the ith measurement

and N is the number of measurements. The
standard deviation is given by
Figure 1: Set of time taken by an object falling from 1.3 m height given in Col A. Mean,
Standard Deviation and Std. Error formula given in the B, C and D respectively. Dont
forget to include ”=” in front of the formula

Example 1- Estimation of Standard Error

● We will conduct an error analysis on the falling times of an object

dropped from a height of 1.3 meters.
● Using a set of experimental data, we will input the falling times into Excel.
● We will calculate the mean, standard deviation, and standard error of the
data.
● We will visualize the data distribution with a histogram.
● This analysis will help us understand the measurement’s accuracy and
precision.
 Figure 2: Histogram

Example 2-Graph Plotting and linear regression

We will plot the given time and distance data points, perform a linear regression to fit
a straight line through the data, calculate the standard deviation of the fitting parameters,
and add error bars to the plot to represent the standard deviation.

Key Points:

Data Input: Enter the time and distance values in two columns in Excel.
Scatter Plot: Create a scatter plot to visualize the data points.

Linear Regression: Add a linear trend line to the scatter plot and display
the regression equation and R-squared value.

Standard Deviation from Fitting: Use the fitting parameters’ standard

deviation from the regression output.
Figure 3: Time vs Distance plot. The dotted line shows the linear fit

Figure 4: Linear Regression Output values and Std. Error

Experiment: 02

SIMPLE PENDULUM
Aim: Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length of
second's pendulum.
Apparatus: A Clamp With Stand, Bob with Hook, Split Cork, Stop Clock/StopWatch, Vernier
Callipers, Cotton Thread, Half Meter Scale
Theory:
A simple pendulum consists of a heavy metallic (brass) sphere with a hook (bob) suspended from
a rigid stand, with clamp by a weightless inextensible and perfectly flexible thread through a slit
cork, capable of oscillating in a single plane, without any friction, with a small amplitude (less
than 150) as shown in figure 6.1 (a). There is no ideal simple pendulum. In practice, we make a
simple pendulum by tying a metallic spherical bob to a fine cotton stitching thread.

The spherical bob may be regarded as a point mass at its centre G. The distance between
the point of suspension S and the centre G of the spherical bob is to be regarded as the
effective length of the pendulum as shown in figure 6.1 (b). The effective length of a simple
pendulum, L = l + h + r. Where l is the length of the thread, h is length of hook, r is radius of bob.

The simple pendulum produces Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) as the acceleration of the
pendulum bob is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position and is always
directed towards it. The time period (T) of a simple pendulum for oscillations of small amplitude,
is given by the relation
 T = 2 π √ (L/g)
Where, g = value of acceleration due to gravity and L is the effective length of the pendulum.
T2 = (4π2/g) X L or T2= KL (K= constant)
and, g = 4π2(L/T2)
If T is plotted along the Y-axis and L along the X-axis, we should get a parabola. If T2 is plotted
along the Y- axis and L along the X-axis, we should get a straight line passing through the origin.
Procedure:
1. Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers same as experiment 1.
2. Measure the radius (r) of the bob using vernier callipers same as experiment 1.
3. Measure the length of hook (h) and note it on the table 6.1.
4. Since h and r is already known, adjust the length of the thread l to make L = l + h + r an
integer (say L = 80cm) and mark it as M1 with ink. Making L an integer will make the
drawing easier. (You can measure the distance between the point of suspension (ink mark)
and the point of contact between the hook and the bob directly. Hence you get l +
h directly).
5. Similarly mark M2, M3, M4 , M5, and M6 on the thread as distance (L) of 90 cm, 100
cm, 110cm, 120cm and 130 cm respectively.
6. Pass the thread through the two half-pieces of a split cork coming out just from the ink
mark (M1).
7. Tight the split cork between the clamp such that the line of separation of the two pieces of
the split cork is at right angles to the line along which the pendulum oscillates.
8. Fix the clamp in the stand and place it on the table such that the bob is hanging at-least 2
cm above the base of the stand.
9. Mark a point A on the table (use a chalk) just below the position of bob at rest and draw a
straight line BC of 10 cm having a point A at its centre. Over this line bob will oscillate.
10. Find the least count and the zero error of the stop clock/watch. Bring its hands at zero
position
11. Move the bob by hand to over position B on the right of A and leave. See that the bob
returns over line BC. Make sure that bob is not spinning.
12. Now counting oscillations, from the instant bob passes through its mean position L, where
its velocity is maximum. So starting from L it traverses LL2, L2L, LL1, L1L hence, one
oscillation is completed. We have to find time for 20 such oscillations.
13. Now start the stopwatch at the instant the bob passes through the mean position A. Go on
counting the number of oscillations it completes. As soon as it completes 20 oscillations,
stop the watch. Note the time t for 20 oscillations in the table 6.1.
14. Repeat the measurement at least 3 times for the same length.
 15. Now increase the length of the thread by 10 cm or 15 cm (M2) and measure the time t for
this length as explained from step 6 to 14.
16. Repeat step 15 for at least 4 more different lengths.
Observations:
Vernier constant:
Least count of the vernier callipers, V.C. = ______________ cm
Zero error, ±e = _____________cm
Diameter of the bob and length of hook
Observe diameter of the bob:= (i) ______cm, (ii)________cm, (iii)___________cm
Mean diameter of bob, d0 = _________cm
Mean corrected diameter of bob, d = d0 ±e = __________cm
Radius of the bob, r = d/2= ____________ cm
Length of the hook, h= __________cm
Standard value acceleration due to gravity, g1 : 9.8 ms-2
Least count of stop clock = ____________s
Zero error of stop clock = ___________s
Table 1 Determination of time-periods for different lengths of the pendulum.

Calculation:
We know, T = 2 π √ (L/g)
Experimental value, g1 = 4π2(L/T2) = ______________________
So, %error = (g-g1)/g *100 = ______________________
Graph:
L vs T graph
Plot the graph between L and T from the observations recorded in the table 6.1. Take L along
X-axis and T along Y-axis. The L-T curve is a parabola. As shown in the figure 6.2. The origin
need not be (0,0) point.
L vs T2 Graph
Plot the graph between L and T2 from the observations recorded in the table 6.1. Take L along
X-axis and T2 along Y-axis. The L-T curve is a straight line passing through the (0, 0) point. So
the origin of the graph should be chosen (0, 0). As shown in the figure 6.3.
Precautions :

1. The thread should be very light and strong.

2. The point of suspension should be reasonably rigid.
3. The pendulum should oscillate in the vertical plane without any spin motion.
4. The floor of the laboratory should not have vibration, which may cause a deviation from
the regular oscillation of the pendulum.
5. The amplitude of vibration should be small (less than 15) .
 6. The length of the pendulum should be as large as possible in the given situation.’
7. Determination of time for 20 or more oscillations should be carefully taken and repeated
for at least three times.
8. There must not be strong wind blowing during the experiment.
Reference:

1. http://www.ncert.nic.in/
2. https://www.learncbse.in/
Experiment: 03

COMPOUND PENDULUM
Aim: (i) To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by means of a compound pendulum.
Apparatus and Accessories: (i) A bar pendulum, (ii) a knife–edge with a platform, (iii) a
spirit level, (iv) a precision stopwatch, (v) a meter scale and (vi) a telescope.

Theory:

A simple pendulum consists of a small body called a “bob” (usually a sphere) attached
to the end of a string the length of which is great compared with the dimension
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒.s of the bob and the mass of which is negligible in comparison with that
of the bob. Under these conditions the mass of the bob may be regarded as concentrated at its
center of gravity, and the length of the pendulum is the distance of this point from the axis of
suspension. When the dimensions of the suspended body are not negligible in comparison with
the distance from the axis of suspension to the center of gravity, the pendulum is called a
compound, or physical, pendulum. A rigid body mounted upon a horizontal axis so as to
vibrate under the force of gravity is a compound pendulum.
In Fig.1 a body of irregular shape is pivoted about a horizontal frictionless axis through P and
is displaced from its equilibrium position by an angle θ. In the equilibrium position the center
of gravity G of the body is vertically below P. The distance GP is l and the mass of the body is
m.
The restoring torque for an angular displacement θ
is

τ = - mg l sinθ … (1)

For small amplitudes (θ ≈ 0),

2
𝑑θ
𝐼 2 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃, … (2)
𝑑𝑡

where I is the moment of inertia of the body through the axis

P. Eq. (2) represents a simple harmonic motion and hence the
time period of oscillation is given by
𝐼
T = 2π 𝑚𝑔ℎ
------ (3)

Now 𝐼 = 𝐼G + 𝑚𝑙2, where IG is the

moment of inertia of the body about
an axis parallel with axis of
oscillation and passing through the
center of gravity G.
2
𝐼𝐺 = 𝑚𝐾 ------- (4)

Where K is the radius of gyration about the axis passing through G.

 Thus,
2
2 2 𝐾
𝑚𝐾 +𝑚𝑙 +𝑙
𝑇 = 2π 𝑚𝑔𝑙
= 2π 𝑙
𝑔
--------- (5)

The time period of a simple pendulum of length L, is given by

𝐿
𝑇 = 2π 𝑔
------------ (6)

Comparing with Eq. (5) we get

2
𝐾
𝐿=𝑙 + 𝑙
-------- (7)

This is the length of “equivalent simple pendulum”. If all the mass of the body were
2
𝐾
concentrated at a point O (See Fig.1) such that 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑙
+ 𝑙, we would have a simple
pendulum with the same

time period. The point O is called the ‘Centre of Oscillation’. Now from Eq. (7)

𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐿 + 𝐾2 = 0 ... (8)

i.e. a quadratic equation in l. Equation 6 has two roots l1 and l2 such that

𝑙1 + 𝑙2 = 𝐿
and 𝑙1𝑙2 = 𝐾2 …(9)

Thus both 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are positive. This means that on one side of C.G there are two positions of
the centre of suspension about which the time periods are the same. Similarly, there will be a
pair of positions of the centre of suspension on the other side of the C.G about which the time
periods will be the same. Thus there are four positions of the centers of suspension, two on
either side of the C.G, about which the time periods of the pendulum would be the same. The
distance between two such positions of the centers of suspension, asymmetrically located on
either side of C.G, is the length L of the simple equivalent pendulum. Thus, if the body was
supported on a parallel axis through the point O (see Fig. 1), it would oscillate with the same
time period T as when supported at P. Now it is evident that on either side of G, there are
infinite numbers of such pair of points satisfying Eq. (9). If the body is supported by an axis
through G, the time period of oscillation would be infinite. From any other axis in the body the
time period is given by Eq. (5). From Eq.(6) and (9), the value of g and K are given by
2 𝐿
𝑔 = 4π 2 ------- (10)
𝑇

𝐾= 𝑙1𝑙2 ------- (11)

By determining L, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 graphically for a particular value of T, the acceleration due to
gravity g at that place and the radius of gyration K of the compound pendulum can be
determined.

Description:
The bar pendulum consists of a metallic bar of about one-meter long. A series of circular holes
each of approximately 5 mm in diameter are made along the length of the bar. The bar is
suspended from a horizontal knife-edge passing through any of the holes (Fig. 2). The knife-
edge, in turn, is fixed in a platform provided with the screws. By adjusting the rear screw, the
platform can be made horizontal.

Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Procedure:
(i) Suspend the bar using the knife edge of the hook through a hole nearest to one end of
the bar. With the bar at rest, focus a telescope so that the vertical cross-wire of the telescope
is coincident with the vertical mark on the bar.
(ii) Allow the bar to oscillate in a vertical plane with small amplitude (within 40 of arc).
(iii) Note the time for 20 oscillations by a precision stop-watch by observing the transits of
the vertical line on the bar through the telescope. Make this observation three times and find
the mean time t for 20 oscillations. Determine the time period T.
(iv) Repeat operation (i) to (iii) for the other holes till C.G of the bar is approached where
the time period becomes very large.
(v) Invert the bar and repeat operations (i) to (iv) for each hole starting from the extreme top.
(vi) Draw a graph with the distance d of the holes as abscissa and the time period T as
ordinate.
The nature of graph will be as shown in Fig. 3.
Draw the horizontal line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis. Here A, B, D and E represent the
point of intersections of the line with the curves. Note that the curves are symmetrical about a
vertical line which meets the X-axis at the point G, which gives the position of the C.G of the
bar. This vertical line intersects with the line ABCDE at C. Determine the length AD and BE
and find the
length L of the equivalent simple pendulum from

𝐿 = (𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐸)/2 = 𝐿𝑥/2

Find also the time period T corresponding to the line ABCDE and then compute the value of g.
Draw several horizontal lines parallel to the X-axis and adopt the above procedure to find the
value of g for each horizontal line. Calculate the mean value of g. Alternatively, for each
horizontal line obtain the values of L and T and draw a graph with T2 as abscissa and L as
ordinate. The graph would be a straight line. By taking a convenient point on the graph, g may be
calculated.

Similarly, to calculate the value of K, determine the length AC, BC or CD, CE of the
line ABCDE and compute 𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐵𝐶 or 𝐶𝐷𝑋𝐶𝐸.

Repeat the procedure for each horizontal line. Find the mean of all K.

Observations: Table 1-Data for the T versus d graph

Serial no of holes Distance d Time for 20 Time period T = t/20

from one of the hole oscillations (sec) (sec)
end from
C.G (cm)
One side of 1 ….. …. …..
C.G ….
2 ….. … ……
…
3 …… …. ……..
… .…
… …
…9
Other side of 1 ….. …. …..
C.G ….
….
2 ….. ….. ……
……
……
3 …… …… ……..
… …….
… ……
…9
 TABLE 2- The value of 𝒈 and K from T vs. d graph

No. of obs. 𝐿 T 𝑔 = 4π2 𝐿 Mean K Mean ‘K’

2
(cm) (sec) 𝑇 ‘𝑔’ (cm) (cm)
(cm/sec2)
(cm/sec2)
1. ABCDE (AD+BE)/2 .. ..
√𝐴𝐶ΧB𝐶
or

2. .. .. .. √𝐶𝐷Χ𝐶𝐸
3. .. .. .. ..
..

Computation of proportional error:

We have from Eq. (10)

𝑔 = 4π
2 ( )
𝐿𝑥
2
------ (12)
𝑡 2
( )
20

Since L = Lx/2 (Lx= AD+BE) and T = t/20.

Precautions and Discussions:

(i) Ensure that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical plane and that there is no
rotational motion of the pendulum.
(ii) The amplitude of oscillation should remain within 40 of arc.
(iii) Use a precision stop-watch and note the time accurately as far as possible.
(iv) Make sure that there is no air current in the vicinity of the pendulum.
References:

1. Fundamentals of Physics: Resnick & Halliday

2. Practical physics: R.K. Shukla, Anchal Srivatsava, New Age International (P) Ltd,
New Delhi
3. Eric J. Irons, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 15, Issue 5, pp.426 (1947).
 Experiment No: 4

DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Introduction
A spring-mass system is one of the simplest systems in physics to both set-up and to describe
mathematically, assuming no friction or outside forces. However, damping the spring-mass
system shows an oscillation that is not as simple as an undamped case. Below, the damped
situation of the spring-mass system is explored.

Apparatus

● Spring with mass hanging from is vertically from a vertical bar raised in the air
● Beaker with water
● Stopwatch

Methods

The spring-mass system was set-up in a manner similar to that picture below:
Source: http://www.radian.com.hk/alphyprac/expt%20graphics/a0301a.jpg
In one beaker, water was added to fill it up to about seventy-five percent capacity.
For the first trial, the mass was pulled down a reasonable displacement and set to oscillate.
The time it took for the mass-spring system to complete twenty oscillations was measured on
a stopwatch. The mass-spring system was then oscillated in the water, with the time to
complete twenty oscillations measured again.

Results
Below are presented the periods for the mass-spring system. In trial 1, the spring is pulled
down and let to oscillate in air. In trial 2, the mass-spring system oscillates in water. In trial 3,
the mass-spring system oscillates in a shampoo-water mixture.

Trial 1 (no damping)

Trials Periods
(seconds)
1
2
3
Average

Trial 2 (damped in water)

Trials Period
(seconds)
1
2
3
Average
 Now using the basic equations of simple harmonic motion, the frequency of the oscillations
will be determined using the period of the oscillations. The frequency of an oscillating system
can be found by

1
𝑓= 𝑇

Where T is the period and f is the frequency. Since 20 oscillations were allowed to occur, we
can find the frequency from (for trial 1)

Then the frequency for each trial is

Trial Frequency
1
2

To find the b value (damping ratio) the equation is

2 2
𝑏 = 2𝑚 ω0 − ω

where ω is the frequency of the damped oscillator and ω0 is the frequency of the oscillator in
liquid. M is simply mass. Calculating the b values yields

Trial b-value (damping ratio)

1
2

*Although air acts like a fluid, the experiment was not run in a vacuum to get a better
estimate of an omega-nought value. Thus, since air can be presumed to have damped the
spring little in either case, its frequency is used as omega-nought.

Discussion

From a theoretical standpoint, it would not matter how much the spring is compressed when
calculating the frequency. There is no Δx term in any of the equations used. However, from a
practical standpoint, the less the spring the less time there will be for the spring to complete
twenty full oscillations. Since the spring is in fact damped, it must be pulled down far enough
that it completes twenty full, noticeable oscillations before it is damped.

When the oscillations of a damped harmonic oscillator are graphed as the position vs. time, it
will look something similar to this:
In this diagram, the damping ratio b will determine the function that represents the blue
dotted line. From theory, it is known that the damped harmonic oscillator has an amplitude
that will diminish exponentially with time. Thus, the amplitude is most likely related to the b
factor in some manner such that

−𝑏𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑒
where A is the amplitude, c is some constant, b is the damping coefficient, and t is time. Then
b could possibly be found as
𝐴
𝑙𝑛⁡ 𝑐
𝑏 =− 𝑡

The damping ratios found for all trials are most likely somewhat accurate, maybe within the
range of twenty percent error. Errors will arise mostly around the timing the oscillations, the
fact that the spring does not uniformly compress and decompress, and the movement of the
spring in any way that is not just up and down. Most error is probably from the spring
swaying back and forth. The math of the system is for two-dimensions when the spring
obviously moves in three.

Conclusion

Above it is shown how the damping ration can be calculated by simply measuring the period
of a mass-spring system oscillating twenty time. Although the values are not the most
accurate that could have been found, they agree with common sense, but also the theory
behind how a damped spring would work.
Experiment No: 5

DIFFRACTION GRATING - DETERMINATION OF

WAVELENGTHS
Aim: To determine the wavelengths of various spectral lines (colours) of the mercury
spectrum by using a plane diffraction grating.
Apparatus: A diffraction grating, spectrometer, mercury vapour lamp and reading lens.
Formula:
Sin φ = Nn λ

φ = Angle of diffraction of the spectral line (degrees)

λ = Wavelength of the spectral line (cm)
N = No. of lines in 1 cm length of the grating (N = 12,500/2.54 lines/ cm)
n = Order of the spectrum.
Procedure:
I. Adjustment of the spectrometer

1. Eye-piece: Turn the telescope towards white wall and move the eyepiece slightly in
and out, until the cross wires are clearly visible.

2. Telescope: Direct the telescope towards a distant object, (say a pole or a tree), and by
working its pinion screw adjust the distance of the cross wires from the objective until
the image of the distant object is formed distinctly in the plane of the cross wires. On
moving the eye sideways no parallax should appear between the image and the cross
wires. The telescope and the eyepiece should not be disturbed strictly throughout the
experiment.

3. Collimator: Bring the telescope in line with the collimator. Looking through the
eyepiece of the telescope illuminate the slit of the collimator with mercury light, and
adjust the distance of the slit using the pinion screw of the collimator until a clear,
bright and narrow image of the slit with well defined edges is formed without any
parallax. Move the telescope such that the bright and narrow slit coincides with the
vertical cross wire of the telescope and fix it.

4. Prism table: Keep the spirit level on the prism table parallel to the line joining two of
the levelling screws. Adjust these two screws till the bubble of the spirit level comes
to the centre. Then turn the spirit level perpendicular to this position and adjust the
third screw till the bubble comes to the centre. The table should now be perfectly
horizontal.
 5. Vernier: Determine the least count of the spectrometer using the formula

LC =

Release the vernier disc and set the disc such that zero of the vernier scale coincides
with (00 or 1800) of the main scale and fix the vernier disc. This is the direct ray
reading.
II. Setting the grating to normal incidence

Move the telescope by 900 from the direct ray reading position and clamp it. Now the
collimator and the telescope are at right angles to each other.
Mount the grating on the grating stand fixed to the prism table. Rotate only the prism
table viewing through the telescope so that the reflected image is seen and make it
coincide with the vertical cross wire of the telescope and clamp the prism table. In this
position the angle of incidence (and the grazing angle) will be 450 as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Grating at 450 to collimator Figure2: Grating normal to collimator

Release the vernier disc and turn it by 450 in proper direction such that the incident ray
coming from the collimator is normal to the grating (i.e., the grating becomes perfectly
perpendicular to the collimator). Fix the vernier disc. Now release the telescope back to its
original position (i.e., direct ray reading position).
III. Procedure for determination of angles of diffraction
A schematic of the spectra obtained with grating after adjustments is shown in Figure 2
1. Move the telescope to one side (left) of the direct image and coincide the different
spectral lines in the 1st order to the vertical cross wire of the telescope and note the
readings in a tabular form as in Table 1.
2. Move the telescope beyond 1st order spectrum and repeat the experiment for 2nd order
and tabulate the readings.
3. Bring the telescope back to the original position i.e. (direct ray reading position, n =
0).
 4. Move the telescope to the other side (right) of the direct image and repeat the above
procedure and note the readings in the tabular form for the 1st order.
5. Move the telescope beyond 1st order spectrum and repeat the experiment for 2nd order
and tabulate the readings.
6. Calculate the angle of diffraction for each colour as shown in Table 1.
7. Compare the observed wavelengths with the standard wavelength and tabulate as in
Table 2.

Table 1: Determination of angles of diffraction and wavelengths of spectral lines

Colour of Order Reading of telescope 2φ φ λ=

the spectrum =
of the Left (a) Right (b)
a~
spect-
Total Total b
rum
= = (cm)
n M.S. VCx M.S VCx
MSR+ MSR+
R LC .R LC
(VCx (VCx
LC) LC)
Violet-I 1
Violet-II 1
Blue 1
BlueGreen-I 1
BlueGreen-I 1
I
1
Green
1
Yellow-I
1
Yellow-II

Blue
2
Green
2
Yellow-I
2
Yellow-II
2
Table 2: Comparison of the observed wavelength with the standard values

Colour of the Standard Observed Difference % error

spectrum wavelength wavelength
(S~O) (Å)
S (Å) O (Å)
I order II order I order II order I order II order
Violet-I 4047
Violet-II 4078
Blue 4358
BlueGreen-I 4916
BlueGreen-II 4960
Green 5461
Yellow-I 5770
Yellow-II 5791

Precautions: Don’t touch or clean the surface of the plane diffraction grating. Always hold it
on the sides.
Result: The wavelengths of the various spectral lines (colours) of the mercury spectrum are
determined by using a plane diffraction grating and the values are given in Table 1.
Experiment No: 6

NEWTON’S RINGS

Aim: To determine the radius of curvature ‘R’ of the convex surface of the given lens
Apparatus: A plano-convex lens, a black paper, optically flat glass plate, sodium lamp,
travelling microscope, optical arrangement for Newton’s rings and reading lens.
Formulae: The radius of curvature of a lens ‘R’ and wavelength ‘λ’ of the monochromatic
light used are given below respectively,

R= cm

where, R = radius of curvature of the lens (cm)

Dm = diameter of the mth dark ring (in cm).
Dn = diameter of the nth dark ring (in cm).
λ = wavelength of the monochromatic light used (5893x10-8cm for sodium vapour
lamp)

(a)Experimental set-up (b) Newton’s rings

Figure 1: Experimental set-up for Newton’s rings

Procedure: Before starting the experiment wipe the glass plate(GP), the optically flat glass
plate and the plano-convex lens thoroughly. Place the black paper on the platform of the
travelling microscope and keep the optically flat glass plate on black paper. Focus the
microscope to an X mark made on a white paper placed over the optical flat glass plate and
clamp the microscope in the vertical position. Now keep the plano-convex lens on the
optically flat glass plate such that the centre of the convex surface is in contact with the glass
plate. Illuminate the air film formed in between the optically flat glass plate and
plano-convex lens by adjusting the glass plate (GP) to 450 inclination with the horizontal rays
and observe through the microscope. Alternate bright and dark rings will be observed due to
 interference of light rays reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of the air film. The
centre of the interference rings system will have a dark spot at the point of contact of
plano-convex lens and optically flat glass plate. If the fringe pattern is not formed clearly,
clean the lens or tap the lens gently such that the center of the ring system appears like a dark
spot.
Release the horizontal screw of the microscope. Keep the horizontal slow motion
screw at the center of its length. The point of intersection of cross wires of the microscope
should exactly coincide with the dark spot at the centre of the ring system. Fix the horizontal
screw. Move the traveling microscope horizontally towards left side of the ring system with
the help of slow motion screw such that the point of intersection of cross wires moves to the
20th dark ring and coincides accurately with it. (Note: only dark rings are to be counted).
Now take the readings of the vernier corresponding to 20th ring. Repeat the same for 18th , 16th
, to the 2nd dark ring successively travelling towards right side (i.e. towards the dark spot ) of
the ring system. Proceed further to the other side i.e. 2nd , 4th to the 20th dark ring noting the
readings of vernier successively.

Least count of the Microscope (LC) =

Table 1: Determination of Diameter(D) and Square of Diameter(D2) of the dark rings

S.No. No. of the Microscope reading Diameter of
ring Left Right the
MSR VCxLC Total MSR VCxLC Total reading ring
(cm) (cm) reading (cm) (cm) MSR+(VCxL D= a-b
MSR+(VCx C) (cm) D2
LC) b (cm2)
a (cm)
(cm)
1
20
2
18
3
16
4
14
5
12
6
10
7
8
8
6
9
4
10
2
Graph: A graph is plotted between the number of the rings on the x-axis and D2 on the
y-axis. A straight line passing through the origin (0, 0) is obtained. Dm2 and Dn2 are noted for
the mth and nth rings from the graph, as shown in the figure. (m and n should preferably be any
two rings not appearing in Table 1, say 15th and 5th rings or 17th and 7th rings).
Model Graph:

Precautions:
1. The glass plate, optically flat glass plate, and the plano-convex lens should be thoroughly
wiped.
2. Throughout the experiment the horizontal slow motion screw of the microscope is to be
turned only in one direction to avoid backlash error.

Result:
The radius of curvature of the convex surface of the given plano-convex lens is ____cm.
Experiment No: 7

MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDICES (O-E) OF A

BIREFRINGENT MATERIAL
Aim: To measure the refractive indices corresponding to the ordinary (O) and the
extra-ordinary (E) rays of the birefringent material (doubly refracting) in the form of a prism.
Apparatus: Sodium vapour lamp, quartz prism, spectrometer, spirit level, prism holder and
reading lens.
Formula: The respective index of the prism is obtained using the formula

where, = refractive index

α = angle of prism (degrees and minutes)=60°

Dm = angle of minimum deviation (degrees and minutes)
Procedure:
II. Adjustment of the spectrometer

1. Eye-piece: Turn the telescope towards white wall and move the eye-piece slightly in
and out, until the cross wires are clearly visible.

2. Telescope: Direct the telescope towards a distant object, (say a pole or a tree), and by
working its pinion screw adjust the distance of the cross wires from the objective until
the image of the distant object is formed distinctly in the plane of the cross wires. On
moving the eye sideways no parallax should appear between image and the cross
wires. The telescope and the eye-piece should not be disturbed strictly throughout the
experiment.

3. Collimator: Bring the telescope in line with the collimator. Looking through the
eyepiece of the telescope illuminate the slit of the collimator with mercury light, and
adjust the distance of the slit using the pinion screw of the collimator until a clear,
bright and narrow image of the slit with well defined edges is formed without any
parallax. Move the telescope such that the bright and narrow slit coincides with the
vertical cross wire of the telescope and fix it.
4. Prism table: Keep the spirit level on the prism table parallel to the line joining two of
the levelling screws. Adjust these two screws till the bubble of the spirit level comes
to the centre. Then turn the spirit level perpendicular to this position and adjust the
third screw till the bubble comes to the centre. The table now becomes perfectly
horizontal.
5. Vernier: Determine the least count of the spectrometer using the formula
 LC =

III. Reading of the undeviated ray R3: Let the slit be illuminated. The bright and narrow
image of the slit is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire of the telescope and it
is clamped. Release the vernier disc and set the disc such that the vernier zero should
exactly coincide with the 00 or 1800 of the main scale (using slow motion screw, if
necessary). This reading corresponds to the reading of the undeviated ray R3.

Reading of the undeviated ray, R3 = MSR + (LC x VC)

IV. Angle of minimum deviation (Dm): The prism table is released, however the vernier
disc screw is unaltered which is fixed when the reading of undeviated ray path is taken
and turned such that the light is incident on one of the refracting faces (smooth surfaces)
of the prism as shown in Figure 2 (i.e. the ground/rough surface of the prism is almost
parallel to the collimator). Now the telescope is turned to receive the deviated beam of
light (spectrum). Looking at the spectrum through the telescope, the prism table is
slowly turned in any direction such that the spectrum moves towards the undeviated
path of the beam, until the spectrum just changes its direction of motion. In this
limiting position of the spectrum deviation is a minimum. Now the telescope is fixed in
this position. By adjusting slow-motion screw of the telescope coincide the vertical
cross wire of the telescope with each spectral line of the spectrum and tabulate the
readings below. Now measure the angle of minimum deviation for the o-ray (ordinary
ray) and the e-ray (extra ordinary ray).

Collimator

Figure 2: Angle of minimum deviation

 Table 1: Readings for Minimum deviation (Dm) and Refractive index (µ)
Description of Telescope reading at Minimum Refractive
the ray minimum deviation deviation index
[ MSR + (LC X VC)] = R4 Dm = R4 ~ R3

Direct ray (R3)

O-ray

E-ray

Note:1. Always follow only one vernier to tabulate the observations. (i.e., R1 to R4)

2. e > 0 in the case of quartz prism.

3. 0 > e in the case of calcite prism.

Table 2: Percentage error table

Description of the ray Experimental value Standard value Percentage
error
of µ of µ

O-ray

E-ray

Result: The refractive indices corresponding to the ordinary (O) and the extra-ordinary (E)
rays of the birefringent material in the form of a prism are measured and the values are µo =
______ and µe = _______.
Experiment No: 8

MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF CIRCULAR COIL

Aim: To determine the intensity of magnetic field at different points along the axis of a
circular coil carrying current by Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer.

Apparatus: Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer, storage cell, ammeter (0-2A), rheostat, plug
key,
commutator, thread, and deflection magnetometer.

Arms Coil Deflection magnetometer

West East

Rheostat Storage cell Ammeter

Figure 1: Experimental set-up of Stewart and Gee’s Galvanometer

Description of apparatus: The apparatus consists of a thick insulated wire wound on a

circular shaped wooden frame. The frame is fixed to a horizontal support (arms) which is
graduated in centimeters fixed at the middle of the scale. There is a stand to hold the
deflection magnetometer which slides on the horizontal support (arms). The height of the
stand is such that the center of the magnetic needle lies in a horizontal plane passing through
the center of the coil.

Theory: When the coil is placed with its vertical plane in the magnetic meridian, the
direction of the intensity of magnetic field F produced is perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian. Hence on placing the deflection magnetometer at any point on the axial line of the
coil, the field F due to the current and the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field
 ( H = 0.38 oersteds) act in perpendicular directions on the magnetic needle of the
magnetometer and deflects it through an angle .

Formula: The intensity of magnetic field F at any point along the axis of is given by,

oersteds (Oe)

where, r = radius of coil (cm)

n = number of turns in the coil
c = current passing through the coil (A) and
d = distance of the point (magnetometer) from the center of the coil along its axis (cm
Procedure:
1. Set the Stewart and Gee’s Galvanometer with its coil in the magnetic meridian, (Tan-A
position, i.e., the aluminium pointer of the deflection magnetometer should be exactly
parallel to the horizontal support/arms) without connecting the circuit.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. To start with, set the magnetometer at the
centre of the coil (i.e., at 0 cm) and rotate it such that the ends of the aluminium pointer
reads (0, 0) deflection.
3. Close the key K and adjust the rheostat till the magnetometer shows a deflection of about
600. Reverse the current with the commutator and see that the deflections do not differ by
more than 20. If the difference is higher, readjust the setup by bringing the coil into the
magnetic meridian by removing the plug key. When correctly adjusted, the deflections on
reversal of current do not vary much from the deflections before reversal of the current.
4. When the last adjustment appears satisfactory, record deflections before (θ1, θ2) and after
reversal (θ3, θ4) of current by noting both ends of the aluminium pointer and thereby get
four values of deflections. Their mean gives the deflection for d=0 cm.
5. Next remove the plug key and move the magnetometer towards East along the axis of the
coil in steps of 2 cm and readjust the magnetometer such that the aluminium pointer reads
(0, 0) at a time. At each position close the key K and note deflections before and after
reversal of current and find mean deflection .
E

6. Continue the shift towards East until the deflection falls to about 300 (300 < < 600).
Repeat the above process similarly by shifting the magnetometer towards West from the
centre of the coil in steps of 2 cm, each time noting the deflections before and after
reversal of current and find mean deflection . Continue the shift towards West until
w

the deflection falls to about 300 ( 300 < < 600 ).

7. Record the observations as shown below.
Table 1: Magnetometer deflections as a function of distance from the center of the coil.

Distance of Deflections of the Mean Deflections of the Mean

tan E tan w
deflection magnetometer magnetometer
magnetomete towards East of E towards West of w
r from the
the coil E (degree) the coil w (degree)
centre of the
coil d (cm) (degrees) (degrees)

Current Current Current Current

direct reverse direct reversed
d

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

8. Plot a graph with distance d on the x-axis and values of tan E and tan w on the y-axis.

Model Graph
The intensity of magnetic field, F can be expressed as F = A/B, where

A= and B = (r2 + d2)3/2 . Calculate A and B and note down the values of F = A/B
in Table 2.

Table 2: Comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of the magnetic field.

Distance of From Table – 1 F = A/B

F = H tan
magnetometer (degrees) (Oe)
from centre of (Oe)
coil d (cm)
Mean ‘ E’ Mean ‘ =( E+ w )/
w’ 2

Result: The intensity of magnetic field at different points along the axis of the circular coil
carrying current is determined by Stewart and Gee’s galvanometer. The experimental values
(F = H tanθ) and the theoretical values (F = A/B) are given in Table 2.

It is observed that for each distance, values of H tanθ and A/B tally, thus verifying the
formula,

F=
Experiment: 9
VERIFICATION OF FARADAY LAW

OBJECTIVE:
To experimentally verify Faraday's Law, which states that the electromotive force (emf)
induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through
the conductor.

PRINCIPLE:
When a permanent magnet falls with different velocities through a coil, the change in the
magnetic flux (4) generates an induced voltage impulse U. The induced voltage impulse
Up-p is recorded with a voltage probe through a computer interface system Einstein
Labmate. Depending on the polarity of the permanent magnet the induced voltage
impulse is negative or positive.

THEORY:
The changing magnetic field can give rise to an electrical current, a phenomenon we call
electromagnetic induction. The mathematical law that relates the changing magnetic
field to the induced current (or, more accurately, the induced voltage or emf) is called
Faraday's Law.

The magnetic flux through a surface in a magnetic field B is

A conducting loop which has voltage or Current probe attached to it will register a Voltage
or current if the magnetic flux through the loop changes in time. The change may arise from
motion of a magnet.
Faraday noted that the emf induced in a loop is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux though it

where ε is the electromotive force induced (measured in volts) and N is the number of turns
of the coil. Provided each turn of the coil is sized and oriented like the others, its
contribution is simply additive; hence the coefficient N in front of the flux derivative. Notice
the negative sign.

Lenz's Law states that the induced emf (and current) will be in a direction such that the
induced magnetic field opposes the original magnetic flux change. Keep in mind that the
induced current will now produce an induced magnetic field. The direction of that magnetic
field will be opposite to the direction the flux is changing.

In the figure above, we see that the direction of the current changes. Lenz’s Law helps us
determine the DIRECTION of that current.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS:

1. Prepare the Coil: Set up the coil (solenoid) in a stable position on a non-conducting
surface. Ensure the coil is oriented such that its axis is perpendicular to the magnetic
field lines
2. Magnetic Field Setup: Place a permanent magnet near the coil. Ensure the magnet
can be moved smoothly to change its distance from the coil.

.
PROCEDURE

Initial Setup:

● Note the initial position of the magnet relative to the coil

● Record any initial readings.

Inducing Emf:

● For Permanent Magnet Setup:

○ Move the magnet towards or away from the coil at a constant speed.
○ Observe the deflection of the galvanometer needle and note the direction of the
induced current (if observable).
● For Electromagnet Setup:
○ Gradually increase or decrease the current through the electromagnet.
○ Record the corresponding deflections of the galvanometer needle for each current
level.
○ Maintain a constant speed and direction of current changes

Safety Precautions:

● Handle magnets and electromagnets carefully to avoid injury.

 ● Ensure all electrical connections are secure and insulated to prevent short circuits.

Discussion and Conclusion:

● Discuss the results obtained from the experiment in relation to Faraday's Law.
● Explain any observed discrepancies or sources of error.
● Discuss the practical applications of Faraday's Law in devices such as generators and
transformers.
Experiment No: 10

NUMERICAL APERTURE

Aim : To determine the numerical aperture for the given optical fiber.

Apparatus: Optical bench, power source, laser source, optical fiber cable, screen, graph
paper.

Formula:

Numerical aperture
𝐷
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑎 = 2 2
𝐷 +4𝐿

D = average diameter of the spot on the screen (cm)

L = distance from the output end of the optical fiber to the screen. (cm)
θ𝑎 = acceptance angle for the optical fiber (degrees)

Measuring the numerical aperture

Figure 2a: Set-up for measuring numerical aperture

 Figure 2b: Parameters for numerical aperture measurement

Step 1. In the previous setup, replace the photo cell with the screen. Clip a graph sheet to the
screen. Light from the exit end of the optical fiber will illuminate a circular region on
the graph sheet.
Step 2. Place the mounts of the white screen and the output end of the optical fiber at a
distance L from each other. Mark the periphery of the illuminated portion on the graph
sheet. Measure the diameter of the illuminated portion along the horizontal (D1) and
along the vertical (D2). The average diameter is calculated from the readings
𝐷1+𝐷2
𝐷 = 2
.
Step 3. Repeat Step 2 for two more values of L.

Table 1: Measurement of numerical aperture

Sl. No. L D1 D2 D NA θa
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (degrees)
1
2
3

Average value of numerical aperture = ________________________

Result
The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber is _____________________.
Experiment No: 11

LASER LIGHT DIFFRACTION

Aim: To find the wavelength of the laser light using diffraction grating
OR
To determine the number of lines per unit length of the grating.
Apparatus: Diode LASER, diffraction grating, screen, scale and a thin rope.
Formulae:

λ= cm ; N= lines / unit length; sin φ =

where, λ = wavelength of laser light ( 6700 x 10-8 cm )

N = no. of lines in 1 cm length of the grating (lines/cm)
n = order of diffraction
φ = angle of diffraction (degrees)
Yn = Linear separation of different order diffraction maxima’s from central
maxima(cm)
D = Distance between the grating and the screen/wall (cm)

Figure 1: Experimental set-up for laser diffraction

Procedure: Place the grating normal to the laser beam. The various orders of diffracted
images of the laser beam can be directly seen on the screen. Measure the linear separation Yn
and the distance D using scale and thin rope respectively. Repeat the above procedure with
gratings of different number of lines per unit length and tabulate the readings as shown
below.
Table 1: Determination of wavelength of the laser light
S.No. No. of lines in1 cm Linear sin φ = %
length of grating separation error
Yn λ= (cm)
N (or)
(cm)
(lines/cm)

N= (lines/cm)

Result: The wavelength of laser light is determined using diffraction grating and the obtained
values are given in Table 1.