Making Sense of Statistics

Making Sense of Statistics is the ideal introduction to the concepts of descriptive and inferential
statistics for students undertaking their first research project. It presents each statistical concept
in a series of short steps, then uses worked examples and exercises to enable students to apply
their own learning.
It focuses on presenting the why, as well as the how, of statistical concepts, rather than
computations and formulas, so that it is suitable for students from all disciplines regardless of
mathematical background. Only statistical techniques that are almost universally included in
introductory statistics courses and widely reported in journals have been included. Once students
understand and feel comfortable with the statistics that meet these criteria, they should find it
easier to master additional statistical concepts.

New to the Seventh Edition

Retaining the key features and organization that have made this book an indispensable text for
teaching and learning the basic concepts of statistical analysis, this new edition features:
n Discussion of the use of observation in quantitative and qualitative research.
n The inclusion of introductions to the book and to each part.
n Section objectives listed at the beginning of each section to guide the reader.
n New material on key topics such as z scores, probability, central limit theorem, standard
deviation, and simple and multiple regression.
n Expanded discussion on t test with separate chapters for independent and dependent
samples t tests, as well as one-sample t test.
n Progressive analysis of bivariate vs multivariate statistics (starts with the basic concepts
and moves to more complex analysis as the student progresses).
n Updated and extended pedagogical material such as Chapter Objectives, exercises and
examples to test and enhance students’ understanding of the material presented in the
chapter.
n Bolded key terms, with definitions and glossary for quick referral.
n Expanded appendices that include a brief reference list of some common computational
formulas and examples.
n A glossary of key terms has been added at the end of the book, with references to chapters
in parenthesis.
n New online instructor resources for classroom use consisting of test bank questions and
PowerPoint slides, plus material on basic math review.

Dr. Deborah M. Oh is Professor in Research Methods and Statistics at California State

University, Los Angeles since 1998. She earned her Ph.D. from Columbia University, New
York and teaches statistics to a diverse student population at undergraduate, graduate and doctoral
levels.
Making Sense
of Statistics
A Conceptual Overview
Seventh Edition

Fred Pyrczak and Deborah M. Oh

Seventh edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Fred Pyrczak and Deborah M. Oh to be identified
as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pyrczak Publishing 1995
Sixth edition published by Routledge 2016
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this title has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-138-89477-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-89476-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-17980-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman and Trade Gothic

by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/Pyrczak

Contents

Introduction to the Seventh Edition ix

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction: What is Research? 1

Part A: The Research Context 5

1. The Empirical Approach to Knowledge 7

2. Types of Empirical Research 12

3. Scales of Measurement 16

4. Descriptive, Correlational, and Inferential Statistics 21

Part B: Sampling 25
5. Introduction to Sampling 27

6. Variations on Random Sampling 32

7. Sample Size 38

8. Standard Error of the Mean 43

Part C: Descriptive Statistics 49

9. Frequencies, Percentages, and Proportions 51

10. Shapes of Distributions 54

11. The Mean: An Average 59

v
Contents

12. Mean, Median, and Mode 63

13. Range and Interquartile Range 69

14. Standard Deviation 74

15. z Score 79

Part D: Correlational Statistics 83

16. Correlation 85

17. Pearson r 91

18. Scattergram 95

Part E: Inferential Statistics 105

19. Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 107

20. Decisions about the Null Hypothesis 113

Part F: Means Comparison 119

21. Introduction to the t Test 121

22. Independent Samples t Test 128

23. Dependent Samples t Test 134

24. One Sample t Test 139

25. Reports of the Results of t Tests 143

26. One-Way ANOVA 148

27. Two-Way ANOVA 155

Part G: Predictive Significance 163

28. Chi-Square Test 165

29. Limitations of Significance Testing 171

30. Effect Size 177

31. Coefficient of Determination 183

vi
 Contents

32. Multiple Correlation 188

33. Simple and Multiple Regression 193

Appendix A: Computations of the Standard Deviation 199

Appendix B: Notes on Interpreting Pearson r and Linear Regression 204

Appendix C: Table of Random Numbers 206

Appendix D: More about the Null Hypothesis 207

Comprehensive Review Questions 208

Glossary 227
Index 237

vii
Introduction to the
Seventh Edition

Four types of students need a conceptual overview of statistics:

1. Students preparing to be consumers of empirical research who need to understand basic

concepts in order to interpret the statistics reported by others in journals, at conferences,
and in reports prepared by their supervisors and co-workers.

2. Students taking a traditional introductory statistics course who are getting lost in the details
of deriving formulas, computing statistics, and sorting through an overload of theory. For
them, this book is an ideal supplement.

3. Students taking an introductory statistics course in which computers are used for all major
calculations and who need a text that helps them understand the meaning of their output.
For them, this book may be used as the main textbook.

4. Students who have taken a statistics course but need to review essential concepts in
preparation for a subsequent course for which statistics is a prerequisite, or in preparation
for their theses or dissertations.

Coverage
The coverage is selective. To be included in this book, a statistical technique had to be one that
is almost universally included in introductory statistics courses and widely reported in journals.
Once students understand and feel comfortable with the statistics that meet these criteria, they
should find it easier to master additional statistical concepts.

Computations and Formulas

You will find very few formulas and computational procedures described in the body of this
book, only to the extent that these add to your conceptual understanding. We have assumed
that for some students, a noncomputational approach is best for developing an understanding

ix
Introduction to the Seventh Edition

of the meaning of statistics. For students who are becoming consumers of research, this may
be all that is needed. For others, computers can handle the computations; such students need to
know which statistics are available for various purposes and how to interpret them. Some com-
putational formulas have been added to Appendix A in this edition as a resource for further
computational understanding.

Steps in Using this Book

To get the most from this book, follow these steps: (1) read a chapter while ignoring all references
to footnotes and appendices, because these contain information that may distract you as you
master essential concepts; (2) read the chapter again, pausing to read the footnotes and appendices
when you encounter references to them; (3) read the summary statements in the sidebars for
review; and (4) answer the exercise questions at the end of the chapter.
If you have not studied statistics before, you will find that most of the concepts in this
book are entirely new to you. It is not realistic to expect to skim the text once to achieve full
mastery. In addition, pilot tests indicated that students who read each chapter twice before
answering the end-of-chapter questions mastered the concepts more quickly than those who
read it only once. The latter did more “hunting and pecking” through the text to look for answers,
a slow process that does not provide an overview and leads to errors. Thus, you should save
time and achieve greater mastery by following the recommended steps faithfully.
Five multiple-choice items for each chapter of this book are included near the end, in the
Comprehensive Review Questions. While these were designed to help students prepare for
midterm and comprehensive final exams, they may be used at any time during the course when
review is needed.

New to the Seventh Edition

Major changes in the Seventh Edition is the inclusion of introductions to the book and separate
parts. Chapter objectives are listed at the beginning of each chapter to guide the reader.
Expanded appendices include a brief reference list of some common computational formulas
and examples. At the end of the book, a glossary of key terms has been added with references
to chapters in parenthesis.

x
Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Dr. Robert Morman and Dr. Patricia Bates Simun,
California State University, Los Angeles; to Dr. Roger A. Stewart,
University of Wyoming; to Dr. Richard Rasor, American River College;
and to Dr. Matthew Giblin, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale,
for their helpful comments on the various drafts of this book. Errors
and omissions remain the responsibility of the authors.

Fred Pyrczak
Deborah M. Oh

xi
Introduction:
What is Research?

Research involves coming to know something using a scientific method, Research involves
which is a systematic way of acquiring new knowledge. using a scientific
method of acquiring
In life, we make observations based on our own experiences and new knowledge.
draw decisions or conclusions. For example, we might observe that my
dog, Fluffy, barks and jumps at strangers and conclude that all dogs
bark and jump at strangers.
The basic way of knowing something involves observations through
the sensory system: see, smell, taste, hear, and touch. But the sensory
system is not a reliable basis from which to draw conclusions because
it can be misleading and is subjective. What we feel may not be accurate.
The next order of coming to know something is through an agreement
with others. If several people agree that a particular mountain is too
steep to climb, we cannot conclude that the mountain is impossible to
climb. It is hard enough to agree with others, but an agreement or the
majority voice does not always speak the truth.
How about consulting an expert before a decision or conclusion is
made? We can consult an expert, but even trusted sources come
with personal biases. How about logic? Logic has its own limitations.
We know that not all conclusions that seem logical may be right.
This brings us to the most reliable method of gaining new knowledge,
an empirical approach using a scientific method to study a research
problem.
A scientific method of gaining knowledge involves: (1) identifying Scientific method
a problem, (2) formulating hypotheses, (3) determining what informa- involves identifying,
formulating,
tion needs to be collected; (4) organizing the gathered information; then determining,
(5) interpreting the results. Then, based on this new knowledge, the cycle organizing and
repeats again back to identifying a problem based on what we already interpreting.

know, thereby increasing our knowledge over time through repeated

cycles.

1
Introduction: What is Research?

The goal of research is The goal of research then is to know by describing, predicting, and
to know by describing, explaining situations involving human beings using an empirical
predicting, and
explaining situations approach, which is a formal and systematic way of applying these steps
involving human of a scientific method to study a problem.
beings. Research is broadly categorized into quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative research The two categories are similar in that both involve collecting and
uses numerical data to
analyzing data, as well as arriving at conclusions and interpretations.
determine a cause–
effect relationship. Quantitative research uses numerical data to determine a cause and
Qualitative research effect relationship. Qualitative research uses verbal narrative data to
uses verbal narrative describe how things are and what they mean.
data to describe how Here are some examples of various quantitative and qualitative
things are and what
they mean. research questions.

Example 1
About students with ADHD

Quantitative research question: What are the differences in the

number of discipline referrals recorded between boys and girls with
ADHD?

Qualitative research question: What are the social experiences of

students with ADHD in middle school?

Example 2
About first-generation college students:
Quantitative research: What factors best predict first-generation
college students to successfully graduate?

Qualitative research: What challenges do first-generation college

students experience in their first year in college?

Verbal narrative data in a qualitative research would provide in-

depth information and be descriptive in its conclusion, but data analysis
is time-consuming. Numerical data in a quantitative research is easier
to analyze and yields conclusive results. However, much of the in-depth
information is lost in numbers. Despite these advantages and disad-
vantages, both categories of research are useful for various purposes.

2
 Introduction: What is Research?

A typical research study in an outline form includes: Introduction,

where the topic is generally described; Literature Review to describe
what we already know about the topic at hand; Methodology, which
describes the procedure of the study; Results, which reports on the
statistical analyses of the gathered information; then finally, Discussion/
Conclusion, which interprets the statistical results to answer the research
question at hand.
One must understand, however, the limitations of using an empiri-
cal approach to gain knowledge, in that it cannot answer all questions;
not all things can be measureable, especially those of a philosophical,
ethical, emotional, or spiritual nature; what is measurable may not
capture the full depths of the context; and finally, the measurement tools
may be limiting or be in error.
The purpose of this book is to elaborate on statistical concepts
behind possible analytical applications to quantitative data.