Dr.

MANJUNATHA S O,
ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF PHYSICS

Reference Books
1. Concepts of Modern Physics - Arthur
Beiser
2. Engineering Physics - Gaur and Gupta
3. A Text book of Engineering Physics -
M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar

SYLLABUS

MODULE – 2.1 LASER [5 HOURS]

Introduction, characteristics of LASERs, interaction of radiation with matter, expression for energy
density of a system under thermal equilibrium in terms of Einstein’s coefficients, conditions for LASER
action using Einstein’s coefficients, basic requisites of a LASER system, construction and working of He-
Ne LASER. Applications of LASERs: bar code scanner and LASER printer. Problems.

Practical Topics: Wavelength of LASER source, Divergence of LASER beam

Self-study: Basics of LASERs
 Module 2.1- LASERs

LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

• Laser is an artificially generated light source lies in the visible region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• They are the devices that produce intense beams of light by
stimulated emission which are monochromatic, coherent,
directional and highly collimated.
• The production of laser is the consequence of interaction of
radiation with matter, which occurs under appropriate
conditions.
• Because of their unique properties, Lasers’ have found
innumerable applications in various fields.
• The fundamental principles of laser operation are largely
based on quantum mechanics.
Differences’ between the light emitted by conventional sources and LASER sources

Conventional Source LASER source

• Polychromatic • Monochromatic
(Constitute single wavelength)
(Constitute more than one wavelength)
• Highly directional
• Non-directional
(All photons travel in same direction and
(Photons travel in different direction and
exhibit less divergence)
exhibit high divergence)
• Coherent
• Incoherent
(All the photons have same phase and
(The photons will not be in phase with each
frequency)
other)
• High intensity
• Less intensity

There are two types of coherence,

Temporal or Longitudinal coherence
Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation between the value of a wave and itself
delayed by τ, at any pair of times. A beam of laser
is said to exhibit temporal coherence if the phase
difference of the waves crossing the two points
lying on a plane parallel to the direction of the
propagation of beam is independent of time.
Spatial or Transverse coherence
A laser beam is said to possess spatial coherence if the
phase difference of the waves crossing the two points on a
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
beam is time independent. Spatial Coherence is also
termed as transverse or lateral coherence.

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter

Three types of interactions are possible,
1. Stimulated Absorption, 2. Spontaneous Emission, and 3. Stimulated Emission
1. Stimulated Absorption
Absorption is the process in which atom absorbs a photon of right frequency
(𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈) and get excited to the higher energy level.
𝑨 + 𝒉𝝂 → 𝑨∗

The rate of stimulated absorption depends on the density of atoms (N1) in the ground state (E1) and the
photon density, U.
𝑅 ∗12 𝛼 𝑁1 and 𝑅 ∗12 𝛼 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗12 𝛼 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗12 = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 ---------- (1)
Where, N1is density of atoms in energy level E1, 𝑈𝜈 is the photon density and B12 is the Einstein’s
coefficient for stimulated absorption.
2 Spontaneous Emissions

Atom in the excited energy level comes back to the lower energy level
after spending relaxation time (10-8 s) by emitting a photon of energy,
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈.
𝑨∗ → 𝑨 + 𝒉𝝂
The rate of spontaneous emission depends only on the density of atoms (N2) in the higher energy state
(E2)
𝑅21 𝛼 𝑁2
𝑅21 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 ------------- (2)
where, N2 is density of atoms in energy level E2 and A21 is the Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous
emission.
3. Stimulated Emission
When a photon of right frequency is allowed to incident on the atom
in the excited state, the atom is forced to come back to the ground
state (E1) by emitting photon of same energy and frequency.
𝒉𝝂 + 𝑨∗ → 𝑨 + 𝟐𝒉𝝂
The rate of stimulated emission depends on the density of atoms (N2) in the excited state (E2) and the
photon density, 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 𝛼 𝑁2 and 𝑅 ∗ 21 𝛼 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 𝛼 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

𝑅 ∗ 21 = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 -------------- (3)

Where, N2 is density of atoms in energy level E2, 𝑈𝜈 is the photon density and B21 is the Einstein’s
coefficient for stimulated emission.
Boltzmann’s distribution function
• According to Boltzmann’s distribution function, at
thermal equilibrium, the density of atoms in the
lower energy state (N1) will be more compared to that
of density of atoms in the higher energy state (N2),
i.e., 𝑁1 ≫ 𝑁2
• At thermal equilibrium, the ratio of density of atoms
in the lower energy state 𝑁1 to the density of atoms in
the upper energy state (𝑁2 ) is given by
𝑵𝟏 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬𝟏 𝒉𝝂 𝒉𝒄
= 𝒆 𝑲𝑻 = 𝒆𝑲𝑻 = 𝒆𝝀𝑲𝑻
𝑵𝟐

Expression connecting Energy density and Einstein’s coefficients

The rate of stimulated absorption depends on the density of atom (N1) and the photon density, 𝑈𝜈 .
𝑅 ∗12 = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 ------------ (1)
The rate of spontaneous emission depends only on the density of atoms (N2) in the higher energy state
(E2)
𝑅21 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 ------------- (2)
The rate of stimulated emission depends on the density of atoms (N2) in the excited state (E2) and the
photon density, 𝑈𝜈
𝑅 ∗ 21 = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 -------------- (3)
At thermal equilibrium condition for the system,

)
Rate of Absorption ( R 12 = Rate of spontaneous emission ( R21 ) + Rate of stimulated emission ( R*21 )
*

From equations (1), (2) and (3),

𝐵12 𝑁1 𝑈𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈
𝑈𝜈 (𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) = 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝜈 =
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝜈 =
𝐵 𝑁
𝐵21 𝑁2 (𝐵12 𝑁1 − 1)
21 2

𝐴 1
𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵21 [ 𝐵 𝑁 ]------- (4)
21 ( 12 1 − 1)
𝐵21 𝑁2

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

From Boltzmann’s law, the Boltzmann’s factor is

ℎ𝑐
𝑁1
= 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 ----- (5)
𝑁2

Substituting equation (5) in (4),

𝐴 1
𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵21 [ ℎ𝑐 ] ---- (6)
21 𝐵
( 12 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1)
𝐵21

From Planck’s law of radiation, wkt

8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝑈𝜈 = [ ℎ𝑐 ] ---- (7)
𝑐3
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1

Comparing equation (6) and (7)

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 𝐵12
= 3
𝑎𝑛𝑑 =1
𝐵21 𝑐 𝐵21
There fore equation 6 can be written as,
𝐴21
𝑈𝜈 = ℎ𝑐 ---- (8)
𝐵21 (𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1)

Ratio of rate of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission

8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
[ ]
∗
𝑅 21 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝑈𝜈 𝑈𝜈 𝑐3 ℎ𝑐
1 1
= = = 𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1 = =
𝑅21 𝐴21 𝑁2 𝐴21 /𝐵21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 ℎ𝑐 𝑁1
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1 − 1
𝑐3 𝑁2
𝑅 ∗ 21 1 1
= =
𝑅21 ℎ𝑐 𝑁1
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1 𝑁2 − 1
Note:
𝐴 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
• From the equation, 𝐵21 = , we have
21 𝑐3

𝐴21 3
𝐴21 ∆𝐸 3
∝ 𝜈 ⟹ ∝ ( )
𝐵21 𝐵21 ℎ
Therefore, for higher ∆𝐸 values, the probability of spontaneous emission becomes more
significant.
• From equation (8), we have
𝐴21 ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1
𝐵21 𝑈𝜈
𝐴21
i. If ℎ𝜈 ≫ 𝐾𝑇, then the is a large positive value. Therefore, 𝐴21 ≫ 𝐵21. Hence
𝐵21 𝑈𝜈
probability of spontaneous emission will be significant.
𝐴21
ii. If ℎ𝜈 ≪ 𝐾𝑇, then the 𝐵21 𝑈𝜈
is a small positive value. Therefore, 𝐵21 ≫ 𝐴21 . Hence
probability of stimulated emission will be significant.

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

Conditions for LASER production

i. Meta Stable State
Definition: It is the energy state in which the excited atoms remains for longer time 10-3 to 10-2 s
compare to the normal excited state with life time  10-8s.
• Therefore the atoms get sufficient time to interact with the photons and de-excite to lower
energy level by stimulated emission.
ii. Population Inversion
Definition: It is the state of the system at which the number density of atoms in higher energy level
(N2) is greater than that of the lower energy level (N1).
Or
Definition: It is the condition of having 𝑁2 ≫ 𝑁1 .
Note: Population inversion is sustainable only when the system has metastable state.
Requisites of a LASER system:
i. Energy source for Pumping:
Pumping is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level.
ii. Active Medium:
The medium which when excited achieves population inversion. It may be a solid, Liquid or
gas.
iii. Resonating cavity/Optical cavity - This cavity is used to amplify the laser beam.
• The resonating cavity consists of two mirrors, one
fully (100%) reflecting and the other partially
reflecting (<100%), placed parallel to each other
outside the resonating cavity.
𝒏𝝀
• The length of the cavity is given by the equation𝑳 = 𝟐𝝁
where L is length of the cavity, 𝝀 is the wavelength of
the beam, n is the number of possible modes inside the
cavity and 𝝁 is the refractive index of the medium.
He-Ne laser
Schematic diagram

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

Energy level diagram

Construction

i. The He-Ne laser consists of a discharge tube of length 1 m and diameter 5 mm.
ii. The discharge tube is filled with He and Ne gas in the ratio 10:1.
iii. The two ends of the discharge tube are fitted with Brewster’s window.
iv. Two mirrors placed outside the discharge tube forms resonating cavity.
v. The tube is fitted with high voltage battery to create electric discharge.
Active Medium

i. A mixture of He and Ne gases at partial pressure of 1mm and 0.1mm, respectively is the active
medium.
ii. Ne is the lasing atom and He is used to pump the Ne atom to the excited state.
Pumping
This is a two stage process in He-Ne lasers.
i. Electric discharge passed through the gaseous mixture by applying a high voltage excites He
atom.
ii. He atom collides with Ne atom and excites it to higher energy through atomic collision.
Working
i. Electric discharge produces electrons (e-) with high kinetic energy moving inside the tube.
ii. He atoms are raised from ground state (1s) to excited state (2s) by collisions with electron
moving with high KE
e- (High KE) + He → He* + e-(Low KE)
iii. Excited He atom collide with Ne atoms and transfer Ne atom to 5s and 4s excited levels.
He* + Ne (ground) + KE of He → Ne*+He
iv. Population inversion occurs between 5s & 4p, 5s & 3p and 4s & 3p. The corresponding
transitions are
5s to 4p → 3.39 µm
5s to 3p→ 632.8 nm
4s to 3p → 1.15 µm

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

v. Ne atom decays to 3s level by spontaneous emission and decay to ground state by colliding with
the walls of the discharge tube.
vi. The wavelength of 632.8 nm is selectively amplified by adjusting the distance between the
mirrors.
vii. The photons moving parallel to the axial direction are reflected back and forth between the
mirrors until sufficient intensity is built to transmit from partially reflecting mirror.
viii. The output is the plane polarized and continuous laser of wavelength 632.8 nm.
Applications of LASER
1. LASER Bar Code Scanner:

• Bar Code: A machine-readable code in the form of

numbers and a pattern of parallel lines of varying widths,
printed on a commodity.
• They are used to encode information in a visual pattern
readable by a machine. Barcodes are used for a variety of
reasons including tracking products, prices, and stock
levels for centralized recording in a computer software
system.
Working:

• A barcode reader works by directing a beam of

light across the barcode and measuring the
amount and pattern of the light that is
reflected.
• The scanner converts the light energy into
electrical energy, which is then converted into
data by the decoder and forwarded to a
computer.
Components of Bar Code Scanner:
It usually consists of three different parts, i. Illumination system, ii. Photo Sensor, and iii. Decoder.
i. Illumination system: Uniformly illuminates the black and white elements of a barcode with a
red light.
ii. Photo Sensor: It measures the amount and pattern of the light that is reflected and generates an
analog signal that is sent to the decoder.
iii. Decoder: It converts the signal to digital form (binary form) and interprets the signal, validates
the barcode using the check digit, and converts it into text. This converted text is delivered by the
scanner to a computer software system holding a database of the maker, cost, and quantity of all
products sold.

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

2. LASER PRINTER:

It is the electro-photographic process that involves the following processes

i. Charging Drum: A primary charge roller (PCR), uniformly applies the negative charge to the
organic photoconductor (OPC) drum which is capable of holding an electrostatic charge on its
surface while it is in the dark. Now the photoconductor drum is ready for the imaging process.
ii. Exposing: The OPC drum is exposed to a laser beam, through a system of lenses and mirrors,
forming the image of information to be printed.
➢ The area exposed to the LASER is more positively charged than the area not exposed to the
LASER
iii. Developing:
➢ As the drums rotate, toner (powder mixed with carbon black or coloring agents) is continuously
applied in a 15-micron-thick layer to the OPC roll.
➢ The toner particles are given a negative charge inside the toner cartridge, and as they emerge
onto the developer drum, they are electrostatically attracted to the OPC drum.
iv. Transferring: A sheet of paper is then rolled under the photoreceptor drum, which has been coated
with a pattern of toner particles.
v. Fusing: The paper passes through rollers in the fuser assembly under specified temperatures and
pressure are used to permanently bond the toner to the paper.

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

Problems
Formula Constant
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑘𝑏 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

P1. A photon of wavelength 400 nm is emitted 𝑁1

= 1.075 × 1030
when an atom in an excited state transits 𝑁2
to ground state. Calculate the energy and 𝑁2
= 9.302 × 10−31
momentum of the photon. 𝑁1

P4. The radiation of wavelength 1.5 µm is

emitted at 350K for a system. Calculate the
(i) ratio of Einstein coefficients and (ii)
ratio of rate of stimulated emission to
spontaneous emission.
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 8𝜋ℎ
(i) = = = 4.93 × 10−15
𝐵21 𝑐3 𝜆3
𝑅 ∗ 21 1
(ii) = ℎ𝑐 = 1.19 × 10−12
𝑅21
𝑒 𝜆𝐾𝑇 − 1

P2. Calculate the number of photons, from P5. The wavelength of emission is 600 nm and
green light of mercury (λ = 4961 Å) the Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous
required to do one joule of work. emission is 106 /s. Determine the coefficient
for the stimulated emission.

P3. Find the ratio of population of two energy

levels in a medium in thermal equilibrium,
if the transition between them produces
light of wavelength 694.3nm at 300K.
𝑁1 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
= 𝑒 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑒 69.15
𝑁2

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE
 Module 2.1- LASERs

Question Bank

Marks
Question
(Approximate)

Expand LASER acronym and mention its characteristic properties. 3

Explain three pre-requirements for the generation of LASER light. 3

Discuss the conditions for LASER action. 5

Explain the interactions of radiation with matter. 6

Explain spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation. 4

Obtain the expression for energy density of radiation under thermal equilibrium condition in
6
terms of Einstein coefficient.

Discuss the construction and working of He-Ne LASER with the help of an energy level
8
diagram.

Discuss the working of LASER barcode scanner 6

Discuss the working of LASER printer 6

Calculate the number ratio of for a system at 400 K in which radiations of wavelength 2µm
4
are emitted

Calculate and compare the wavelength of radiation emitted from germanium and GaAs
4
semiconductors having bandgap energies 0.8 eV and 1.44 eV respectively.

An excited atom has life time of 10-8 Seconds. During this period, it emits a photon and
4
returns to the ground state. What is the minimum uncertainty in the frequency of this photon?

A pulse from LASER with power 1 mW last for 10 ns. If the number of photons emitted per
4
second is 3.491×107, calculate the wavelength of LASER.

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DEPT. OF PHYSICS, BMSCE