WORKBOOK IN

COLLEGE AND
ADVANCED ALGEBRA
. First Edition

Maria Antonieta A. Bacabac

Rosie G. Tan
Heidemae R. Tabor
Authors
Workbook in College and Advanced Algebra

Maria Antonieta A. Bacabac, Ph.D.

Rosie G. Tan, Ph.D.
Heidemae R. Tabor, MST-Math

August 2022
Contents
Preface iv

0 The Real Number System 1

0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.2 Set of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.3 The Number Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.4 Order of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.5 Properties of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.6 Evaluating and Simplifying Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1 Linear Equations in One Variable 12

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Applications of Linear Equations in One Variable 16

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Exercises 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Steps in Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Exercises 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Quadratic Equations in 1 Variable 24

3.1 Prior Knowledge Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.1 Factoring Guidelines Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.2 Square root Property Guidelines Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.3 Completing the square Guidelines Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.4 Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4 Applications of Quadratic Equation 33

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Solving Application Problems Involving Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.1 Number Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.2 Geometry Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.3 Work Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5 Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables 37

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Solutions of Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Methods of Solving Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3.1 By Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3.2 By Algebraic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

i
ii CONTENTS

5.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

6 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables 44

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 Solve Application Problems Involving Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables 44
6.2.1 Number Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.2 Geometry Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

7 Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables and Its Application 49

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

8 Linear Inequality and Its Application 57

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.2 Solving Linear Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.2.1 Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.3 Interval Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4 Exercises 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.5 Applications of Linear Inequality in One Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.5.1 Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6 Exercises 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

9 Quadratic Inequalities 64
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

10 Rational Inequalities 68
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
10.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

11 Introduction to Function and

Its Operation 72
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
11.2 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.2.1 Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11.3 Function Notation, Operations on Functions, and Types of Functions . . . . . . . 75
11.3.1 Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
11.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

12 Quadratic Functions 82
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.3 Derivation of the Standard Form of the Quadratic
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
12.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
CONTENTS iii

13 Inverse Functions 88
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.2 Verifying That Two Functions are Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.2.1 Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13.3 Finding Domain and Range of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.3.1 Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

14 Exponential Functions and Equations 93

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.2 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.2.1 Identifying Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
14.2.2 Defining an Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
14.2.3 Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
14.2.4 Evaluating Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
14.2.5 Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14.2.6 Graphing Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14.3 Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.3.1 Examples 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

15 Logarithmic Functions and Equations 102

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.2 Converting from Logarithmic to Exponential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.2.1 Examples 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.3 Converting from Exponential to Logarithmic Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.3.1 Examples 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.4 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
15.4.1 Characteristics of the Graph of the Parent function f (x) = logb (x) . . . . 106
15.5 Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
15.5.1 Examples 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
15.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Bibliography 109
Preface
This workbook is the product of a collaborative effort of dedicated authors. It is an instructional
material for the course Math 111f – College and Advanced Algebra. The course Math 111f is
a major course designed to train and equip BSEd major in Mathematics students in teaching
Algebra for Junior High School (JHS) and Senior High School (SHS). The contents of the course
cover the fundamental concepts in Algebra such as inequalities, linear equations, quadratic equa-
tions, systems of linear equations, logarithmic equations, exponential equations, and functions
along with their graphs.

This workbook serves as the primary resource material for the said major course. As a resource
material, it contains the necessary content of the course, practice exercises, and assessment. It
follows the content stipulated in the Course Syllabus for Math 111f.

This workbook has been created for students to be able to apply a variety of algebraic tech-
niques in solving real-life problems.

iv
Lesson 0

The Real Number System

Intended Learning Outcomes

ˆ Classify a real number as a natural, whole, integer, rational, or irrational number.

ˆ Perform calculations using order of operations.

ˆ Use the properties of real numbers

ˆ Evaluate and simplify algebraic expressions.

0.1 Introduction
The earliest use of numbers occurred 100 centuries ago in the Middle East to count, or enumerate
items. Doing so made commerce possible, leading to improved communications and the spread
of civilization.

Three to four thousand years ago, Egyptians introduced fractions. They first used them to
show reciprocals. Later, they used them to represent the amount when a quantity was divided
into equal parts.

In indicating the existence of nothing, people from the earliest times thought of a “base state”
while counting and used various symbols to represent this null condition. However, it was not
until about the fifth century A.D. in India that zero was added to the number system and used
as a numeral in calculations.

In India, in the seventh century A.D., negative numbers were used as solutions to mathematical
equations and commercial debts. The opposites of the counting numbers expanded the number
system even further.

Because of the evolution of the number system, we can now perform complex calculations using
these and other categories of real numbers.

Definition 0.1.1 Real Numbers

Real numbers can be defined as the union of both rational and irrational
numbers. They can be either positive, negative, or zero and are denoted
by the symbol “R”.

In general, all the arithmetic operations can be performed on these numbers and they can be
also represented in the number line. At the same time, the imaginary numbers are the un-real
numbers, which cannot be expressed in the number line and is commonly used to represent a
complex number. See figure 0.1, given below, which shows the classification of real numerals.

1
2 LESSON 0. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Figure 0.1

0.2 Set of Real Numbers

The set of real numbers consists of different categories, such as natural and whole numbers,
integers, rational and irrational numbers as shown in figure 0.1. In the table given below, the
classification of real numbers are defined with examples.

Category Definition Example

Natural Numbers Contain all counting numbers which All numbers such as
start from 1. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,...

Set-builder description:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4,...}
Whole Numbers Collection of zero and natural number. All numbers including 0 such as
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,...
Set-builder description:
W = {0, 1, 2, 3,...}
Integers The collective result of whole numbers Includes:
and negative of all natural numbers. ...,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,...

Set-builder description:
Z = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,...}
0.3. THE NUMBER LINE 3

Rational Numbers Numbers that can be written Examples of rational numbers

in the form of pq , where q ̸= 0. are 13 , 34 , 15
3 , etc.

Set-builder description:
Q = { pq | p, q ∈ Z and q ̸= 0
or
Q = {x | x possesses a repeating or
terminating decimal representation.}
Irrational Numbers The numbers which are not Examples
√ of irrational numbers
rational and cannot be written are 2, π, etc.
in the form of pq .
√
Set-builder description: 2=1.414...
P = {x | x is a non-rational π=3.14...
real number.} e=2.718...
or
P = {x | x possesses a non-repeating
and non-terminating decimal
representation.}

0.3 The Number Line

Given any number n, we know that n is either rational or irrational. It cannot be both. The sets
of rational and irrational numbers together make up the set of real numbers. As we saw with
integers, the real numbers can be divided into three subsets: negative real numbers, zero, and
positive real numbers. Each subset includes fractions, decimals, and irrational numbers accord-
ing to their algebraic sign (+ or −). Zero is considered neither positive nor negative.

The real numbers can be visualized on a horizontal number line with an arbitrary point chosen
as 0, with negative numbers to the left of 0 and positive numbers to the right of 0. A fixed unit
distance is then used to mark off each integer (or other basic value) on either side of 0. Any real
number corresponds to a unique position on the number line.

The converse is also true: Each location on the number line corresponds to exactly one real
number. This is known as a one-to-one correspondence. We refer to this as the real number line
as shown in figure 0.2.

Figure 0.2

0.4 Order of Operations

To evaluate a mathematical expression, we perform various operations. However, we do not
perform them in any random order. Operations in mathematical expressions must be evaluated
in a systematic order, which can be simplified using the acronym
PEMDAS:
4 LESSON 0. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

P(arentheses)
E(xponents)
M(ultiplication) and D(ivision)
A(ddition) and S(ubtraction)

How to:
Given a mathematical expression, simplify it using the order of operations.
1. Simplify any expressions within grouping symbols.
2. Simplify any expressions containing exponents or radicals.
3. Perform any multiplication or/and division in order, from left to right.

4. Perform any addition or/and subtraction in order, from left to right.

0.5 Properties of Real Numbers

The following are the five properties of real numbers:

ˆ Commutative property

ˆ Associative property

ˆ Distributive property

ˆ Identity property

ˆ Inverse property

Consider a, b and c are three real numbers. Then the above properties can be described using
a, b, and c as shown below:

A. Commutative Properties

ˆ Commutative Property of Addition: It states numbers may be added in any order

without affecting the sum.

a+b=b+a

Example: (−3) + 5 = 2 and 5 + (−3) = 2

ˆ Commutative Property of Multiplication: It states that numbers may be multiplied

in any order without affecting the product.

a·b=b·a

Example: (−10) · (−3) = 30 and (−3) · (−10) = 30

0.5. PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS 5

Note:
Subtraction and Division are not commutative.
Examples:
18–2 = 16 is not equal to 2 − 18 = −16
25 ÷ 5 is not equal to 5 ÷ 25

B. Associative Properties
ˆ Associative Property of Multiplication: It tells us that it does not matter how we
group numbers when multiplying. We can move the grouping symbols to make the calcu-
lation easier, and the product remains the same.
a(bc) = (ab)c

Example: 3 · (4 · 2) = 24 and (3 · 4) · 2 = 24
ˆ Associative Property of Addition: It tells us that numbers may be grouped differently
without affecting the sum.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

Example: 7 + (4 + 5) = 16 and (7 + 4) + 5 = 16

Note:
Subtraction and Division are not associative
Examples: 5–(3 − 2) = 4 is not equal to (5 − 3)–2 = 0
30 ÷ (10 ÷2)=6 is not equal to (30 ÷10) ÷ 2 = 23

C. Distributive Properties
ˆ Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition: It states that the product
of a factor times a sum is the sum of the factor times each term in the sum.
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
This property combines both addition and multiplication.

Example: Simplify 2[3 + (−1)].

Solution:
2[3 + (−1)] = 6 + (−2) = 4

ˆ Distributive Property of Multiplication over Subtraction: It states that the prod-

uct of a factor times a difference is the difference of the factor times each term in the
difference.
a · (b − c) = a · b − a · c
This property combines both subtraction and multiplication.

Example: Simplify 2[3 − (−1)].

Solution:
2[3 − (−1)] = 6 − (−2) = 8
6 LESSON 0. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Note:
Division distributes over neither addition nor subtraction.

D. Identity Properties

ˆ Identity Property of Addition: It states that there is a unique number, called the
additive identity (0) that, when added to a number, results in the original number.

a+0=a

Example: 5 + 0 = 5

ˆ Identity Property of Multiplication: It states that there is a unique number, called

the multiplicative identity (1) that, when multiplied by a number, results in the original
number.
a·1=a

Example: 6 · 1 = 6

E. Inverse Property

ˆ Inverse Property of Addition: It states that, for every real number a, there is a unique
number, called the additive inverse (or opposite), denoted −a, that, when added to the
original number, results in the additive identity, 0.

a + (−a) = 0

Example: 8 + (−8) = 0

ˆ Inverse Property of Multiplication: It holds for all real numbers except 0 because the
reciprocal of 0 is not defined. The property states that, for every non-zero real number a,
there is a unique number, called the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal), denoted by a1 ,
that, when multiplied by the original number, results in the multiplicative identity, 1.
1
a· =1
a

2 9
Example: 9 · 2 =1

0.6 Evaluating and Simplifying Algebraic Expressions

We have dealt with real numbers in the√ previous sections. In mathematics, we will also be dealing
with expressions like x + 2, πr2 or 9m4 n2 . In the expression x + 2, 2 is called a constant
because it does not vary and x is called a variable because it does. An algebraic expression
is a collection of constants and variables joined together by the algebraic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
0.7. EXAMPLES 7

Any variable in an algebraic expression may take on or be assigned different values. When
that happens, the value of the algebraic expression changes. To evaluate an algebraic expression
means to determine the value of the expression for a given value of each variable in the expres-
sion.

How to:
Evaluating Algebraic Expression
1. Replace each variable in the expression with the given value.
2. Simplify the resulting expression using the order of operations.

An equation like x + 2 = 5 is a mathematical statement indicating that two expressions are

equal. The expressions can be numerical or algebraic. The equation is not inherently true or
false, but only a proposition. The values that make the equation true, the solutions, are found
using the properties of real numbers and other results. For example, the equation x + 2 = 5 has
the unique solution x = 3 because when we substitute 3 for x in the equation, we obtain the true
statement (3) + 2 = 5.

A formula is an equation expressing a relationship between constant and variable quantities.

Very often the equation is a means of finding the value of one quantity (often a single variable)
in terms of another or other quantities. One of the most common examples is the formula for
finding the area A of a circle in terms of the radius r of the circle:A = πr2 . For any value of r,
the area A can be found by evaluating the expression πr2 .

Sometimes we can simplify an algebraic expression to make it easier to evaluate or to use in

some other way. To do so, we use the properties of real numbers. We can use the same proper-
ties in formulas because they contain algebraic expressions.

0.7 Examples
A. Classifying Numbers
Example 0.5.1: Classify each number as being a natural number (N), whole number (W),
integer (I), rational number (Q), and/or irrational number (P).

1. − 35
7

2. 0
√
3. 169
√
4. 24
5. 4.763763763. . .
8 LESSON 0. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Solution:
Natural No. Whole No. Integer Rational No. Irrational No.
− 35
7 ✓ ✓
0
√ ✓ ✓ ✓
√169 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
24 ✓
4.763763763. . . ✓
B. Performing Calculations Using Order of Operations
Example 0.5.2: Use the order of operations to evaluate each of the following expressions.
2
1. (3 · 2) −4(6 + 2)
Solution:

2
(3 · 2) − 4(6 + 2) = 62 − 4(8)
= 36 − 4(8)
= 36 − 32
= 4
14−(3·2)
2. 2·5−32
Solution:

14 − (3 · 2) 14 − 6
=
2 · 5 − 32 2·5−9
8
=
10 − 9
8
=
1
= 8

3. 7 (5 · 3) - 2 [(6-3)-42 ] +1
Solution:

7(5 · 3) − 2[(6 − 3) − 42 ] + 1 = 7(15) − 2(3 − 16) + 1

= 105 − 2(−13) + 1
= 105 + 26 + 1
= 132

C. Using properties of Real Numbers

Example 0.5.3: Use the properties of real numbers to rewrite and simplify each expression.
State which properties apply.
1. 2 · 4 + 2 · 5
Solution:

2·4+2·5 = 2(4 + 5) Distributive Property

= 2(9)
= 18
0.7. EXAMPLES 9

2. (6 + 5) + (−5)
Solution:

(6 + 5) + (−5) = 6 + [5 + (−5)] Associative Property

= 6+0 Inverse Property of Addition
= 6 Identity Property of Addition
2
3. 3 · ( 14 · 32 )
Solution:

2 1 3 2 3 1
·( · ) = · ( · ) Commutative Property of Multiplication
3 4 2 3 2 4
2 3 1
= ( · )· Associative Property of multiplication
3 2 4
1
= 1· Inverse property of multiplication
4
1
= Identity property of multiplication
4
4. 6 ÷ 2 + 5 · (−2)
Solution:

6 ÷ 2 + 5 · (−2) = 3 + 5 · (−2)
= 3 − 10
= −7

5. 10 ÷ 5 · 2
Solution:

10 ÷ 5 · 2 = 2·2
= 4

6. 10 ÷ (5 · 2)
Solution:

10 ÷ (5 · 2) = 10 ÷ 10
= 1

D. Evaluating and Simplifying Algebraic Expressions

Example 0.5.4: Evaluate the expression 3x − 5 for each value for x.
1. x = 0
Solution:
Substitute 0 for x.
3x − 5 = 3(0) − 5
= 0−5
= −5
10 LESSON 0. THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

2. x = 1
Solution:
Substitute 1 for x.

3x − 5 = 3(1) − 5
= 3−5
= −2

3. x = 21
Solution:
1
Substitute 2 for x.

1
3x − 5 = 3( ) − 5
2
3
= −5
2
7
= −
2

0.8 Exercises
A. Classify each number as being a natural number (N), whole number (W), integer (I),
rational number (Q), and/or irrational number (P).
2
1. 3
3
2. − 15

3. 0
√
4. 121
√
5. 71

6. e

7. −4

8. 0.25

9. 3.2121121112. . .

10. 1.75

B. Use the order of operations to evaluate each of the following expressions.

√ 2
1. 52 − 42 + 3(7 − 4)
4·5−3·6
2. 2 + 9−7
√
3. | 2.6 - 5.1 | + 0.4 16 + 20
1 4
4. 3 [5 · 72 - 32 ] + 3 · 82
0.8. EXERCISES 11

5. (2 − 6)2 − 5 −(2 − 7)

C. Use the properties of real numbers to rewrite and simplify each expression. State which
properties apply.

1. (- 23
5 ) · (11 ·
5
23 )

2. 5 · (6.2 + 0.4)
3. 18 − (7 − 15)
17
4. 18 + [ 49 + (- 17
18 )]

5. 6 · (−3) +6 · 3

D. Evaluate the expression 4x − 7 for each value for x.

1. x = −2
2. x = −1

3. x = 0
1
4. x = 2
1
5. x = 4
Lesson 1

Linear Equations in One Variable

Intended Learning Outcome

ˆ Find the solution set of the given linear equations.

1.1 Introduction
Judy is an incoming college student planning to enrol in the first semester. To earn enough
money for her tuition, she has taken a part-time job at a fast food chain that pays 390.00ph-
p/day, and she opened a savings account with an initial deposit of 100.00php on April 1. She
arranged for direct deposit of her payroll checks. If school begins June 6 and the tuition for the
first semester will cost approximately 9,460.00php, how many days will she have to work to earn
enough to pay for her tuition upon enrolment? If she can only work 3 days per week, how many
weeks per month will she have to work? How many months will it take? In this lesson, problems
like this and others will be investigated.

Here are some of the important concepts.

ˆ Algebraic Equation in variable x is a statement that two algebraic expressions in x are
equal.

ˆ The variable in an equation is sometimes called an unknown.

ˆ A solution (or root) – a value that satisfies the given equation.

ˆ Solution set is the set of all solutions.

Definition 1.1.1 Linear Equation in One Variable

An equation of the form ax + b = 0 where a, b are real numbers and
a ̸= 0, or any equivalent to an equation of this form.

The simplest forms of equations are linear equations, in which the unknown variable appears
only in first-degree terms. To solve linear equations, the following are the steps:

a Simplify each side by removing grouping symbols and combining like terms.

b Isolate the term containing the variable on the left side of the equation and the constants
at the right side of the equation.

c Reduce the coefficient of the variable to one. Read off the solution from the right side of
the equation.

d Check the answer obtained by substituting into the original equation.

12
1.2. EXAMPLES 13

1.2 Examples
Example 1.2.1: Solve for x.

Given: 4(3 − 2x) = 2(x − 4)

Solution:

4(3 − 2x) = 2(x − 4)

12 − 8x = 2x − 8 Apply Distributive Property
−10x = −20 Simplify or Combine like terms
−10x −20
= Divide both sides by −10
−10 −10
x = 2 Simplify

Checking:

4(3 − 2x) = 2(x − 4)

4(3 − 2(2)) = 2(2 − 4)
4(−1) = 2(−2)
−4 = −4

Solution set: {2}

Example 1.2.2: Solve for x

Given: 4x + 2 = 4x − 3
Solution:

4x + 2 = 4x − 3
4x − 4x = −3 − 2 Simplify/Combine like terms
0 = −5 This is a contradiction.

The last equation is a contradiction, so no real values of x will satisfy the equation.
Solution set: {} or ∅

Example 1.2.3: Solve for x

Given: 3x − 2 + x = 4(x + 1) − 6
Solution:

3x − 2 + x = 4(x + 1) − 6
3x − 2 + x = 4x + 4 − 6 Simplify/Combine like terms
4x − 4x = −2 + 2
0 = 0

Since the last equation is true for all values of x, the equation has at least one solution.
Solution set: R or {x| x ∈ R } or (−∞,∞)
14 LESSON 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Example 1.2.4: Solve for y

3 4
Given: y+4 = 3y+2
Solution:
3 4
=
y+4 3y + 2
3(3y + 2) = 4(y + 4) cross multiply
9y + 6 = 4y + 16 simplify
9y − 4y = 16 − 6 combine like terms
5y = 10 simplify
5y 10
= divide both sides by 5
5 5
y = 2

Solution set: {2}

Remarks: Equations can be placed into categories that depend on their solution sets:
a An equation that is true for all real numbers for which both sides are defined is called an
Identity.
b An equation that is not an identity but is true for at least one real number is called a
Conditional Equation.
c An Inconsistent Equation is an equation that is not true for any real number. Hence,
no solution.

1.3 Exercises
Directions: Find the solution set of the given linear equations. Show your complete and neat
solutions.
1. 7x + 4 = 25
2. 4w − 3 = 11 − 3w
3. 2(t − 5) = 3 − (4 + t)
4. 7 = y + 10
5. x − 9 = 3x + 3
6. 1 − 3(2x − 4) = 4(6 − x) − 8
7. x = x + 1
8. −2[x − 5(5 − 4x)] + 4 = −3x
9. 3(4y + 9) = 7(2 − 5y) − 2y
10. x + 3 = 1 + x + 2
5x 1 1
11. 4 + 2 =2x− 2
1.3. EXERCISES 15

3x2 +4 3
12. x3 +8 = x+2

3 2
13. x+4 = 3x−2

2 5
14. 3x−4 = 6x−7

3 1 2
15. 8 + 2x = x
3x−2 x−3 5
16. 3 + 2 =6
5 1 3
17. 2y − y = 4

1 3
18. 4−t + 6+t = 0
3 7 4
19. x2 −9 − x−3 = − x+3
y+3 y−3 5
20. y−2 −4 y+2 = y 2 −4
Lesson 2

Applications of Linear Equations

in One Variable
Intended Learning Outcome
ˆ Solve problems involving linear equations in one variable.

2.1 Introduction
Problems in Algebra told in a story form are called verbal problems or word problems. Our
knowledge of equations can be used to solve such problems.

In general, solving word problems is different from solving a given equation. Given an equation,
the problem is usually to find the value of the unknown variable/s. In a given word problem,
there is no given equation. The equation must be set up by the problem solver based on his or
her understanding of the problem. This is often the most difficult part encountered by students
in solving verbal problems.

To be able to write the correct equations, one must know how to translate words or group
of words into mathematical symbols.

Activity 1: Directions: Based on your prior knowledge of this lesson during your Senior High
School, translate each of the following phrases into a mathematical expression. Use as few
variables as possible.
a The sum of a number and 7
b The product of two numbers

c The product of a number and −1

d Three times the sum of two numbers
e One-half of a number

f Nine more than a number

g A number, plus nine
h Eleven less than a number
i A number, less eleven

j The square of a number

k Four times the square of a number
l One-eighth of a number

16
2.2. EXAMPLES 1 17

m Three less than twice a number

n Five more than four times a number

o The sum of three consecutive even numbers.

Here are the words that indicate certain mathematical operations.

Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Equals

increased by, decreased by, of, times, per, out of, ratio of is, are, was,
more than, minus, less, multiplied by, quotient of, were, will be
combined, difference between/of, product of, percent (divide by 100), gives,
together, less than, increased/decreased equal pieces, yields,
total of, sum, fewer than, by a factor of, split, sold for
plus, left, left over, twice, triple, etc. average cost
added to after each

2.2 Examples 1
Direction:Translate the following sentences into an algebraic equation.

Example 2.2.1: The sum of 6 and 9 is 15.

Illustration:

Solution/Equation: 6 + 9 = 15

Example 2.2.2: Four times the difference of a number and 5 gives 39.

Illustrations:

Solution/Equation: 4(x − 5) = 39
18 LESSON 2. APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

2.3 Exercises 1
Direction: Translate the following sentences into an algebraic equation.

1. The sum of two numbers is 25.

2. The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 51.
3. The sum of two consecutive even integers is 126.
4. The perimeter of a triangle whose sides are consecutive odd numbers is 45?
5. The perimeter of a rectangle whose length is 5 more than the width.

2.4 Steps in Problem Solving

Applying the concepts of linear equations in solving application problems. You may use Polya’s
method of problem solving.

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem. If you are unclear as
to what needs to be solved, then you are probably going to get the wrong results.
In order to show an understanding of the problem, you, of course, need to read the
problem carefully. Sounds simple enough, but some people jump the gun and try
to start solving the problem before they have read the whole problem. Once the
problem is read, you need to list all the components and data that are involved. This
is where you will be assigning your variable.
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).
When you devise a plan (translate), you come up with a way to solve the problem.
Setting up an equation, drawing a diagram, and making a chart are all ways that you
can go about solving your problem.
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).
The next step, carry out the plan (solve), is big. This is where you solve the
equation you came up with in your ’devise a plan’ step.
Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).
You may be familiar with the expression ”don’t look back”. In problem solving it is
good to look back (check and interpret). Basically, check to see if you used all
your information and that the answer makes sense. If your answer does check out,
make sure that you write your final answer with the correct labeling.
2.5. EXAMPLES 2 19

2.5 Examples 2
A. Number or Integer Problem
Example 2.5.1: If five times a number plus thrice the number is 104, what is the number?
Solution:
Step 1. Understand the Problem.
The problem is an integer problem. We want to find a number such that if we add
fives times the number and thrice the number, the answer is 104. We let x represent
the number.

Step 2. Devise a Plan.

Since x represents the number, the phrases “five times the number” and “thrice the
number” are translated as 5x and 3x, respectively. Therefore, the equation is given
by 5x + 3x = 104.

Step 3. Carry Out the Plan.

We next solve for x in the given equation. Thus,
5x + 3x = 104
8x = 104
x = 13

Step 4. Look Back.

We check if our answer satisfies the condition stated in the problem. Since x = 13,
5x = 65 and 3x = 39. Note that 65 + 39 = 104. We therefore say that our solution
is correct.
5x + 3x = 104
5(13) + 3(13) = 104
65 + 39 = 104
104 = 104

Therefore, the number we are looking for is 13.

Example 2.5.2: When 6 times a number is increased by 4, the result is 40. Find the number.
Solution:
Step 1. Understand the problem.
The problem is an integer problem. We want to find a number such when 6 times a
number is increased by 4, the result is 40. Let x stand for the number.

Step 2. Devise a Plan.

Equation: 6x + 4 = 40

Step 3. Carry Out the Plan.

Solve: 6x + 4 = 40
20 LESSON 2. APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

6x + 4 = 40
6x − 4 = 40 − 4 subtracting 4 from each side
6x = 36
6x 36
= dividing both sides by 6
6 6
x = 6
Step 4. Look Back.
Checking:
6x + 4 = 40
6(6) + 4 = 40
36 + 4 = 40
40 = 40

Therefore, the number is 6.

The left hand member of the equation is equal to the right hand member of the
equation. This means your answer is correct.
B. Consecutive Integers
Another type of number problem involves consecutive integers.

Definition 2.5.1 Consecutive Integers

Consecutive integers are integers that come one after the other, such
as · · · 3,4,5,· · · and so on (or equivalenty · · · ,-5,-4,-3, · · · ).

Two integers a and b are said to be consecutive if b = a + 1.

ˆ If we are trying to find several consecutive integers, it is important to identify the first
integer and then assign all the following integers. Example, if x is the first integer, then
x + 1 will be the next, and x + 2 will be the following, and so on.
ˆ If we are trying to find several even or odd consecutive integers, it is important to identify
the first integer and then assign all the following even or odd integers. Example, if x is the
first integer, then x + 2 will be the next, and x + 4 will be the following, and so on.

Example 2.5.3: The sum of three consecutive integers is 72. What are the numbers?
Solution:

Step 1. Understand the Problem.

The problem is to find three consecutive integers whose sum is 72. Let x be the first
integer, the second integer will be x + 1, and the third integer is x + 2.

Step 2. Devise a Plan.

Since x wil be the first integer, the second integer will be x + 1, and the third in-
teger is x+2, then we are to sum up these integers, the resulting equation is therefore,

x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 72
2.5. EXAMPLES 2 21

Step 3. Carry Out the Plan.

Solve for x:

3x + 3 = 72
3x = 69
x = 23

Therefore, the integers are 23, 24 and 25.

Step 4. Look Back.

Checking:

x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 72
23 + 24 + 25 = 72
72 = 72

C. Age Problem
If x represents the age of a person now, his age n years ago is represented by x − n and that his
age in m years after is represented by x + m.

Example 2.5.4: The present age of Jacob’s father is three times that of Jacob. After 5 years,
sum of their ages would be 70 years. Find their present ages.

Solution:
Step 1. Understand the Problem.
Let Jacob’s age = x years
His fathers’s age = 3x years

After 5 years

Jacob’s age = x + 5
Father’s age = 3x + 5

Sum of their age = 70

Step 2. Devise a Plan.

Equation: x + 5 + 3x + 5 = 70

Step 3. Carry out the Plan

Solve: 4x + 10 = 70

4x + 10 = 70
4x = 60
x = 15

Jacob’s age = x = 15 years

His father’s age = 3x = 3(15) = 45 years
22 LESSON 2. APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Step 4. Look back.

Checking:
x + 5 + 3x + 5 = 70
15 + 5 + 3(15) + 5 = 70
70 = 70

Therefore , the present age of Jacob is 15 years old and his father’s present age is 45
years old.
D. Geometry Problem

Geometry problems are word problems which involve concepts of Plane and Solid Geometry.
Usually, the equation used to solve this kind of problem is a formula in Geometry concerning
angles, perimeters of polygons, areas of plane regions and volumes of solids. It is therefore im-
portant to be familiar with these formulas.

1
Example 2.5.5: Find the measure of the angles of a triangle if the first angle is 2 of the measure
of the third and 20 less than the measure of the second angle.
Solution:
Step 1. Understand the Problem.
Let a, b and c be the first, second and third angles of the triangle respectively.
a = 21 c or c = 2a
a = b − 20 or b = a + 20

Step 2. Devise a Plan.

The sum of the measures of three angles in any triangle is always 180◦ .
Equation: a + b + c = 180◦

Step 3. Carry out the Plan.

Solve: a + b + c = 180◦
a+b+c = 180◦
a + (a + 20) + 2a = 180◦
4a = 180◦ − 20◦
4a = 160◦
a = 40◦

Therefore, a = 40◦ , b = 60◦ and c = 80◦

Step 4. Look back.

Checking:
a + (a + 20) + 2a = 180◦
40◦ + 60◦ + 80◦ = 180◦
180◦ = 180◦
2.6. EXERCISES 2 23

2.6 Exercises 2
Directions: Solve the following problems using a clean sheet of paper and show your complete
solutions.

1. The sum of two numbers is 25. One of the numbers exceeds the other by 9. Find the
numbers.
2. The sum of three numbers is 66. The second number is 3 less than the first number, the
third is 11 less than twice the first. What are the numbers?

3. Ana is 5 years more than Jack. The sum of their ages is 29. Find the ages of Ana and
Jack.
4. Miguel is 46 years old. He is 4 years older than thrice his son’s age. Find the age of his
son.

5. The length of the sides of a triangle are consecutive odd numbers. What is the length of
the longest side if the perimeter is 45?
Lesson 3

Quadratic Equations in 1 Variable

Intended Learning Outcome
ˆ Find solution sets of the given quadratic equations.

3.1 Prior Knowledge Activity

Direction: Factor the following algebraic expressions.
1. 8x2 + 4x
2. 9y 2 − 3y
3. 16 − y 2
4. a2 − 64
5. x2 + 7x + 10
6. t2 − 4t − 32
7. x2 + 5x − 24
8. x2 + 6x + 9
9. y 2 − 10y + 25
10. 5t2 − 7t − 6
11. 10y 2 − 11y − 6
12. 16x2 − 8x + 1
13. a2 + 4ab − 21b2
14. 32x2 + 12xy − 9y 2

3.2 Introduction
The only requirement here is to have an x2 in the equation. This term will be present in the
equation by requiring a ̸= 0. Note however, that it is okay if b and/or c are zero.

Definition 3.2.1 Quadratic Equation in One Variable

Quadratic Equation in the variable x is an equation that can be written
as ax2 + bx + c = 0 (Standard Form) where a and b are real-number
constants and a̸=0.

The following are quadratic equations in standard form:

a 6x2 + 7x − 2 = 0; a = 6, b = 7, c = −2
b x2 − 5 = 0; a = 1, b = 0, c = −5

24
3.3. METHODS OF SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 25

3.3 Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations

There are many ways to solve quadratic equations. In this lesson, four ways will be covered. The
first two methods will not always work yet are probably a little simpler to use when they work.
The other two methods will always work, but often require a little more work or attention to get
correct.

3.3.1 Factoring Guidelines Examples

Factoring is the easiest method. However,this method requires degree of mastery with fac-
toring techniques. And not all quadratic equations can be solved by this method.

Guidelines:
1. Write the quadratic equation in standard form, ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2. Simplify and factor the quadratic expression.
ˆ If a = 1, find two numbers whose product equals c and whose sum equals b. Next,
use those numbers to write two factors of the form (x + k) or (x − k), where k is one
of the two numbers. Lastly, use the numbers exactly as they are and proceed to step
3. In other words, if the two numbers are 1 and −2, the factors are (x + 1)(x − 2).
ˆ If a ̸= 1, use the grouping method. First, multiply a · c. Second, find two numbers
whose product equals ac and whose sum equals b. Then, rewrite the equation re-
placing the bx term with two terms using the two found numbers as coefficients of
x. Next, factor the first two terms and then factor the last two terms. The expres-
sions in parentheses must be exactly the same to use grouping. Lastly, factor out the
expression in parentheses and proceed to step 3.
3. Each of the factors should now be a linear expression, equate each factor to 0 and solve
each separately using the zero-product property.

Definition 3.3.1 The Zero-Product Property

The zero-product property states,
If a · b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0, where a and b are real numbers or
algebraic expressions.

Example 3.4.1: Solve for x.

Given: 12x2 + 60x + 72 = −3
Solution:

12x2 + 60x + 75 = 0 add 3 to both sides

2
4x + 20x + 25 = 0 divide by 3
2
4x + 10x + 10x + 25 = 0 rewrite the equation replacing 20x with 10x and 10x
2x(2x + 5) + 5(2x + 5) = 0 factor the first two and the last two terms
(2x + 5)(2x + 5) = 0 factor
equate each factor and solve separately using the zero-product property
26 LESSON 3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS IN 1 VARIABLE

2x + 5 = 0 2x + 5 = 0
2x = −5 2x = −5
5 5
x1 = − x2 = −
2 2

Checking:

12x2 + 60x + 72 = −3
5 5
12(− )2 + 60(− ) + 72 = −3
2 2
−3 = −3

Solution set: {- 25 }

Example 3.4.2: Solve for x.

Given: x2 − 5x − 6 = 0
Solution:

x2 − 5x − 6 = 0 the two factors of -6 are 1 and −6 since 1 · −6 = −6 and 1 + (−6) = −5

(x + 1)(x − 6) = 0 write the two factors
x1 = −1 ; x2 = 6

Solution set: {-1, 6}

CAUTION: In factoring polynomials, there is a risk that a root of solution may be lost if both
members of the equation are divided by a factor that contains the variables. Say for instance,
the equation in the example below.

Example 3.4.3: Solve for x.

Given: x2 + x − 2 = 4x − 4

Correct Solution Wrong Solution

2
x − 3x + 2 = 0
(x − 1)(x + 2) = 4(x − 1)
(x − 2)(x − 1) = 0
x+2 = 4
x1 = 2 ; x2 = 1
x = 2
Solution set: {1,2}

The method shown on the right loses the root x = 1, since division by (x − 1) is equivalent
to dividing by zero, which is not permissible. A check of the solution cannot discover a lost root.
3.3. METHODS OF SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 27

3.3.2 Square root Property Guidelines Examples

When there is no linear term in the equation, another method of solving a quadratic equa-
tion is by using the square root property, in which we isolate the term and take the square
root of the number on the other side of the equals sign. Keep in mind that sometimes we may
have to manipulate the equation to isolate the term so that the square root property can be used.

Definition 3.3.2 Square Root Property

With the x2 term
√ isolated, the square root property states that: if x2 =
k, then x = ± k where k is a positive real number.

Guidelines:
1. Given a quadratic equation with an x2 term but no x term, use the square root property
to solve it.

2. Isolate the x2 term on one side of the equal sign.

3. Take the square root of both sides of the equation, putting a ± sign before the expression
on the side opposite the squared term.
4. Simplify the numbers on the side with the ± sign.

Example 3.4.4: Solve the quadratic: x2 = 8.

Solution:

x2 = 8
√ √
x2 = 8 take the square root of both sides
√
x = ±2 2
√ √
Solution set: {−2 2, 2 2}

Example 3.4.5: Solve the quadratic equation: 4x2 + 1 = 7.

Solution:

4x2 + 1 = 7
2
4x = 6 add −1 to both sides
2 6
x = divide both sides by 4
4r
√ 6
x2 = ± take the square root of both sides
4
√
6
x = ±
2
√ √
6 6
Solution set: {− 2 , 2 }
28 LESSON 3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS IN 1 VARIABLE

3.3.3 Completing the square Guidelines Examples

Guidelines:
1. Given a quadratic equation that cannot be factored, and with a = 1 or a ̸= 1, add the
additive inverse of the constant to both sides of the equation.

2. If a = 1, proceed to the next step. If a ̸= 1, then divide both sides of the equation by a.

1
3. Multiply the b term by 2 and square it.

1 2


4. Add 2b to both sides of the equal sign and simplify the right side.

5. The left side of the equation can now be factored as a perfect square.

6. Use the square root property and solve.

Example 3.4.6: Solve for x.

Given: 3x2 + 6x − 15 = 0
Solution:

3x2 + 6x − 15 = 0
2
3x + 6x = 15 add 15 to both sides
2
x + 2x = 5 divide by 3, the coefficient of x2 , both sides
x2 + 2x + 1 = 5+1 complete the square by adding 1 to both sides
x2 + 2x + 1 = 6 simplify
(x + 1)2 = 6 factor the left side
√
x+1 = ± 6 take the square root of both sides
√
x = −1 ± 6
add 1 to both sides to isolate the variable
√ √
x1 = −1 + 6 ; x2 = −1 − 6

√ √
Solution set: {−1 − 6, −1 + 6}

Example 3.4.7: Solve for x.

Given: x2 − 3x − 5 = 0
3.3. METHODS OF SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 29

Solution:

x2 − 3x − 5 = 0
2
x − 3x = 5 add 5 to both sides
 2  2  2
2 3 3 3
x − 3x + = 5+ add to both sides
2 2 2
9 9
x2 − 3x + = 5+ simplify
4 4
9 29
x2 − 3x + = simplify
4 4
 2
3 29
x− = factor the left side
2 4
s 2 r
3 29
x− = ± take the square root of both sides
2 4
√
3 29
x− = ± simplify
2 2√
3 29 3
x = ± add to both sides to isolate the variable
2 √2 2
3 ± 29
x = simplify
√ 2 √
3+ 29 3 − 29
x1 = ; x2 =
2 2

√ √
Solution set: { 3−2 29 , 3+2 29 }

3.3.4 Quadratic Formula

Quadratic formula can be used to solve any quadratic equation.
Definition 3.3.3 Roots of the Quadratic Equation
The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be solved using
the formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Guidelines:

1. Transfer all terms to the left side of the equation so that the right side ends up with zero.

2. Simplify the equation.

3. Use the quadratic formula with a=the coefficient of the quadratic term, b=the coefficient
of the linear term, and c= the constant term.
30 LESSON 3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS IN 1 VARIABLE

Example 3.4.8: Solve for x.

Given: 43 x2 − 12 x = 13
Solution:

3 2 1 1
x − x =
4 2 3
3 2 1 1
x − x− = 0
4 2 3
9x2 − 6x − 4 = 0 equate everything to zero and simplify

with a=9 ; b=-6 ; c=-4

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2a p
−(−6) ± (−6)2 − 4(9)(−4)
x =
2(9)
√
6 ± 36 + 144
x =
√ 18
6 ± 180
x =
18√
6±6 5
x =
18
√
1± 5
x =
3
√ √
Solution set: { 1−3 5 , 1+3 5 }

3.4 Exercises
A. Direction: Find solution sets of the given quadratic equations using factoring method.

5x 2x2
1. 1 + 6 = 3

3x x+4
2. x+2 = x

3. x2 = 4x

4. (x − 2)(x + 3) = 6

5. x2 = 49

6. 5t2 − 12 = 0
3.4. EXERCISES 31

7. 4x2 = x
8. x2 = 8x − 15
9. 8w2 + 10w − 3 = 0

3t 2 t
10. 3t+4 + 5 = 3t−4

B. Direction: Find solution sets of the given quadratic equations using completing the square
method.

1. x2 + 6x + 8 = 0
2. 2x2 − x − 6 = 0
3. x2 − x − 1 = 0

4. 4x2 + 4x − 3 = 0
5. 3y 2 + 4y + 2 = 0
6. 3x2 + x − 1 = 0
7. x2 − 5x + 6 = 0

8. x = 2x2 + 1
9. x2 − 7x + 2 = 0
10. 3x2 + 7x − 5 = 0
32 LESSON 3. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS IN 1 VARIABLE

C. Direction: Find solution sets of the given quadratic equations using quadratic formula.

1. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
2. 2x + 2 = x2

3. 5y 2 − 4y − 2 = 0
4. x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
5. x2 + 1 = 6x

6. 4x2 − 10x + 5 = 0
1
7. x2 + 2 =x

8. t2 − 4t + 7 = 0
x2
9. 4 +2=x

10. 25y 2 − 20y + 7 = 0

Lesson 4

Applications of Quadratic Equation

Intended Learning Outcome

ˆ Solve problems involving quadratic equations in one variable.

4.1 Introduction
Sometimes there are conditions of a problem that give rise to a quadratic equation and one of
the roots is meaningless, therefore it is absurd. It is therefore necessary to determine whether
both of the roots satisfy the condition of the problem.

4.2 Solving Application Problems Involving Quadratic Func-

tions
Many physical and mathematical problems are in the form of quadratic equations. In solving
each quadratic equation, we choose the method that is most convenient for us to solve the prob-
lem.

4.2.1 Number Problem

Example 4.2.1: Find three consecutive counting numbers whose sum of their squares is 110.
Solution:
Step 1. Understand the Problem. (Representation of Unknown Variable)
Let x= the 1st counting number
Let x + 1= the 2nd counting number
Let x + 2= the 3rd counting number

Step 2. Devise a Plan.

Devise a plan (translate the conditions in the problem into an equation).
Equation: x2 + (x + 1)2 + (x + 2)2 = 110

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).

x2 + (x + 1)2 + (x + 2)2 = 110

x + (x + 2x + 1) + (x2 + 4x + 4)
2 2
= 110 by squaring the binomials
2
3x + 6x + 5 = 110 by combining similar terms
2
3x + 6x + 5 − 110 = 0
3x2 + 6x − 105 = 0 by reducing to standard form
x2 + 2x − 35 = 0 by dividing all terms by 3
(x + 7)(x − 5) = 0 by factoring

33
34 LESSON 4. APPLICATIONS OF QUADRATIC EQUATION

x−5 = 0
x = 5 the 1st counting number
x+1=5+1 = 6 the 2nd counting number
x+2=5+2 = 7 the 3rd counting number

x+7 = 0
x = −7

This is absurd because -7 is not a counting number.

Step 4: Look back (check and interpret).

x2 + (x + 1)2 + (x + 2)2 = 110

2 2 2
5 + (5 + 1) + (5 + 2) = 110
52 + 62 + 72 = 110
25 + 36 + 49 = 110
110 = 110

Therefore, the three counting numbers are 5, 6, and 7.

4.2.2 Geometry Problem

Example 4.2.2: Find the length and width of a rectangle whose area and perimeter are 51
sq.m. and 40 m respectively.
Solution:
Step 1. Representation of Unknown Variable
Let L = length of the rectangle
Let W = width of the rectangle

Step 2. Equation
Devise a plan (translate the conditions in the problem into an equation).

Area = LW = 51
P erimeter = 2L + 2W = 40 simplify
L+W = 20
L = 20 − W

Step 3. Solve
LW = 51 but L = 20 − W
(20 − W )(W ) = 51
2
20W − W = 51
−W 2 + 20W − 51 = 0 by reducing to standard form
2
W − 20W + 51 = 0 by multiplying both sides by -1
(W − 17)(W − 3) = 0 by factoring
4.2. SOLVING APPLICATION PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 35

W − 17 = 0 W −3 = 0
W = 17 W = 3
If we substitute these two possible values of W in equation L = 20 − W , we will have
L = 20 − W L = 20 − W
L = 20 − 17 L = 20 − 3
L = 3 L = 17
Therefore, the length is 17 m and the width is 3 m.
Step 4: Checking
LW = 51
(17)(3) = 51
51 = 51
Therefore, the length is 17 m and the width is 3 m.

4.2.3 Work Problem

Example 4.2.3: Allan can finish a painting job 2 days longer than Ben. Working together, they
can finish the job in 2.4 days. How many days will it take Ben alone or Allan alone to do the
job?
Solution:
Let x = the number of days it will take Ben to finish the job alone
Let x + 2 = the number of days it will take Allan to finish the job alone
Let x1 = part of job that Ben can finish in 1 day
1
Let x+2 = part of job that Allan can finish in 1 day

Step 2. Equation
1 1 1
x + x+2 = 2.4

Step 3: Solve 1 1 1
+ =
x x+2 2.4
x2 − 2.8x − 4.8 = 0 simplifying
a = 1, b = −2.8, c = −4.8
Use quadratic formula to solve for x:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2a p
−(−2.8) ± (−2.8)2 − 4(1)(−4.8)
x =
2(1)
√
2.8 ± 2.82 + 19.2
x =
√ 2
2.8 ± 27.04
x =
2
2.8 ± 5.2
x =
2
36 LESSON 4. APPLICATIONS OF QUADRATIC EQUATION

2.8 + 5.2 2.8 − 5.2

x = x =
2 2
x = 4 days
x = −1.2 this is absurd
so x + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6 days

Step 4: Checking 1 1 1
+ =
x x+2 2.4
1 1 1
+ =
4 6 2.4
14.4 + 9.6 = 24 simplifying
24 = 24
Therefore, it will take Ben 4 days to finish the job alone while it will take Allan 6
days to finish the job alone.

Note: This problem can also be solved by letting x be the number of days for Allan to finish
the job alone, and x − 2 be the number of days for Ben to finish the job.
Then
1 1 1
+ =
x x−2 2.4
x2 –6.8x + 4.8 = 0 simplifying

Using the quadratic formula to solve for x:

x = 6 days and x − 2 = 4 days

4.3 Exercises
Directions: Solve the following problems. Show your complete and neat solutions. Use a clean
sheet of paper.
1. The product of two consecutive integers is 240. Find the two integers.
2. Find the area of the triangle whose legs have lengths which differ by 7 meters and whose
hypotenuse is 17 meters long.
3. Daisy and Christine can finish a cross-stitch project in 4 hours if they work together. If it
would take Daisy 6 hours more than Christine to finish the project alone, how long would
each need to finish the project working alone?
4. It takes a boy 15 min longer to mow the lawn than it takes his sister, and if they both
work together it takes them 56 min. How long does it take the boy to mow the lawn by
himself?
5. It took a faster runner 10 sec longer to run a distance of 1500 f eet than it took a slower
runner to run a distance of 1000 f eet. If the rate of the faster runner was 5f t/sec more
than the rate of the slower runner, what was the rate of each?
Lesson 5

Systems of Linear Equations in Two

Variables
Intended Learning Outcome

ˆ Find the solution sets of the given system of linear equations in two variables.

5.1 Introduction
Many applications of mathematics lead to more than one equation in several variables. The
resulting equations are called a system of equations. The solution set of a system of equations
consists of all solutions that are common to the equations in the system. The graph of an equation
in the form Ax + By = C is a line and that all ordered pairs (x, y) satisfying the equation are
coordinates of points on the line.
Definition 5.1.1 A system of two linear equations in two variables x
and y can be written as

Ax + By = C
Dx + Ey = F

where A, B, C, D, E and F are real numbers.

The left brace is used to indicate that the two equations form a system. If an ordered pair (x, y)
is to satisfy a system of two linear equations, the corresponding point (x, y) must lie on the two
lines that are the graphs of the equations.

Here is an example of a system of linear equations.


3x + (−1)y = 7
2x + 3y = 1

5.2 Solutions of Systems of Linear Equations

The solution of a system of linear equations can be determined algebraically or graphically. To
find the solution graphically, graph both equations on a Cartesian coordinate plane then find the
point of intersection of the graphs, if it exists. You may also use graphing calculator or computer
software such as GeoGebra in determining the graphical solutions of systems of linear equations.

5.3 Methods of Solving Systems of Linear Equations

5.3.1 By Graphical Solution
If the equation is given in the slope-intercept form y = mx + b, then the constant term, which is
b, is the y intercept, and the coefficient of x, which is m, is the slope of the straight line. Rewrite

37
38 LESSON 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

the equation if it is not yet in the slope-intercept form.

The easiest way to graph such a line, is to plot the y-intercept first. Then, write the slope
m in the form of a fraction, like rise over run, and from the y-intercept, count up (or down) for
the rise, over (right or left) for the run, and put the next point. Lastly, connect the two points
and this is your line.

Example 5.3.1: Solve the system of equations graphically.


3x − y = 7 (1)
2x + 3y = 1 (2)
Solution:
Using the slope intercept method of graphing, the equations become

(1) 3x − y = 7 (2) 2x + 3y = 1
−y = −3x + 7 3y = −2x + 1
y = 3x − 7 2 1
y = − x+
3 3

Figure 5.1

Solution: x = 2 and y = −1
Solution set: {(2, −1)}

The solution to the system is the coordinates of the point where the two lines intersect. So,
when solving linear systems with two variables we are really asking where the two lines will
intersect.
For a system of linear equations in two variables, exactly one of the following is true:

1. The system has exactly one solution. The two lines intersect at exactly one ordered pair.
The graphs intersect exactly in one point. The equations are said to be consistent or
independent. See figure 5.1 for the example illustration.

2. The system has no solution. The two lines do not intersect. The graphs are distinct par-
allels. The equations are said to be inconsistent. See figure 5.2 below for the example
illustration.
5.3. METHODS OF SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 39

Figure 5.2

3. The system has infinitely many solution. The graphs are the same line. The equations are
said to be dependent. See figure 5.3 below for the example illustration.

Figure 5.3

5.3.2 By Algebraic Solution

A. Elimination Method
We can solve for the value of one variable x by eliminating first the other variable y.
This is illustrated using the example below.

Example 5.3.2: Solve for x and y:


x + y = 7 (1)
2x − y = 2 (2)

Solution:
Adding the left hand members and right hand members of equations (1) an (2), we
get
40 LESSON 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

x+y =7
2x − y = 2

3x = 9
3x 9
=
3 3
x=3

To solve for y, we can substitute the obtained value of x in either of the given
equations. Using equation (1), we have

x+y =7 (1)
y =7−x

Substituting the value of x by 3, we get

y =7−3
y=4

Therefore, the solution is x = 3 and y = 4.

Solution set: {(3, 4)}
Note: Check if your solution is correct.

2. Solve for x and y:


2x − 3y = 6 (1)
3x + 5y = 28 (2)

Solution:
In the given system, the coefficients of x and y are not the same. To eliminate x, for
instance, we first multiply equation (1) by 3 and equation (2) by −2.

(3)(2x − 3y = 6) (1)
(−2)(3x + 5y = 28) (2)

Thus, we have

6x − 9y = 18 (3)
−6x − 10y = −56 (4)

Adding equations (3) and (4), we get

5.3. METHODS OF SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 41

6x − 9y = 18
−6x − 10y = −56

−19y = −38
−19y −38
=
−19 −19
y=2

Using equation (1), we can find the value of x. Thus,

2x − 3y = 6 (1)
2x = 6 + 3y
6 + 3y
x=
2
Substituting the value of y by 2, we get

6 + 3(2)
x=
2
x=6

Therefore, the solution is x = 6 and y = 2.

Solution set: {(6, 2)}
Note: Check if your solution is correct.

B. Substitution Method

For any ordered pair in the solution set of a system of equations, the variables in
one equation represent the same numbers as the corresponding variables in other
equation. Therefore, if we replace one of the variables in one of the equations by its
equal from the other equation, we have an equivalent system. The following example
shows the procedure:

Example 5.3.3: Solve for x and y:


x + y = 7 (1)
2x − y = 2 (2)

Solution: Using equation (1) we can solve for x in terms of y. Thus, we have

x+y =7 (1)
x=7−y

We substitute this value of x in equation (2). Thus,

42 LESSON 5. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

2x − y = 2 (2)
2(7 − y) − y = 2
14 − 2y − y = 2
−3y = 2 − 14
−3y = −12
−3y −12
=
3 3
y=4

Using the equation x = 7–y, we can solve for the value of x, we have

x=7−y
x=7−4
x=3

Therefore, the solution is x = 3 and y = 4.

Solution set: {(3, 4)}
Note: Check if your solution is correct.

5.4 Exercises
A. Directions: Find the solutions of the following systems of linear equations by graphing. De-
scribe the graphs. Use graphing paper.


x + y = 8 (1)
1.
x − y = −4 (2)


3x + 2y = 4 (1)
2.
6x + 4y = 8 (2)


6x − 3y = 5 (1)
3.
2x − y = 4 (2)


3x + 2y = 2 (1)
4.
2x + 3y = −2 (2)

B. Directions: Solve for x and y by applying the methods of elimination and substitution.

x + 2y = 8 (1)
1.
3x + y = 9 (2)


x − y = 5 (1)
2.
2x + 3y = 18 (2)
5.4. EXERCISES 43


4x + 3y = 7 (1)
3.
5x − 2y = 26 (2)


x + 4y = 10 (1)
4.
2x − 3y = 5 (2)


x + 2y = 12 (1)
5.
x − 2y = 2 (2)
Lesson 6

Applications of Systems of Linear

Equations in Two Variables
Intended Learning Outcome

ˆ Solve problems involving systems of linear equations in two variables.

6.1 Introduction
When two unknowns are involved in problem solving, it is easier to solve if we represent the
unknowns by separate letters. Each condition in the problem gives an equation involving the
letters used and the number of the condition must be equal to the number of unknowns. If the
equation is linear, then these can be solved by any method we have just learned like the Polya’s
method.

6.2 Solve Application Problems Involving Systems of Lin-

ear Equations in Two Variables

6.2.1 Number Problem

Example 6.2.1: The difference of two numbers is 14. Twice the smaller number is 5 less than
the larger number. Find the numbers.
Solution:
Step 1. Represent the unknown values
Let x = the larger number
Let y = the smaller number

Step 2. Translate the conditions in the problem in the form of equations.


x − y = 14 (Eqn 1)
2y = x − 5 (Eqn 2)

Step 3. Solve
Rewrite first the equations.

x − y = 14 (Eqn 1)
−x + 2y = −5 (Eqn 2)

Using elimination method, add equations 1 and 2 to eliminate x, we obtain

44
6.2. SOLVE APPLICATION PROBLEMS INVOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES45

x − y = 14
−x + 2y = −5

y=9

Substitute y = 9 in either Eqn 1 or Eqn 2. Let’s use Eqn 1:

x − y = 14
x − 9 = 14
x = 23

Step 4: Checking
x−y = 14 Eqn 1 2y = x−5 Eqn 2
23 − 9 = 14 2(9) = 23 − 5
14 = 14 18 = 18

Therefore, the numbers are 23 and 9.

6.2.2 Geometry Problem

Example 6.2.2: Find the dimension of a rectangle whose perimeter is 90 m and whose length
exceeds its width by 2 m.
Solution:
Step 1. Represent the unknown values
Let x = length of the rectangle
Let y = width of the rectangle

Step 2. Translate the conditions in the problem in the form of equations.

From the given conditions, we have

2x + 2y = 90 (Eqn 1)
x = y + 2 (Eqn 2)
Step 3. Solve
Using substitution method, substitute Eqn 2 in Eqn 1, we have

2(y + 2) + 2y = 90
2y + 4 + 2y = 90
4y = 86
y = 21.5 m

Substituting y = 21.5 in Eqn 2, we obtain

x=y+2
x = 21.5 + 2
x = 23.5 m
46LESSON 6. APPLICATIONS OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

Step 4. Checking
2x + 2y = 90 Eqn 1 x = y+2 Eqn 2
2(23.5) + 2(21.5) = 90 23.5 = 21.5 + 2
47 + 43 = 90 23.5 = 23.5
90 = 90

Therefore, the dimensions of the rectangle are 23.5 m by 21.5 m.

C. Motion Problem
Example 6.2.3: A man rows 15 kilometers upstream in 5 hours and back in the same dis-
tance in 2 12 hours. Find the rate of the man in still water and the rate of the current.
Solution:
Step 1. Represent the unknown values
Let x = rate of the man in still water
Let y = rate of the current

rate time (hrs.) distance (km.)

upstream x−y 5 15
downstream x+y 2 12 = 52 15

Step 2. Translate the conditions in the problem in the form of equations. (The
principle involved is D = rt)
From the given conditions, we have

5(x − y) = 15 (Eqn 1)
5
2 (x + y) = 15 (Eqn 2)

Step 3: Solve
Simplify

5(x − y) = 15 (Eqn 1)
5x + 5y = 30 (Eqn 2)

Using elimination, add Eqn 1 and Eqn 2 to eliminate y and solve for x

5x − 5y = 15
5x + 5y = 30

10x = 45
x = 4.5 km/hr

rate of the man in still water

6.2. SOLVE APPLICATION PROBLEMS INVOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES47

Then solve for y in Eqn 1

5x − 5y = 15
5(4.5) − 5y = 15
y = 1.5 km/hr

rate of the current

Step 4. Checking

5x − 5y = 15 Eqn 1
5x + 5y = 30 Eqn 2
5(4.5) − 5(1.5) = 15
5(4.5) + 5(1.5) = 30
22.5 − 7.5 = 15
22.5 + 7.5 = 30
15 = 15
30 = 30

Therefore, the rate of the man in still water is 4.5 km/hr and the rate of the current
is 1.5 km/hr.
48LESSON 6. APPLICATIONS OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

6.3 Exercises
Directions: Solve the following problems by applying the concept of system of linear equations
in two variables.

1. Mr. Ramos is twice as old as his son, Ray. Ten years ago, Mr. Ramos was three times as
old as Ray. What are the present ages of father and son?
2. In preparation for the coming holidays, Mrs. Castro made a withdrawal of P675.00 con-
sisting of five and ten-peso coins. If there were 85 coins in all, how many fives and how
many tens were in her withdrawal?
3. Two cars travel toward each other from points 500 kilometers apart. The two cars meet in
4 hours. What is the average speed of each car if one travels 15 kilometers per hour faster
than the other?

4. Nora works at a Drug Company as a chemist. To meet the clients’ demands, she was told
to prepare 100 liters of 25% alcohol solution. They have on hand a 15% solution and a 40%
solution which she thought of mixing. How many liters of each solution will be required to
make the mixture?
5. From the earnings of her husband abroad, Mrs. Cruz invested P20, 000.00. She deposited
one part in a bank at 5% interest annually and part at a cooperative at 7% interest annually.
On these investments, she gets an income of P1, 160.00 a year. How much did she invest
at each rate?
Lesson 7

Systems of Linear Equations in Three

Variables and Its Application
Intended Learning Outcomes
ˆ Find the solution set of systems of linear equations in three variables.
ˆ Solve problems involving systems of linear equations in three variables.

7.1 Introduction
In order to solve systems of equations in three variables, known as three-by-three systems, the
primary goal is to eliminate one variable at a time to achieve back-substitution. A solution to a
system of three equations in three variables (x, y, z), is called an ordered triple.
Graphically, the ordered triple defines the point that is the intersection of three planes in space.
You can visualize such an intersection by imagining any corner in a rectangular room. A corner
is defined by three planes: two adjoining walls and the floor (or ceiling). Any point where two
walls and the floor meet represents the intersection of three planes.

To find a solution, we can perform the following steps:

Step 1: Select two equations to be used to eliminate one of the variables (will result to Eqn 4)
Step 2: Select two different equations and eliminate the same variable again (will result to Eqn
5)
Step 3: Using Eqn 4 and Eqn 5 which have two variables, solve the system of two equations
using elimination or substitution.
Step 4: Determine the solution, if any.
ˆ If there is no solution, state there is no solutions. The system is inconsistent.
Here are the possible graphs.

Figure 7.1: The three planes in-

tersect with each other, but not
at a common point.

Figure 7.2: Two of the planes are

parallel and intersect with the
third plane, but not with each
other.

49
50LESSON 7. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN THREE VARIABLES AND ITS APPLICATION

Figure 7.3: All three planes are

parallel, so there is no point of
intersection.

ˆ If there is one solution, use back substitution to determine the value of the 3
variables. The system is consistent and independent. Here is the graph.

Figure 7.4: Three planes inter-

sect at a single point, represent-
ing a three-by-three system with
a single solution.

ˆ If there is an infinite number of solutions, state the relationship among the 3

variables. The system is dependent. Here are the possible graphs.

Figure 7.5: Three planes inter-

sect in a line, representing a
three-by-three system with infi-
nite solutions.

Figure 7.6: Two identical planes

that intersect the third plane on
a line representing a three-by-
three system with infinite solu-
tions.

Figure 7.7: The three planes are

identical.
7.2. EXAMPLES 51

7.2 Examples
Example 7.2.1: Determine whether the ordered triple (3, −2, 1) is a solution to the system.

x+y+z =2
6x − 4y + 5z = 31
5x + 2y + 2z = 13

Solution:
We will check each equation by substituting in the values of the ordered triple for
x,y,and z.

6x − 4y + 5z = 31 5x + 2y + 2z = 13
x+y+z = 2 6(3) − 4(−2) + 5(1) = 31 5(3) + 2(−2) + 2(1) = 13
3 + (−2) + 1 = 2 18 + 8 + 5 = 31 15 − 4 + 2 = 13
2 = 2 31 = 31 13 = 13
T RU E T RU E T RU E

The ordered triple (3, −2, 1) is indeed a solution to the system.

Example 7.2.2: Find a solution to the following system:

x − 2y + 3z = 9 (1)
−x + 3y − z = −6 (2)
2x − 5y + 5z = 17 (3)

Step 1: There will always be several choices as to where to begin, but the most
obvious first step here is to eliminate x by adding equations (1) and (2).

x − 2y + 3z = 9 (3)
−x + 3y − z = −6 (2)

y + 2z = 3 (4)

Step 2: The second step is using equations 1 and 3 to eliminate variable x by multi-
plying equation (1) by −2 and adding the result to equation (3).

−2x + 4y − 6z = −18 (1)

2x − 5y + 5z = 17 (3)

−y − z = −1 (5)

Step 3:In equations (4) and (5), we have created a new two-by-two system. We can
solve for z by adding the two equations.
52LESSON 7. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN THREE VARIABLES AND ITS APPLICATION

y + 2z = 3 (4)
−y − z = −1 (5)

z=2

Step 4: Choosing one equation from each new system, we obtain the upper triangular
form:

x − 2y + 3z = 9 (1)
y + 2z = 3 (4)
z=2 (6)

Next, we back-substitute z = 2 into equation (4) and solve for y.

y + 2z = 3 (4)
y + 2(2) = 3
y+4=3
y = −1

Finally, we can back-substitute z = 2 and y = −1 into equation (1). This will yield
the solution for x.

x − 2y + 3z = 9 (1)
x − 2(−1) + 3(2) = 9
x+2+6=9
x=1

The system is consistent or independent. The solution is the ordered triple (1, −1, 2).
Solution set: {(1, −1, 2)}.

Example 7.2.3: Solve the following system:

x − 3y + z = 4 (1)
−x + 2y − 5z = 3 (2)
5x − 13y + 13z = 8 (3)

Step 1: Use equations 1 and 2 to eliminate x.

x − 3y + z = 4 (1)
−x + 2y − 5z = 3 (2)

−y − 4z = 7 (4)

Step 2: Use equations 1 and 3. We multiply equation 1 by −5 to eliminate x and

add it to equation 3.
7.2. EXAMPLES 53

−5(x − 3y + z = 4) (1)
5x − 13y + 13z = 8 (3)

2y + 8z = −12 (5)
Step 3: Use equations 4 and 5.

−y − 4z = 7 (4)
2y + 8z = −12 (5)

0=2
The final equation 0 = 2 is a contradiction, so we conclude that the system of equa-
tions is inconsistent and, therefore, has no solution.

Example 7.2.4: Find the solution to the given system of three equations in three variables.
2x + y − 3z = 0 (1)
4x + 2y − 6z = 0 (2)
x−y+z =0 (3)
Step 1: Use equations 1 and 3 to eliminate the variable y.

2x + y − 3z = 0 (1)
x−y+z =0 (3)

3x − 2z = 0 (4)
Step 2: Use equations 2 and 3 to eliminate y by multiplying equation 3 by 2.

4x + 2y − 6z = 0 (2)
2(x − y + z) = 0 (3)

6x − 4z = 0 (5)
Step 3: Use equations 4 and 5. To eliminate one variable, for example x, multiply
equation 4 by −2.

−2(3x − 2z) = 0 (4)

6x − 4z = 0 (5)

0=0
We do not need to proceed any further. The result we get is an identity, 0 = 0,
which tells us that this system has an infinite number of solutions. When a system
is dependent, we can find general expressions for the solutions. Adding equations 1
and 3, we have 3x − 2z = 0. We then solve for z:
54LESSON 7. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN THREE VARIABLES AND ITS APPLICATION

3x − 2z = 0
3
z= x
2
We back-substitute the expression for z into one of the equations and solve for y.

2x + y − 3z = 0 (2)
3
2x + y − 3 x = 0
2
9
2x + y − x = 0
2
9
y = x − 2x
2
5
y= x
2
So the general solution is (x, 52 x, 32 x). In this solution, x can be any real number.
The values of y and z are dependent on the value selected for x. You may also use y
or z instead of x.

Example 7.2.5: Solve the given problem. Show your complete solution.
John invested his inheritance of P12,000.00 in three different funds: part in a money-market
fund paying 3% interest annually; part in municipal bonds paying 4% interest annually; and the
rest in mutual funds paying 7% interest annually. John invested P4,000.00 more in mutual funds
than he invested in municipal bonds. The total interest earned in one year was P670.00. How
much did he invest in each type of fund?
Solution:
To solve this problem, we use all of the information given and set up three equations.
First, we assign a variable to each of the three investment amounts:

Step 1: Representation
Let x = amount invested in money-market fund paying 3% interest annually
Let y = amount invested in municipal bonds paying 4% interest annually
Let z = amount invested in mutual funds paying 7% interest annually

The first equation indicates that the sum of the three principal amounts is P12,000.00.

x + y + z = 12, 000 (1)

We form the second equation according to the information that John invested P4,000.00
more in mutual funds than he invested in municipal bonds.

z = y + 4, 000 (2)

The third equation shows that the total amount of interest earned from each fund
equals P670.00.

0.03x + 0.04y + 0.07z = 670 (3)

7.2. EXAMPLES 55

Then, we write the three equations as a system.

x + y + z = 12, 000 (1)

z = y + 4, 000 (2)
0.03x + 0.04y + 0.07z = 670 (3)

To make the calculations simpler, we can multiply the third equation by 100. Thus,

x + y + z = 12, 000 (1)

z = y + 4, 000 (2)
3x + 4y + 7z = 67, 000 (3)

Step 3: Solve
Follow the following steps to find the value of the variables x,y, and z.
a. Multiply equation (1) by −3 and add to equation (3). Write the result
as Equation (4).

−3x − 3y − 3z = −36, 000 (1)

3x + 4y + 7z = 67, 000 (3)

y + 4z = 31, 000 (4)

b. Add equation (2) and equation (4) and write the result as equation (5).

−y + z = 4, 000 (2)
y + 4z = 31, 000 (4)

5z = 35, 000
z = 7, 000 (5)

c. Back-substitute that value of z = 7, 000 in equation (2) and solve for y.

Then, back-substitute the values for z and y into equation (1) and solve
for x.

−y + z = 4, 000 (2) x+y+z = 12, 000 (1)

−y + 7, 000 = 4, 000 x + 3, 000 + 7, 000 = 12, 000
y = 3, 000 x = 2, 000

Therefore, John invested P2,000.00 in a money-market fund, P3,000.00 in municipal

bonds, and P7,000.00 in mutual funds.
56LESSON 7. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN THREE VARIABLES AND ITS APPLICATION

7.3 Exercises
A. Direction: Find the solution set of the systems of linear equations in three variables.


 2x + y − 2z = −1 (1)
1. 3x − 3y − z = 5 (2)
x − 2y + 3z = 6 (3)



 −4x − 3y − 5z = −6 (1)
2. −8x + 3y + 4z = −17 (2)
16x + 3y + 3z = 32 (3)



 x + y + z = −1 (1)
3. y − 3z = −1 (2)
2x + y + 5z = 0 (3)


B. Direction: Solve the following problems:

1. Separate 213 into three parts such that the first divided by the second gives 2 with a
remainder of 3, and the second divided by the third gives 4 with a remainder of 5.
2. A half kilogram of butter costs P3.00 more than a dozen of eggs and the same as three
loaves of bread. Together, a kilogram of butter, a dozen of eggs and three loaves of bread
costs P105.00. Find the cost of a loaf of bread, an egg and a kilo of butter.

3. Three skilled laborers A, B, and C together can do a certain job in 20 hours; A and B can
do the job in 30 hours; and B and C can do the job in 40 hours. How long would it take
each to do the job?
Lesson 8

Linear Inequality and Its Applica-

tion
Intended Learning Outcomes

ˆ Find the solution sets of the given linear inequality.

ˆ Solve application problems involving linear inequalities and interpret the results.

8.1 Introduction

Inequality tells us about the relative size of two values. Mathematics is not always about ”equals”,
sometimes we only know that something is greater or less than.

Example:
Alex and Billy have a race, and Billy wins!
What do we know?
We don’t know how fast they ran, but we do know that Billy was faster than Alex:
Billy was faster than Alex.
We can write that down like this:
b>a
(Where ”b” means how fast Billy was, ”>” means ”greater than”, and ”a” means
how fast Alex was)

We call things like that inequalities (because they are not ”equal”).
The two most common inequalities are:

Symbol Words Example Use

> greater than 5 >2
< lesser than 7 <9

We can also have inequalities that include ”equals”, like:

Symbol Words Example Use

≥ greater than or equal to x≥1
≤ lesser than or equal to y≤3

57
58 LESSON 8. LINEAR INEQUALITY AND ITS APPLICATION

Definition 8.1.1 Trichotomy Property of Order

If a and b are real numbers, exactly one of the following three state-
ments is true:
a >b
a <b
a=b
i If a <b , then a + c <b + c (Addition Property)

ii If a <b , then a − c <b − c (Subtraction Property)

iii If a <b and c >0 , then ac <bc (Multiplication Property)
iv If a <b and c <0 , then ac >bc (Multiplication Property)

8.2 Solving Linear Inequality

The process to solve linear inequalities in a variable is similar to solving basic equations. Most
of the rules or techniques used to solve equations can be easily used to resolve inequalities. The
only important difference is that the symbol of inequality changes direction when a negative
number is multiplied or divided on both sides of an equation.

Solutions to linear inequalities can be marked on a number line as it involves only one vari-
able. Take note of the following:

1. Open circles represent strict inequalities.

2. Closed circles represent slack inequalities.
3. Greater than inequalities are marked to the right.
4. Lesser than inequalities are marked to the left.
Meanwhile, when graphing the inequality in one variable on a Cartesian plane, the solution is a
region that defined a part of the coordinate plane. Take note of the following:

1. Solid lines represent strict inequalities.

2. Broken lines represent slack inequalities.
3. Greater than inequalities are shaded to the right.
4. Lesser than inequalities are shaded to the left.

8.2.1 Examples 1
Example 8.2.1.1: Solve x + 3 <7.
Solution:
x+3 < 7
x+3−3 < 7−3
x < 4
8.2. SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITY 59

Example 8.2.1.2: Solve 3x <15.

Solution:

3x < 15
3x 15
<
3 3
x < 5

Example 8.2.1.3: Solve: −2x <−8

Solution:

−2x < −8
−2x −8
>
−2 −2
x > 4
60 LESSON 8. LINEAR INEQUALITY AND ITS APPLICATION

Note: multiplying or dividing by a negative number reverses the inequality.

Example 8.2.1.4: Solve 3 ≤ 2x + 2 <6.

3 ≤ 2x + 2<6
3 − 2 ≤ 2x + 2 − 2<6 − 2
1 ≤ 2x<4
1 2x 4
≤ <
2 2 2
1
≤ x<2
2

8.3 Interval Notation

Interval notation is a way of writing subsets of the real number line.
1. A closed interval is one that includes its endpoints: for example, the set {x | −3 ≤ x ≤ 1}.
8.3. INTERVAL NOTATION 61

To write this interval in interval notation, we use closed brackets [ ] : [-3,1].

2. An open interval is one that does not include its endpoints, for example, {x | -3 <x
<1}.

To write this interval in interval notation, use parentheses : (−3, 1).

3. You can also have intervals which are half-open and half-closed:

Interval Notation : [-2,4)

The best way to define interval notation is through the table below. Let a, b ∈ R where a<b.

Set Inicated Set-Builder Graph Interval

Notation Notation
All real numbers between a and b,
but not including a and b {x | a < x < b} (a, b)
All real numbers greater than a,
but not including a {x | x > a} (a, ∞)
All real numbers less than b
but not including b {x | x < b} (−∞, b)
All real numbers greater than a
including a {x | x ≥ a} [a, ∞)
All real numbers less than b
including b {x | x ≤ b} (−∞, b]
All real numbers between a and b
including a {x | a ≤ x < b} [a, b)
All real numbers between a and b
including b {x | a < x ≤ b} (a, b]
All real numbers between a and b
including a and b {x | a ≤ x ≤ b} [a, b]
All real numbers less than a
or greater than b {x | x <a or x >b} (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞)

All real numbers {x | x is all real numbers} (−∞, ∞)

62 LESSON 8. LINEAR INEQUALITY AND ITS APPLICATION

8.4 Exercises 1
Directions: Find the solution set of the inequality and write it with interval notation. Show the
solution set on the real number line.
1. 20 ≤ 4x

2. −3x − 5 < 7

3. 2x − 1 < 6

4. 3x + 1 ≥ 4 − 3

5. 2x + 1 >x − 4

6. 5x + 6 ≤ x − 2
2x−5
7. 4 ≤3
5x−1
8. 6x − 1 < 3

9. 5 ≤ 2x − 3 < 13

10. 11 ≥ 3x − 5 > 2

8.5 Applications of Linear Inequality in One Variable

Some of the key words and phrases that indicate inequalities are summarized below:

Key Phrases Translation

A number is at least 5. n≥5
A number is 5 or more inclusive.
A number is at most 3. n≤3
A number is 3 or less inclusive.
A number is strictly less than 4. n <4
A number is less than 4, exclusive.
A number is greater than 7. n >7
A number is more than 7, exclusive.
A number is in between 2 and 10, exclusive. 2 <n <10
A number is at least 5 and at most 15. 5 ≤ n ≤ 15
A number may range from 5 to 15.

8.5.1 Examples 2
Example 8.5.1.1: In a particular course, if a student has an average score of less than 90 and at
least 80 on four examinations, the student will receive a grade of B in the course. If the student’s
scores on the first three examinations are 87, 94, and 73, what score on the fourth examination
will result in a B grade?
Solution:
Step 1: Representation
8.6. EXERCISES 2 63

Let x = score on the fourth examination

Step 2: Linear Inequality Statement

87+94+73+x
80 ≤ 4 <90

Step 3: Solve
multiply all parts by 4

80 ≤ 87+94+73+x
4 <90
320 ≤ 254 + x <360

subtract 254 from all parts

66 ≤ x <106
Let us use 100 as the maximum value instead of 106.

Step 4: Checking
Let x = 100
87+94+73+x
80 ≤ 4 <90

87+94+73+100
80 ≤ 4 <90

80 ≤ 88.5 < 90
Therefore, the score in the 4th exam can be less than 100 but at least 66 to get a
grade of B.

8.6 Exercises 2
Direction: Solve application problems involving linear inequalities and interpret the results.
1. The perimeter of the rectangle must not be greater than 30 cm and the length must be
8cm. What is the set of values for the width?
2. If the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is F degrees and on the Celsius scale is C
degrees, then
5
C = (F − 32)
9
What is the set of values of F if C is between 10 and 20?
3. An investor has P8,000.00 invested at 9% and wishes to invest some additional money at
16% in order to realize a return of at least 12% on the total investment. What is the least
amount of money that should be invested?
Lesson 9

Quadratic Inequalities
Intended Learning Outcome
ˆ Find the solution set of the given quadratic inequalities.

9.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson we were concerned with finding solution sets of linear inequalities. We
now discuss solving quadratic inequalities.

Definition 9.1.1 Quadratic Inequality

A quadratic inequality is one of the form ax2 + bx + c<0.
(The symbol < can be replaced by >, ≤, or ≥)
where a, b, and c are real numbers and a ̸= 0. To solve a quadratic
inequality, we use the concepts of critical number and test number. A
critical number of the inequality above is a real root of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Suppose r1 and r2 are critical numbers and r1 < r2 . Then the polynomial ax2 + bx + c can
change algebraic signs only at r1 and r2 . Thus, the sign (+ or −) of ax2 + bx + c will be constant
on each of the intervals.
(−∞, r1 ) (r1 , r2 ) (r2 , ∞)

To determine the sign on a particular one of these intervals we compute the value of ax2 + bx + c
at an arbitrary test number in the interval. From the results we can obtain the solution set of
the inequality.

How to
1. Rewrite the inequality having all the nonzero terms on one side.
2. Find the roots and place them on the number line and determine the
intervals.
3. Choose a real number, called a test value, in each of the intervals deter-
mined in step 2.

4. Determine the sign on an interval using the chosen test value. Write the
sign on the number line.
5. Choose the intervals which correspond to the correct sign to solve the
inequality.

64
9.2. EXAMPLES 65

9.2 Examples
Example 9.2.1: To solve the inequality x2 –8<2x

We first write an equivalent inequality having all the nonzero terms on one side of
the inequality sign. Thus, we have

x2 –2x − 8 < 0
(x + 2)(x–4) < 0

We observe from the factored form of the inequality that x2 –2x–8 = 0 has the roots
−2 and 4, which are the critical numbers of the inequality. We plot on the real num-
ber line the points corresponding to these numbers (see figure 9.1 ). These points
separate the line into the following three intervals:

Figure 9.1

(−∞, −2) (−2, 4) (4, ∞)

On each of these intervals the sign of (x + 2)(x–4) is constant. To determine the sign
on an interval we choose an arbitrary test number in the interval and compute the
sign of each of the factors x + 2 and x − 4 at this test number. We select −3 in (−∞,
−2), 0 in (−2, 4) and 5 in (4, ∞). The results are summarized in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1
Test Number Sign of Sign of Sign of
Interval k x+2 x−4 (x + 2)(x − 4)
at k at k on interval
(-∞,−2) −3 − − +
(−2,4) 0 + − −
(4,∞) 5 + + +

Figure 9.2

From the table we obtain Figure 9.2, which indicates the real number line the points
−2 and 4 and the intervals on which (x+2)(x−4) is positive or negative. We conclude
that the solution set of the inequality is the interval (−2, 4) shown in the Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3
66 LESSON 9. QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

Example 9.2.2: Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality
x2 + 2x ≥ 15.
Solution:
The given inequality is equivalent to

x2 + 2x − 15 ≥ 0
(x + 5)(x − 3) ≥ 0
The critical numbers are −5 and 3. The points corresponding to these numbers are
plotted in Figure 9.4 and the following intervals are determined:

Figure 9.4
(−∞, −5] [−5, 3] [3, ∞)
Table 9.2 summarizes the results obtained by choosing a test number in each of these
intervals and determining the sign of (x + 5)(x + 3) on the intervals.

Table 9.2
Test Number Sign of Sign of Sign of
Interval k x+5 x−3 (x + 5)(x − 3)
at k at k on interval
(-∞,−5] −6 − − +
[−5,3] 0 + − −
[3,∞) 4 + + +

Figure 9.5
Figure 9.5 shows on the real number line the points −5 and 3 as well as the sign
(x + 5)(x − 3) on the intervals (−∞, −5] or [3,∞). Furthermore, −5 and 3 are in
the solution set because (x + 5)(x − 3) = 0 if x is either of these number. Thus, the
solution set of the given inequality is (−∞,−5] ∪ [3,∞), appearing in Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6
Example 9.2.3: Find the solution set of 5x2 − 2x + 1< x2 + 2x.
Solution:
The given inequality is equivalent to
4x2 − 4x + 1 < 0
2
(2x − 1) < 0
2
Because there is no value of x for which (2x − 1) is negative, there is a no solution.
Therefore, the solution set is ∅.
9.3. EXERCISES 67

Example 9.2.4: Find the solution set of each of −6x2 − 8x + 1 ≤ 3x2 + 4x + 5.

Solution:
The given inequality is equivalent to

−9x2 − 12x − 4 ≤ 0
9x2 + 12x + 4 ≥ 0
2
(3x + 2) ≥ 0

Because (3x + 2)2 is nonnegative for all values of x, the solution set is the set R of
all real numbers.

9.3 Exercises
Directions: Find the solution set of the following quadratic inequality and show the solution set
on the real number line.

1. x2 > 9
2. x2 < 4
3. (x + 3)(x − 4) < 0

4. (x − 1)(x − 5) > 0
5. (2x + 1)(2x − 7) > 0
6. x2 − 4x + 3 ≤ 9
7. x2 > 8 − 2x
Lesson 10

Rational Inequalities
Intended Learning Outcome

ˆ Find the solution set of the given rational inequalities.

10.1 Introduction
In the illustration below, we have a rational inequality, one that contains a rational expression
involving the variable.

5x
We wish to find the solution set of the inequality x−1 < 4.

If we were to multiply both sides of the inequality by x−1, we would have to consider
the two possibilities: (x − 1) is positive or negative. The problem is that, depending
on x, (x − 1) may be positive (which doesn’t affect the inequality) or (x − 1) could be
negative (which would reverse the inequality).Alternatively, we write an equivalent
inequality having zero on one side and nonzero terms on the other. Thus, we have
5x
−4 < 0
x−1
Combing two terms on the left side gives

5x − 4(x − 1)
< 0
x−1
x+4
< 0
x−1
A fraction can change sign only when either the numerator or denominator changes
sign. Therefore, the critical numbers of the inequality are those numbers for which
either the numerator or denominator of the rational expression on the left is zero.
Thus, we solve the equations

x+4 = 0
x−1 = 0
x = −4
x = 1

Plotting the points corresponding to these numbers as shown in Figure 10.1, we have
the following intervals:

Figure 10.1

68
10.2. EXAMPLES 69

(−∞, −4) (−4, 1) (1, ∞)

We now choose a test number in each of these intervals and determine the sign of
x+4
x−1 on the interval.Table 10.1 summarizes the results.

Table 10.1
Test Number Sign of Sign of Sign of
x+4
Interval k x+4 x−1 x−1
at k at k on interval
(-∞,−4] −5 − − +
(−4,1) 0 + − −
(1,∞) 2 + + +

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.2 shows on the real number line the points −4 and 1 as well as the sign
x+4
of x−1 on the intervals (−∞, −4), (−4, 1), and (1, ∞). The solution set of the given
inequality is then the interval (−4, 1), is appearing in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3

10.2 Examples
Example 10.2.1: Find and show on the real number line the solution set of the inequality
3x−1
x2 −x−6 ≤ 1.

Solution:
We first write an equivalent inequality having zero on the right side and nonzero
terms on the left. We then combine terms on the left and obtain a single rational
expression. The computation is as follows:

3x − 1
−1 ≤ 0
x2 −x−6

3x − 1 − (x2 − x − 6)
≤ 0
x2 − x − 6

−x2 + 4x + 5
≤ 0
x2 − x − 6

We now multiply on both sides of the inequality sign by −1, reverse the direction of
the inequality, and factor the numerator and denominator. We have
70 LESSON 10. RATIONAL INEQUALITIES

x2 − 4x − 5
≥0
x2 − x − 6
(x − 5)(x + 1)
≥0
(x − 3)(x + 2)
The critical numbers are obtained by equating both the numerator and denominator
to zero. This gives the number 5, −1, 3, and −2. Figure 10.4 shows that the points
on the real number line corresponding to these numbers separate the line into five
intervals:

Figure 10.4

(−∞, −2) (−2, −1] [−1, 3) (3, 5] [5, ∞)

We determine the sign of the rational expression on each of the five intervals by
choosing a test number in the interval. Table 10.2 summarizes the results.

Table 10.2
Test Number Sign of Sign of Sign of
(x−5)(x+1)
Interval k (x − 3)(x + 2) (x − 5)(x + 1) (x−3)(x+2)
at k at k on interval
(-∞,−2) −3 + + +
(−2,−1] −1.5 − + −
[-1,3) 0 − − +
(3,5] 4 + − −
[5,∞) 6 + + +

Figure 10.5

From the table we obtain Figure 10.5, showing on the real number line the points,
−2, −1, 3, and 5 as well as the sign of the rational expression on the intervals (−∞,
−2), (−2, −1], [−1, 3), (3, 5], and [5, ∞). The rational expression is positive in one of
the following intervals: (−∞,−2), [−1, 3), and [5, ∞).

Furthermore, this rational expression is zero if x = −1 or x = 5; thus −1 and 5

are in the solution set. Of course, the rational expression is not defined when x = −2
or x = 3 because then the denominator is zero.

Therefore, the solution set is (−∞,−2) ∪ [−1, 3) ∪ [5, ∞), appearing in Figure 10.6.

Figure 10.6
10.3. EXERCISES 71

10.3 Exercises
Directions: Find the solution set of the inequality and show the solution set on the real number
line.

x−1
1. 2x+5 <0

5t
2. t−4 ≥0

3x−8
3. 2x+3 <4

1
4. x+2 ≥0

4x
5. x2 +4 ≥0

2x+17
6. x+1 > x+5

x2 +5x+6
7. x2 −1 >0

x
8. x2 −1 >0

1
9. x2 +1 <0

3x−1
10. x2 +1 ≤1
Lesson 11

Introduction to Function and

Its Operation
Intended Learning Outcome
ˆ Perform fundamental operations on functions and composition of functions.

11.1 Introduction
Often in practical applications the value of one quantity depends on the value of another. In
particular, a person’s salary may depend on the number of hours worked; the total production
at a factory may depend on the number of machines used; the distance travelled by an object
may depend on the time elapsed since it left a specific point; the volume of the space occupied
by a gas having constant pressure depend on the temperature of the gas; the resistance of an
electrical cable of fixed length depends on its diameter; and so forth. A relationship between
such quantities is often given by means of a function. For our purpose we confine the quantities
in the relationship to real numbers. Then

Figure 11.1

Definition 11.1.1 Function

A function can be thought of as a correspondence from a set X of real
numbers x to a set Y of real numbers y, where the number y is unique
for a specific value of x.

Figure 11.1 gives a visualization of such a correspondence where the sets X and Y consist of
points in a plane region.

Stating the concept of a function another way, we intuitively consider the real number y in
set Y to be a function of the real number x in set X if there is some rule by which a unique
value of y is assigned to a value of x. This rule is often given by an equation. For example, the
equation
y = x2
defines a function for which X is the set of all real numbers and Y is the set of nonnegative
numbers: The value of y in Y assigned to the value of x in X is obtained by multiplying x by
itself. Table 11.1 gives the value of y assigned to some particular values of x and Figure 11.2
visualizes the correspondence for

72
11.2. ILLUSTRATIONS 73

Figure 11.2
X: all real numbers Y : nonnegative numbers

Table 11.1
x −4 −1 0 1 4
y 16 1 0 1 16

We use symbols such as f , g, and h to denote a function. The set of X of real numbers described
above is the domain of the function and the set Y of real numbers assigned to the values of x in
X is the range of the function.

11.2 Illustrations
1. The equation
y = 2x2 + 5
defines a function. Call this function f . The equation gives the rule by which a unique value of
y can be determined whenever x is given; that is, multiply the number x by itself, the multiply
the product 2, and add 5. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, and it can be denoted
with interval notation as (−∞,∞). The smallest value that y can assume is 5 (when x = 0).
The range of f is then the set of all positive numbers greater than or equal to 5, which is [5, ∞).

2. Finding the domain and range of the function.

Let g be the function defined by the equation
p
y = x2 − 9

Because the numbers are confined to real numbers, y is a function of x only for x ≥ 3 or x ≤ −3
(or simply | x | ≥ 3), because for any x satisfying either of these inequalities, a unique value y
is determined.

However, if x is in the interval (−3, 3), a square root of a negative number is obtained, and
hence no real number y exists. Therefore, we must restrict x so that | x | ≥ 3. The domain of g
is (−∞, -3] ∪ [3, ∞), and the range is [0,∞).

We can consider a function as a set of ordered pairs. For instance, the function defined by
74 LESSON 11. INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTION AND ITS OPERATION

the equation y = x2 consists of all the ordered pairs (x, y) satisfying the equation. Some of the
ordered pairs in this function given by Table 11.2 are (1, 1), (4, 16), (0, 0), (−1, 1), (4, 16), (0, 0),
(−1, 1),and (−4, 16). Of course, there is an unlimited number of ordered pairs in the function.
Some others are (2, 4), (−2, 4), and so on.
Definition 11.2.1 Domain and Range of Function
A function is a set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) in which no
two distinct ordered pairs have the same first number. The set of all
admissible values of x is called domain of the function, and the set of
all resulting values of y is called the range of the function.

In the above definition, the restriction that no two distinct ordered pairs can have the same first
number assures that y is unique for a specific value of x. The numbers x and y are variables.
Because values are assigned to x, and because the value of y is dependent on the choice of x, x
is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable. The concept of a function as a set
of ordered pairs permits us to give the following definition of the graph of a function.

Definition 11.2.2 Graph of a Function

If f is a function, then the graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in
R for which (x, y) is an ordered pair in f .

The graph of a function can be intersected by a vertical line in

at most one point.

Recall that to have a function there must be a unique value of the dependent variable for a value
of the independent variable in the domain of the function. Thus, we have the following geometric
fact.

√
3. Let f ={(x, y) | y = 5 − x}. A sketch of the graph of f appears in Figure 11.3. Observe that
a vertical line having the equation x = k, where k ≤ 5, intersects the graph in only one point.
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers less than or equal to 5, which is the interval (−∞,
5], and the range is the set of all nonnegative real numbers, which is [0,∞).

Figure 11.3

4. The graph of this set, shown Figure 11.4, is the circle with center at the origin and radius
5. This set of ordered pairs is not a function, because for any x in the interval (−5, 5) there are
two ordered pairs having x as the first number. For example, both (3, 4) and (3, −4) are ordered
pairs in the given set. Furthermore, observe from Figure 11.4 that a vertical line having the
equation x = k, where −5 < k < 5, intersects the graph in two points.
11.3. FUNCTION NOTATION, OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS, AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS75

Figure 11.4
The domain of a function is usually apparent from the function’s definition. Often the range can
be determined from the graph of the function.

11.2.1 Examples 1
Example 11.2.1.1: The function h is defined by h ={(x, y) | y =| x |}. Draw a sketch of the
graph of h and determine the domain and range.
Solution:
Figure 11.5 shows the required sketch. From the definition of h, x can be any real
number. Therefore, the domain is (−∞,∞). Because we observe from Figure 11.5
that y can be any nonnegative number, the range is [0,∞).

Figure 11.5

11.3 Function Notation, Operations on Functions, and Types

of Functions
If f is the function having as its domain variable x and as its range variable y, the symbol f (x)
(read “f of x” or “f at x”) denotes the particular value of y that corresponds to the value of x.

Illustrations √ √
1. In Figure 11.5, f ={(x, y) | y = 5 − x} Thus, f (x) = 5 − x.
√ √ √
Because when x = 1, 5 − x= ±2, we have f (1) = 2. Also, f (−6) = 11,f(0)= 5, and so
on.

2. In Figure 11.4, h ={(x, y) | y =| x |}. Therefore, h(x) =| x |.

We now compute h(x) for some specific values of x.

76 LESSON 11. INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTION AND ITS OPERATION

h(0) = |0| h(1) = |1| h(−1) = | −1 | h(2) = |2| h(−2) = | −2 |

h(0) = 0 h(1) = 1 h(−1) = 1 h(2) = 2 h(−2) = 2

When defining a function, the domain of the function must be given either implicitly or explicitly.
For instance, if f is defined by
f (x) = 3x2 –5x + 2
it is implied that x can be any real number. However, if f is defined by

f (x) = 3x2 –5x + 21 ≤ x ≤ 10

Then the domain of f consists of all real numbers between and including 1 and 10. Similarly, if
g is defined by the equation
5x − 2
g(x) =
x+4
It is implied that x ̸= −4, because the quotient is undefined for the x = −4: hence the domain
of g is the set of all real numbers except −4.
√ √
If h(x) = 9 − x2 , it is implied that the x is in the closed interval [−3, 3], because 9 − x2
is not a real number for x> 3 or x< − 3. Thus, the domain of h is [−3, 3] and the range is [0, 3].

11.3.1 Examples 2
Directions: Given that f is the function defined by f (x) = x2 + 3x–4. Find the following:

(a) f (0)
(b) f (2)
(c) f (h)
(d) f (2h)
(e) f (2x)
(f) f (x) + f (h)
Solution:

a. f (0) = 02 + 3 · 0 − 4
= −4

b. f (2) = 22 + 3 · 2 − 4
= 6

c. f (h) = h2 + 3h–4
11.3. FUNCTION NOTATION, OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS, AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS77

d. f (2h) = (2h2 ) + 3(2h) − 4

= 4h2 + 6h − 4

e. f (2x) = (2x)2 + 3(2x) − 4

= 4x2 + 6x − 4

f. f (x) + f (h) = (x2 + 3x − 4) + (h2 + 3h − 4)

= x2 + 3x + (h2 + 3h − 8)
f (x+h)−f (x)
Example 11.3.1.2: Given that f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 4, find h where h ̸= 0. Such a
quotient often occurs in calculus.
Solution:

f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h)2 − 2(x + h) + 4 − (3x2 − 2x + 4)

=
h h
(3x2 + 6hx + 3h2 − 2x − 2h + 4 − 3x2 + 2x − 4)
=
h
(6hx − 2h + 3h2 )
=
h
= 6x − 2 + 3h

Definition 11.3.1 Sum, Differences, Product, and Quotient of Two

Functions
Given the two functions f and g:
i their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function defined by (f + g)(x) =
f (x) + g(x)
ii their difference, denoted by f –g, is the function defined by
(f –g)(x) = f (x)–g(x)
iii their product, denoted by f · g, is the function defined by (f · g)(x) =
f (x) · g(x)

iv their quotient, denoted by f

g, is the function defined by ( fg )(x)= fg(x)
(x)

In each case the domain of the resulting function consists of those

values of x common to the domains of f and g, with the additional
requirement in case (iv) that the values of x for which g(x) = 0 are
excluded.
√
Example
√ 11.3.1.3: Given that f and g are the functions defined by f (x) = x + 1 and
g(x) = x − 4. Find the following:
a (f + g)(x)
b (f − g)(x)
78 LESSON 11. INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTION AND ITS OPERATION

c (f · g)
d ( fg )(x)
In each case determine the domain of the resulting function.
Solution: √ √
a. (f + g)(x) = x + 1 + x − 4
√ √
b. (f − g)(x) = x+1− x−4
√ √
c. (f · g)(x) = x+1· x−4
√
d. ( fg )(x)= √x−4
x+1

The domain of f is [−1,∞) and the domain of g is [4,∞). Hence in parts (a), (b), and (c), the
domain of the resulting function is [4,∞). In part (d), the denominator is zero when x = 4; thus
4 is excluded from the domain, and therefore the domain is (4,∞).

Obtaining the composite function of two given functions is another operation on functions.

Definition 11.3.2 Composite Function

Given the two functions f and g, the composite function, denoted by
f ◦ g, is defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
and the domain of f ◦ g is the set of all numbers x in the domain of g
such that g(x) is in the domain of f .

The definition indicates that when computing (f ◦ g)(x) we first apply function to x and then
function f to g(x). The procedure is demonstrated in the following illustration and example.

Illustration 3 √
If f and g are defined by f (x) = x and g(x) = 2x − 3 then

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (2x − 3)
√
= 2x − 3

The domain of g is (−∞,∞), and the domain of f is [0,∞). Therefore, the domain of f ◦ g is the
set of real numbers for which 2x − 3 ≥ 0 or, equivalently, [ 32 ,∞).

√
Example 11.3.1.4: Given that f and g are defined by f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 − 1 find the
following:
a f ◦f
b g◦g
c f ◦g
11.3. FUNCTION NOTATION, OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS, AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS79

d g◦f
Also determine the domain of each composite function.
Solution:
The domain of f is [0,∞), and the domain of g is (−∞,∞).
a. (f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x))
√
= f ( x)
√
q
= x
√4
= x

b. (g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x))
= g(x2 − 1)
= (x2 − 1)2 − 1
= x4 − 2x2

The domain is (− inf,inf).

c. (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (x2 − 1)
p
= x2 − 1
The domain is (-∞,-1] ∪ [1,∞).

d. (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

√
= g( x)
√ 2
= ( x) − 1
= x−1
The domain is [0,∞).
In part (d), note that even though x − 1 is defined for all values of x, the domain of g ◦ f , by
the definition of a composite function, is the set of all numbers x in the domain of f such that
f (x) is in the domain of g. Thus, the domain of g ◦ f must be a subset of the domain of f .

Observe, from the results of part (c) and (d) of the above example, that (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x)
are not necessarily equal.
Definition 11.3.3 Even Function and Odd Function
i A function f is said to be an even function if for every x in the
domain of f , f (−x) = f (x).

ii A function f is said to be an odd function if for every x in the

domain of f , f (−x) = −f (x).
In both parts (i) and (ii) it is understood that −x is in the domain of f
whenever x is.
80 LESSON 11. INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTION AND ITS OPERATION

Example 11.3.1.5: if f (x) = 3x4 − 2x2 + 7, then

f (−x) = 3(−x)4 − 2(−x)2 + 7

= 3x4 − 2x2 + 7
= f (x)

Therefore, f is an even function.

Example 11.3.1.6: If g(x) = 3x5 − 4x3 − 9x, then

g(−x) = 3(−x)5 − 4(−x)3 − 9(−x)

= −3x5 + 4x3 + 9x
= −(3x5 − 4x3 − 9x)
= −g(x)

Therefore, g is an odd function.

Example 11.3.1.7: If h(x) = 2x4 + 7x3 − x2 + 9, then

h(−x) = 2(−x)4 + 7(−x)3 − (−x)2 + 9

= 2x4 − 7x3 − x2 + 9

Because h(−x)̸=h(x) and h(−x) ̸= −h(x), h is neither even nor odd.

11.4 Exercises
A. Direction: Evaluate the given functions.

1. Given f (x) = 2x–1

Find:
a f (3)

b f (−2)

c f (0)

d f (a + 1)

e f (2x)

f 2f (x)

g f (x) + f (h)
11.4. EXERCISES 81

h (f (x + h) − f (x))/h , h ̸= 0
√
2. Given: G(x) = 2x2 + 1
Find:
a G(−2)

b G(0)
c G(1)
d G( 74 )

e G(2x2 − 1)
B. Directions: In exercises 3,4 and 5, the functions f and g are defined. In each exercise, define
the following functions and determine the domain of the resulting function:
a. f + g b. f − g c. f · g d. fg e. fg

3. f (x) = x − 5; g(x) = x2 –1
√
4. f (x) = x ; g(x) = x2 + 1

x
5. f (x) = 1/(x + 1) ; g(x) = x−2

C. Directions: In exercises 6,7 and 8, the functions f and g are defined. In each exercise,
define the following functions and determine the domain of the composite function:
a. (f ◦ g) b. (g ◦ f ) c. (f ◦ f ) d. (g ◦ g)

6. f (x) = x − 2; g(x) = x + 7

7. f (x) = 3 − 2x; g(x) = 6 − 3x

√
8. f (x) = x − 2; g(x) = x2 –2

D. Directions: In exercises 9-15, determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

9. f (x) = 2x4 –3x2 + 1

10. f (x) = x2 + 2x + 2

11. f (x) = 5t7 + 1

y 3 −y
12. f (y) = y 2 +1

13. f (x) = 2x3 –3x2 –4x + 4

14. g(x) = x23+2

15. h(x) = x2x−1

Lesson 12

Quadratic Functions
Intended Learning Outcome

ˆ Sketch the graph of a quadratic function.

ˆ Determine the nature and zeros of the functions.

12.1 Introduction
Quadratic functions frequently model problems involving area and projectile motion.

Definition 12.1.1 Quadratic Function

A quadratic function is a function of the form

y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,

where a, b and c are real numbers with a ̸= 0. The domain of a quadratic

function is (−∞,∞).

The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola. If several ordered pairs that satisfy
a given quadratic function are plotted on a coordinate system, the parabola can be drawn by
drawing smooth curve passing through the plotted points.

One important feature of the graph is that it has an extreme point, called the vertex . If
the parabola opens up, the vertex represents the lowest point on the graph, or the minimum
value of the quadratic function. If the parabola opens down, the vertex represents the highest
point on the graph, or the maximum value. In either case, the vertex is a turning point on the
graph. The graph is also symmetric with a vertical line drawn through the vertex, called the
axis of symmetry . The y-intercept is the point at which the parabola crosses the y-axis.
The x-intercepts are the points at which the parabola crosses the x-axis. If they exist, the
x-intercepts represent the zeros, or roots, of the quadratic function, the values of x at which
y = 0.

12.2 Examples
Example 12.2.1: Find ordered pairs that satisfy the function y = f (x) = x2 and sketch the
graph of the function.
Solution:

x -2 -1 0 1 2
y 4 1 0 1 4

82
12.2. EXAMPLES 83

Figure 12.1

It may be noted that the parabola opens upward and is symmetric about a line
y−axis. The line is called the axis of symmetry. The lowest point (0, 0) of the
parabola is called the vertex. The domain of the quadratic function is the set of real
numbers and the range is [0,∞).

Example 12.2.2: Sketch the parabola given by g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3.

Solution:

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0
y 1 -2 -3 -2 1

Figure 12.2

It may be noted that the parabola is symmetric about a line (x = −2) parallel to the
y-axis. The line is called the axis of symmetry.

As shown in the figure above, the parabola opens upward and the vertex is the
lowest point (−2, −3). The domain of the given quadratic function is the set of real
numbers and the range is [-3,∞).

Example 12.2.3: Sketch the parabola given by h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1.

Solution:

x 1 2 3 4 5
y -7 -1 1 -1 -7
84 LESSON 12. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Figure 12.3

As shown in the figure, the parabola opens downward and the vertex (3, 1) is the
highest point of the parabola. The domain of the given quadratic function is the set
of real numbers and the range is (−∞,1].

Definition 12.2.1 Standard and General Form of Quadratic Functions

Suppose f is a quadratic function.
The general form of the quadratic function f is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b and c are real numbers with a ̸= 0.

The standard form of the quadratic function f is f (x) =

2
b 2
a(x + 2a ) + 4ac−b
4a , where a, b and c are real numbers with a̸=0.

12.3 Derivation of the Standard Form of the Quadratic

Function
Consider the general quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c, where a ̸= 0. By factoring the coeffi-
cient a using the first two terms and completing the square, we get the expression below.

b
y = a(x2 + x) + c Factor out coefficient of a from x2 and x
a

b b2 b2 b2
y = a(x2 + x + 2 − 2 + c Completing the square by adding and subtracting
a 4a 4a 4a2

b b2 b2
y = a(x2 + x + 2 ) − a( 2 ) + c Group the perfect square trinomial
a 4a 4a

b 2 4ac − b2
y = a(x + ) + Factor and get a common denominator
2a 4a
b 2
The quantity (x + 2a ) is always positive or zero. Thus, if a>0, the value of y will keep on
2
increasing as x increases or decreases. Hence, the function will have a minimum value of 4ac−b 4a
b
which will occur at x = − 2a . On the other hand, if a<0, the function will keep on decreasing as x
2
increases or decreases. Hence, the function will have a maximum value of 4ac−b4a . The maximum
b
value will also occur at x = − 2a . Relating these concepts to the graph of the parabola as shown
12.3. DERIVATION OF THE STANDARD FORM OF THE QUADRATIC FUNCTION 85

in the previous examples, the vertex of the parabola will have coordinates

b 4ac − b2
 
− ,
2a 4a

The axis of symmetry of the parabola will be the lines whose equation is given by

b
x=−
2a
From these results, it follows that
a. The parabola opens upward if a>0 while it opens downward if a<0.

Figure 12.4

b. The range of the quadratic function is given by

4ac − b2 4ac − b2
   
y|y≥ if a>0 or y|y≤ if a<0
4a 4a

Definition 12.3.1 Vertex Formula for Quadratics in Standard Form

2
b 2
For the quadratic function y = f (x) = a(x + 2a ) + 4ac−b
4a , where a, b and
c are real numbers with a ̸= 0, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is
b 4ac−b2
(− 2a , 4a ).

Definition 12.3.2 Axis of Symmetry

The axis of symmetry of the parabola will be the lines whose equation
is given by
b
x=−
2a

Definition 12.3.3 Range of the Quadratic Function

The range of the quadratic function is given by

4ac − b2 4ac − b2
   
y|y≥ if a>0 or y | y ≤ if a<0
4a 4a

Example:
Convert the function f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 from general form to standard form. Find the vertex,
86 LESSON 12. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

axis of symmetry and any x− or y−intercepts. Graph the function and determine its range.
1
f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 Compute (−4) = −2
2
= x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 3 Add and subtract (−2)2 = 4 to (x2 − 4x)
= (x2 − 4x + 4) − 4 + 3 Group the perfect square trinomial
2
= (x − 2) − 1 Factor the perfect square trinomial

Vertex (2, −1)

Axis of Symmetry x=2
y-intercept (0, 3)
x-intercepts (3, 0) and (1, 0)
range [-1, ∞)

To get y−intercept, let x = 0

x 0
y = f (0) 02 − 4(0) + 3 = 3

To get the x− intercept, let y = f (x) = 0

y = x2 − 4x + 3
0 = x2 − 4x + 3
0 = (x − 3)(x − 1) by factoring

set each factor to zero

x−3 = 0 x−1 = 0
x1 = 3 x2 = 1

Graph:

Figure 12.5
12.4. EXERCISES 87

12.4 Exercises
Directions: Convert the following functions from general form to standard form. Find the ver-
tex, axis of symmetry and any x− or y−intercepts. Graph the functions and determine its range.

1. f (x) = −x2 + x + 6
2. h(x) = 2x2 − 4x − 5
3. f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 5

4. g(x) = 2x2 + 1
5. f (x) = −x2 − x + 6
6. f (x) = 2x2 + x − 12
7. f (x) = −4x2 + 2x + 7

8. g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3
9. h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1
10. g(x) = 6 − x − x2
Lesson 13

Inverse Functions
Intended Learning Outcomes

ˆ Define inverse function.

ˆ Verify that two functions are inverse functions

ˆ Find the inverse of a function.

ˆ Find domain and range of inverse functions

13.1 Introduction
A reversible heat pump is a climate-control system that is an air conditioner and a heater in
a single device. Operated in one direction, it pumps heat out of a house to provide cooling.
Operating in reverse, it pumps heat into the building from the outside, even in cool weather,
to provide heating. As a heater, a heat pump is several times more efficient than conventional
electrical resistance heating. If some physical machines can run in two directions, we might ask
whether some of the function “machines” we have been studying can also run backwards. Figure
13.1 provides a visual representation of this question. In this section, we will consider the reverse
nature of functions.

Figure 13.1 Can a function machine operate in reverse?

13.2 Verifying That Two Functions are Inverse Functions

Suppose a fashion designer traveling to Milan for a fashion show wants to know what the tem-
perature will be. He is not familiar with the Celsius scale. To get an idea of how temperature
measurements are related, he asks his assistant, Betty, to convert 75 degrees Fahrenheit to de-
grees Celsius. She finds the formula

C = 59 (F − 32) and substitutes 75 for F to calculate 59 (75 − 32)≈24◦ C

Knowing that a comfortable 75 degrees Fahrenheit is about 24 degrees Celsius, he sends his
assistant the week’s weather forecast from Figure 2 for Milan, and asks her to convert all of the
temperatures to degrees Fahrenheit.

88
13.2. VERIFYING THAT TWO FUNCTIONS ARE INVERSE FUNCTIONS 89

Figure 13.2

At first, Betty considers using the formula she has already found to complete the conversions.
After all, she knows her algebra, and can easily solve the equation for F after substituting a
value for C. For example, to convert 26 degrees Celsius, she could write
5
26 = (F − 32)
9
9 5 9
[26 = (F − 32)]
5 9 5
9
26 = F − 32
5
9
F = 26 + 32 ≈ 79
5
After considering this option for a moment, however, she realizes that solving the equation for
each of the temperatures will be awfully tedious. She realizes that since evaluation is easier than
solving, it would be much more convenient to have a different formula, one that takes the Celsius
temperature and outputs the Fahrenheit temperature.

The formula for which Betty is searching corresponds to the idea of an inverse function,
which is a function for which the input of the original function becomes the output of the inverse
function and the output of the original function becomes the input of the inverse function.

Given a function f (x), we represent its inverse as f −1 (x), read as “f inverse of x.” The raised −1
is part of the notation. It is not an exponent; it does not imply a power of −1. In other words,
f −1 (x) does not mean f (x)
1 1
because f (x) is the reciprocal of f and not the inverse.

The “exponent-like” notation comes from an analogy between function composition and mul-
tiplication: just as a−1 a = 1 (1 is the identity element for multiplication) for any nonzero
number a, so f −1 ◦ f equals the identity function, that is,

(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 ((f (x)) = f −1 (y) = x

This holds for all x in the domain of f . Informally, this means that inverse functions “undo” each
other. However, just as zero does not have a reciprocal, some functions do not have inverses.
Given a function f (x), we can verify whether some other function g(x) is the inverse of f (x) by
checking whether either g(f (x)) = x or f (g(x)) = x is true. We can test whichever equation is
more convenient to work with because they are logically equivalent (that is, if one is true, then
so is the other.) For example, y = 4x and y = 41 x are inverse functions.

(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 (4x) = 14 (4x)= x

90 LESSON 13. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f ( 14 x) =4 14 (4)= x
A few coordinate pairs of the function y = 4x are (−2, −8), (0, 0), and (2, 8). A few coordinate
pairs from the graph of the function y = 41 x are (−8, −2), (0, 0), and (8, 2). If we interchange the
input and output of each coordinate pair of a function, the interchanged coordinate pairs would
appear on the graph of the inverse function.

Figure 13.3

Definition 13.2.1 Inverse Function

For any one-to-one function f (x), a function f −1 (x) is an inverse
function of f if f −1 (y) = x. This can also be written as f −1 (f (x)) = x
for all x in the domain of f . it also follows that f (f −1 (x)) = x for all
x in the domain of f −1 if f −1 is the inverse of f .

The notation f −1 is read ”f inverse.” Like any other function,

we can use any variable name as the input for f −1 , so we will often
write f −1 , which we read as ”f inverse of x”. Keep in mind that
1
f −1 (x) ̸=
f (x)

and not all functions have inverses.

13.2.1 Examples 1
Example 13.2.1.1: Testing Inverse Relationships Algebraically

1
If f (x) = x+2 and g(x) = x1 −2, is g = f −1 ?
Solution:

1
g(f (x)) = 1 −2 = x + 2 − 2 = x
x+2

so g = f −1 and f = g −1
2
Example 13.2.1.2: Find the inverse of the function f (x) = x−3 + 4.
Solution:
2
f (x) = +4
x−3
2
y = +4
x−3
13.3. FINDING DOMAIN AND RANGE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS 91

Step 1. Replace x by y and y by x.

2
x= +4
y−3
Step 2. Solve for y.
2
x = +4
y−3
2
x−4 =
y−3
2
y−3 =
x−4
2
y = +3
x−4
Thus, f −1 (x) = 2
x−4 + 3.

13.3 Finding Domain and Range of Inverse Functions

The outputs of the function f are the inputs to f −1 , so the range of f is also the domain of
f . Likewise, because the inputs to f are the outputs of f −1 , the domain of f is the range of
−1

f −1 . We can visualize the situation as in Figure 13.4.

Figure 13.4 Domain and Range of a Function and Its Inverse

Domain and Range of Inverse Functions

The range of a function f (x) is the domain of the inverse function f −1 .
The domain of f (x) is the range of f −1 .

13.3.1 Examples 2
√
Example 13.3.1.1: If f (x) = (x − 1)2 , x ≥ 1, then the inverse function is f −1 (x) = x + 1.

The domain of f = range of f −1 = [1,∞).

The domain of f −1 = range of f = [0,∞).

13.4 Exercises
A. Direction: In each of the following exercises, find the inverse function.
92 LESSON 13. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

a f (x) = x + 3
b f (x) = x + 5
c f (x) = 2 − x

d f (x) = x3 + 5
e f (x) = 3x3 + 1
B. Direction: A one-to-one function f is given. Find the following:
a. range of f
b. f −1 and
c. range of f −1

1. f (x) = x2 –5, x ≥ 0

√
2. f (x) = x2 − 9 on [3, ∞)

√
3. f (x) = x2 − 9, x ≤ −3
Lesson 14

Exponential Functions and Equa-

tions
Intended Learning Outcomes
ˆ Define exponential functions and sketch the graph of an exponential function.
ˆ Evaluate exponential functions
ˆ Solve exponential equations.

14.1 Introduction
Focus in on a square centimeter of your skin. Look closer. Closer still. If you could look closely
enough, you would see hundreds of thousands of microscopic organisms. They are bacteria, and
they are not only on your skin, but in your mouth, nose, and even your intestines. In fact,
the bacterial cells in your body at any given moment outnumber your own cells. But that is
no reason to feel bad about yourself. While some bacteria can cause illness, many are healthy
and even essential to the body. Bacteria commonly reproduce through a process called binary
fission, during which one bacterial cell splits into two. When conditions are right, bacteria can
reproduce very quickly. Unlike humans and other complex organisms, the time required to form
a new generation of bacteria is often a matter of minutes or hours, as opposed to days or years.
For simplicity’s sake, suppose we begin with a culture of one bacterial cell that can divide every
hour. Table 1 shows the number of bacterial cells at the end of each subsequent hour. We see
that the single bacterial cell leads to over one thousand bacterial cells in just ten hours! And if
we were to extrapolate the table to twenty-four hours, we would have over 16 million!
Table 14.1
Hour 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bacteria 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024
In this chapter, we will explore exponential functions, which can be used for, among other things,
modeling growth patterns such as those found in bacteria. We will also investigate logarithmic
functions, which are closely related to exponential functions. Both types of functions have
numerous real-world applications when it comes to modeling and interpreting data.

14.2 Exponential Functions

India is the second most populous country in the world with a population of about 1.25 billion
people in 2013. The population is growing at a rate of about 1.2% each year. If this rate contin-
ues, the population of India will exceed China’s population by the year 2031. When populations
grow rapidly, we often say that the growth is “exponential,” meaning that something is grow-
ing very rapidly. To a mathematician, however, the term exponential growth has a very specific
meaning. In this section, we will take a look at exponential functions, which model this kind of

93
94 LESSON 14. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

rapid growth.

14.2.1 Identifying Exponential Functions

When exploring linear growth, we observed a constant rate of change —a constant number
by which the output increased for each unit increase in input. For example, in the equation
f (x) = 3x + 4, the slope tells us the output increases by 3 each time the input increases by 1.
The scenario in the India population example is different because we have a percent change per
unit time (rather than a constant change) in the number of people.

14.2.2 Defining an Exponential Function

A study found that the percent of the population who are vegans in the United States doubled
from 2009 to 2011. In 2011, 2.5% of the population was vegan, adhering to a diet that does
not include any animal products—no meat, poultry, fish, dairy, or eggs. If this rate continues,
vegans will make up 10% of the U.S. population in 2015, 40% in 2019, and 80% in 2050.

What exactly does it mean to grow exponentially? What does the word double have in common
with percent increase? People toss these words around errantly. Are these words used correctly?
The words certainly appear frequently in the media.
ˆ Percent change refers to a change based on a percent of the original amount.
ˆ Exponential growth refers to an increase based on a constant multiplicative rate of
change over equal increments of time, that is, a percent increase of the original amount
over time.
ˆ Exponential decay refers to a decrease based on a constant multiplicative rate of change
over equal increments of time, that is, a percent decrease of the original amount over time.
For us to gain a clear understanding of exponential growth, let us contrast exponential growth
with linear growth. We will construct two functions. The first function is exponential. We
will start with an input of 0, and increase each input by 1. We will double the corresponding
consecutive outputs. The second function is linear. We will start with an input of 0, and increase
each input by 1. We will add 2 to the corresponding consecutive outputs. See Table 14.2.
Table 14.2
x f (x) = 2x g(x) = 2x
0 1 0
1 2 2
2 4 4
3 8 6
4 16 8
5 32 10
From Table 14.2 we can infer that for these two functions, exponential growth dwarfs linear
growth.
ˆ Exponential growth refers to the original value from the range increases by the same
percentage over equal increments found in the domain.
ˆ Linear growth refers to the original value from the range increases by the same amount
over equal increments found in the domain.
14.2. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 95

Apparently, the difference between “the same percentage” and “the same amount”
is quite significant. For exponential growth, over equal increments, the constant
multiplicative rate of change resulted in doubling the output whenever the input
increased by one. For linear growth, the constant additive rate of change over
equal increments resulted in adding 2 to the output whenever the input was in-
creased by one. The general form of the exponential function is f (x) = bx , where
b is a positive real number not equal to 1.
ˆ If b >1, the function grows at a rate proportional to its size.
ˆ If 0 <b <1, the function decays at a rate proportional to its size.
Let’s look at the function f (x) = 2x from our example. We will create a table (Table 14.3 ) to
determine the corresponding outputs over an interval in the domain from −3 to 3.
Table 14.3
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 1 −2 1 −1 1
f (x) = 2x 2 = 8 2 = 4 2 = 2 2 =10 1
2 =2 2
2 =4 3
2 =8
Let us examine the graph of f by plotting the ordered pairs we observe on the table in Figure
14.1, and then make a few observations.

Figure 14.1
Let’s define the behavior of the graph of the exponential function f (x) = 2x and highlight some
its key characteristics.
ˆ the domain is (−∞,∞),
ˆ the range is (0,∞),
ˆ as x → ∞, f (x) → ∞,
ˆ as x → −∞, f (x) → 0,
ˆ f (x) is always increasing,
ˆ the graph of f (x) will never touch the x−axis, because base two raised to any exponent
never has the result of zero,
ˆ y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote,
ˆ the y−intercept is 1.
96 LESSON 14. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Definition 14.2.1 Exponential Function with Base b

If b>0 and b ̸= 1, then the exponential function with base b is the func-
tion f defined by
f (x) = bx
The domain of f is the set of real numbers, and the range is the set of
positive numbers.

14.2.3 Examples 1
Direction: Identify exponential functions.

Example 14.2.3.1: Which of the following equations are not exponential functions?

a f (x) = 43(x−2)
b h(x) =( 13 )x
c g(x) = x3
d j(x) = (−2)x
Answer: Not exponential functions are c and d.
Example 14.2.3.2: Which of the following equations represent exponential functions?
a f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 1
b g(x) = 0.875x
c h(x) = 1.75x + 2
d j(x) = 1095.6−2x
Answer: The exponential functions are b and d.

14.2.4 Evaluating Exponential Functions

Recall that the base of an exponential function must be a positive real number other than 1.
Why do we limit the base b to positive values? To ensure that the outputs will be real numbers.
Observe what happens if the base is not positive:
Let b = −9 and x = 12 .
1 √
Then f (x) = f ( 12 ) = (−9) 2 = −9 which is not a real number.
Why do we limit the base to positive values other than 1? Because base 1 results in the constant
function. Observe what happens if the base is 1:
Let b = 1.
Then f (x) = 1x = 1 for any value of x.
To evaluate an exponential function with the form f (x) = bx , we simply substitute x with the
given value, and calculate the resulting power.
14.2. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 97

14.2.5 Examples 2

Direction: Evaluate the following exponential functions.

Example 14.2.5.1 If f (x) = 2x . What is f (3)?

Solution:
f (3) = 23 = 8

Example 14.2.5.2 If f (x) = 2x . What is f (−3)?

Solution:
f (−3) = 2−3 = 1
23 = 1
8

Example 14.2.5.3 Let f (x) = 5x . Evaluate f (3), f (−2), f ( 12 )

Solution:
f (3) = 53 = 125
f (−2) = 5−2 = 512 = 1
1 √ 25
f ( 12 ) = 5 2 = 5

14.2.6 Graphing Exponential Functions

Exponential functions are used for many real-world applications such as finance, forensics, com-
puter science, and most of the life sciences. Working with an equation that describes a real world
situation gives us a method for making predictions. Most of the time, however, the equation
itself is not enough. We learn a lot about things by seeing their pictorial representations, and
that is exactly why graphing exponential equations is a powerful tool. It gives us another layer
of insight for predicting future events.

Before we begin graphing, it is helpful to review the behavior of exponential growth. Recall
the table of values for a function of the form f (x) = bx whose base is greater than one. We’ll
use the function f (x) = 2x . Observe how the output values in Table 14.4 change as the input
increases by 1.
Table 14.4
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) = 2x 2−3 = 18 2−2 = 41 2−1 = 21 20 = 1 21 = 2 22 = 4 23 = 8

Notice from the table that

ˆ the output values are positive for all values of x;

ˆ as x increases, the output values increase without bound; and

ˆ as x decreases, the output values grow smaller, approaching zero.

98 LESSON 14. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Figure 14.2
The x−axis is an asymptote.
Notice that the graph gets close to the x−axis, but never touches it.
The domain of f (x) = 2x is all real numbers, the range is (0, ∞), and the horizontal asymptote
is y = 0.

To get a sense of the behaviour of exponential decay, we can create a table of values for
a function of the form f (x) = bx whose base is between zero and one. We’ll use the function
g(x) = ( 21 )x . Observe how the output values in Table 14.5 change as the input increases by 1.
Table 14.5
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 −3 1 −2 1 −1 10 11 12 13
g(x) = ( 12 )x 2 =8 2 =4 2 =2 2 =1 2 = 1
2 2 = 1
4 2 = 1
8
Notice from the table that
ˆ the output values are positive for all values of x;
ˆ as x increases, the output values grow smaller, approaching zero; and
ˆ as x decreases, the output values grow without bound
.

Figure 14.3
The x−axis is an asymptote.
Figure 14.3 shows the exponential decay function, g(x) = ( 21 )x .

The domain of g(x) = ( 12 )x is all real numbers, the range is (0,∞), and the horizontal asymptote
is y = 0.
14.3. EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS 99

How To
Given an exponential function of the form f (x) = bx , graph the function.
1. Create a table of points.
2. Plot at least 3 points from the table, including the y−intercept (0, 1).

3. Draw a smooth curve through the points.

4. State the domain, (−∞,∞), the range, (0,∞), and the horizontal asymp-
tote, y = 0.

Practice
Draw the graph of the following pair of exponential functions on the same plane and compare
them. Consider x to be any real number.

f (x) = 2x and F (x) = 3x

14.3 Exponential Equations

Recall that for real numbers a and b, where a ̸= 0 and b ̸= 0, we have the following laws of
exponents:

ˆ am an = am+n
am
ˆ an = am−n if m > n

am
ˆ an = 1 if m = n

am
ˆ an = 1
an−m if m < n

ˆ (am )n = amn

ˆ (ab)n = an bn
an
ˆ ( ab )n = bn

ˆ a−n = 1
an

m √
ˆ an = n
am

Definition 14.3.1 Exponential Equations

Equations with variables in the exponents such as 32x−1 = 27 are called
exponential equations. To solve exponential equations, we express each
member as a power of the same base and use the property of exponen-
tial functions which states that
bx = by if and only if x = y.
100 LESSON 14. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

14.3.1 Examples 3
Example 14.3.1.1: Solve for x in 32x−1 = 27.
Solution:
Rewriting the given equation, we have

32x−1 = 33
Applying the principle that if bx = by , then x = y, we obtain

2x − 1 = 3
2x = 4
x = 2

This answer can be checked with the original equation.

1
Example 14.3.1.2: Solve for x in 33x+2 = 2187 .

Solution:
1
33x+2 =
37
33x+2 = 3−7
3x + 2 = −7
3x = −7 − 2
3x = −9
x = −3

1 2x−1


Example 14.3.1.3: Find the value of x in 9x−1 = 81 .

Solution:

 2x−1
1
9x−1 =
92
9x−1 = (9−2 )2x−1
x−1 = −2(2x − 1)
x−1 = −4x + 2
x + 4x = 2+1
5x = 3
3
x =
5

Practice

1. Find the value of 8x when 2x + 1 = 11

2. Solve for x if 9x − 3x+1 = 54
14.4. EXERCISES 101

14.4 Exercises
A. Draw the graph of the following pairs of exponential functions on the same plane and compare
them. Consider x to be any real number.

1. g(x) = 3x and G(x) = 3x+2

2. f (x) = 5x and F (x) = ( x1 )x
B. What is natural exponential function? Give an example and show its graph.

C. Solve for x in the following exponential equations.

1
1. 22x+1 = 256

2. 62x−5 = 216

3. 10−2x = 0.001
4. ( 12 )−x = 128
5. 4x+2 = 82x−1
6. ( 32 )x = ( 23 )x+1

7. 42−2x = 64−2
8. ( 31 )x+2 = 27x
9. 162x−3 = 64

10. 23x = 161−x

Lesson 15

Logarithmic Functions and Equa-

tions
Intended Learning Outcomes
ˆ Define logarithmic functions and sketch the graph of a logarithmic function.
ˆ Solve logarithmic equations.

15.1 Introduction
Logarithmic functions are the inverses of exponential functions, and any exponential function
can be expressed in logarithmic form. Similarly, all logarithmic functions can be rewritten in
exponential form. Logarithms are really useful in permitting us to work with very large numbers
while manipulating numbers of a much more manageable size. Problems that require so much
numerical calculations use the concept of logarithms to facilitate computations.

We can express the relationship between logarithmic form and its corresponding exponential
form as follows:

A logarithm base b of a positive number x satisfies the following definition.

For x>0, b>0, b ̸= 1, y = logb (x) is equivalent to by = x.
where,

ˆ we read logb (x) as, “the logarithm with base b of x” or the “log base b
of x.”

ˆ the logarithm y is the exponent to which b must be raised to get x.

ˆ the graph passes through the points (1, 0), (b, 1) and ( 1b , −1)

ˆ logb (x1 ) = logb (x2 ) if and only if x1 = x2

Also, since the logarithmic and exponential functions switch the x and y values, the domain and
range of the exponential function are interchanged for the logarithmic function. Therefore,

ˆ the domain of the logarithm function with base b is (0, ∞).

ˆ the range of the logarithm function with base b is (-∞,∞).

ˆ the graph lies entirely in the first and fourth quadrants of the xy plane

In practice, the most commonly used logarithms have base = 10 and b = e. If b = 10, we simply
write y = logx to mean that y is the logarithm of x to the base 10 (or the common logarithm),
and if b = e (where e = 2.718. . . ), we will write y = lnx to mean that y is the natural logarithm

102
15.2. CONVERTING FROM LOGARITHMIC TO EXPONENTIAL FORM 103

of x to the base e (or the natural logarithm).

We can express the relationship between logarithmic form and its corresponding exponential
form as follows:
logb (x) = y ⇔ by = x, b>0, b ̸= 1

Because logarithm is a function, it is most correctly written as logb (x), using parentheses to
denote function evaluation, just as we would with f (x). However, when the input is a single
variable or number, it is common to see the parentheses dropped and the expression written
without parentheses, as logb x. Note that many calculators require parentheses around the x. We
can illustrate the notation of logarithms as follows:

Notice that, comparing the logarithm function and the exponential function, the input and the
output are switched. This means y = logb (x) and y = bx are inverse functions.

Q & A:
Can we take the logarithm of a negative number? No. Because the base of an exponential
function is always positive, no power of that base can ever be negative. We can never take the
logarithm of a negative number. Also, we cannot take the logarithm of zero. Calculators may
output a log of a negative number when in complex mode, but the log of a negative number is
not a real number.

15.2 Converting from Logarithmic to Exponential Form

How To
Given an equation in logarithmic form logb (x) = y, convert it to exponential
form.
1. Examine the equation y = logb (x) and identify b, y, and x.
2. Rewrite logb (x) = y as by = x.

15.2.1 Examples 1
Direction: Write the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.
√
Example 15.2.1.1: log6 6 = 12
Solution:
First, identify the values of b, y, and x. Then, write the equation in the form by = x.
104 LESSON 15. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

1
√
b = g, y = 2 and x = 6
√ 1 1 √
Therefore, the equation log6 6 = 2 is equivalent to 6 2 = 6.

Example 15.2.1.2: log3 (9) = 2

Solution:
32 = 9

Example 15.2.1.3: log10 (1, 000, 000) = 6

Solution:
106 = 1, 000, 000

Example 15.2.1.4: log5 (25) = 2

Solution:
52 = 25

15.3 Converting from Exponential to Logarithmic Form

How to
To convert from exponents to logarithms, we follow the same steps in reverse.
1. In bx = y, identify the base b, exponent x, and output y
2. Write x = logb (y)

15.3.1 Examples 2
Direction: Write the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.
Example 15.3.1.1: 23 = 8
Solution:
Here, b = 2, x = 3, and y = 8.
Therefore, the equation 23 = 8 is equivalent to log2 (8) = 3.

Example 15.3.1.2: 52 = 25

Solution:
Here, b = 5, x = 2, and y = 25.
Therefore, the equation 52 = 25 is equivalent to log5 (25) = 2.

Example 15.3.1.3: 10−4 = 1

10,000

Solution:
1
Here, b = 10, x = −4, and y = 10,000 .
−4 1
Therefore, the equation 10 = 1/10, 000 is equivalent to log10 10,000 = −4
15.4. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 105

15.4 Logarithmic Functions

We move on to graphing logarithmic functions. The family of logarithmic functions includes the
parent function y = logb (x) along with all of its transformations: shifts, stretches, compressions,
and reflections.

We begin with the parent function y = logb (x). Because every logarithmic function of this
form is the inverse of an exponential function of the form y = bx , their graphs will be reflections
of each other across the line y = x. To illustrate this, we can observe the relationship between
the input and output values of y = 2x and its equivalent logarithmic form x = log2 (y) in the
table below.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
2x = y 8 4 2 1 2 4 8
log2 (y) = x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Using the inputs and outputs from table above, we can build another table to observe the rela-
tionship between points on the graphs of the inverse functions f (x) = 2x and g(x) = log2 (x).

f (x) (−3, 18 ) (−2, 14 ) (−1, 21 ) (0, 1) (1, 2) (2, 4) (3, 8)

g(x) = log2 (x) ( 18 , −3) ( 14 , −2) ( 12 , −1) (1, 0) (2, 1) (4, 2) (8, 3)

As we would expect, the x and y−coordinates are reversed for the inverse functions. The figure
below shows the graphs of f and g.

Figure 15.1

Notice that the graphs of f (x) = 2x and g(x) = log2 (x) are reflections about the line y = x since
they are inverse of each other.

Observe the following from the graph:

ˆ f (x) = 2x has a y−intercept at (0, 1) and g(x) = log2 (x) has an x−intercept at (1, 0).

ˆ The domain of f (x) = 2x , (-∞,∞), is the same as the range of g(x) = log2 (x).

ˆ The range of f (x) = 2x , (0,∞), is the same as the domain of g(x) = log2 (x).
106 LESSON 15. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

15.4.1 Characteristics of the Graph of the Parent function f (x) =

logb (x)
For any real number x and constant b>0, b ̸= 1, we can see the following characteristics in
the graph of f (x) = logb (x):
ˆ one-to-one function

ˆ vertical asymptote: x = 0

ˆ domain: (0,∞)

ˆ range: (-∞,∞)

ˆ x−intercept: (1, 0) and key point (b, 1)

ˆ y−intercept: none

ˆ increasing if b>1

ˆ decreasing if 0<b<1

How to
1. Draw and label the vertical asymptote, x = 0.
2. Plot the x−intercept, (1, 0).
3. Plot the key point (b, 1).
4. Draw a smooth curve through the points.

5. State the domain, (0,∞), the range,(-∞,∞), and the vertical asymptote,
x = 0.

Practice

Direction: Graph the following logarithmic functions of the form f (x) = logb (x)

1. y = log5 x

2. y = log 15 x

15.5 Logarithmic Equations

Equations that contain logarithmic expressions are called logarithmic equations. These equa-
tions can be solved by rewriting the given expression as a single logarithmic expression and then
taking the antilogarithm of both members of the equation. The number that corresponds to a
given logarithm is called the antilogarithm. Here we have to use the principle that states that
for a>0 and b>0, a = b if and only if loga x = logb x and that if x>0, y>0, and b ̸= 1, then x = y
if and only if logb x = logb y.
15.6. EXERCISES 107

When logarithmic equations are given, solutions to these kinds of equations are found by in-
spection and some others, by using the relation between exponential and logarithmic functions.
Examples of these are shown below:
Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions
42 = 16 log4 16 = 2
103 = 1000 log10 1000 = 2
7−2 = 491 1
log7 49 = −2
 √ n m
√a
m
Here, we have also to recall that a n = where m and n are integers.
( n a)m

15.5.1 Examples 3
Examples 15.5.1.1: Solve for x if log3 x = −2
3
Solution:
−2
Rewriting log3 x = −2
3 in an exponential form, we have x = 3
3 .

Simplifying, we obtain
−1 −1
1
x = 3(2) 3 =9 3 = √
3
9

Rationalizing the denominator, we have

√
3 √
3
1 3 3
x= √
3
9
· √
3
3
= 3

1
Examples 15.5.1.2: Solve for y if y = log3 ( 27 )

Solution:
1 1
Rewriting y = log3 ( 27 ) in an exponential form, we have 3y = 27
Simplifying, we obtain

3y = 33(−1)
y = −3

Examples 15.5.1.3: Find log2 1024.

Solution:
Let x = log2 1024
Writing in exponential form, we get
2x = 1024
2x = 210
x = 10
Therefore, log2 1024 = 10

15.6 Exercises
A. Direction: Draw the graph of the following:
1. y = log10 x
108 LESSON 15. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND EQUATIONS

2. y = 2log10 x
3. y = log10 2x
B. Direction: Write the following in logarithmic form:

1. 7−2 = 1
49
2 −4
2. 3 = 81
16

3. 10−5 = 0.00001
C. Direction: Write the following in exponential form:

1. log10 100000 = 5
1
2. log2 32 = −5
3. log5 0.04 = −2
D. Direction: Evaluate the following:

1. log27 81
2. log4 256
3. log2 128
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109
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

MARIA ANTONIETA A. BACABAC is an Associate Professor V of the

Department of Mathematics Education of the College of Science and
Technology Education (CSTE) of the University of Science and
Technology of Southern Philippines (USTP), Cagayan de Oro City. She
graduated her Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering at Adamson
University, Certificate of Teaching at Mindanao Polytechnic State
College, and both her Master of Science in Teaching Mathematics and
Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematical Sciences major in Mathematics
Education at USTP-CDO. She has published her research studies in
reputable journals and presented them in national and international
fora.

ROSIE G. TAN is a Professor I and current Chairperson of the

Department of Mathematics Education of the College of Science and
Technology Education (CSTE) of the University of Science and
Technology of Southern Philippines (USTP), Cagayan de Oro City. She
graduated her Bachelor of Science in Secondary Education major in
Mathematics as Cum Laude and Master of Science in Mathematics
Education at Central Mindanao University and Doctor of Philosophy in
Mathematical Sciences major in Mathematics Education at USTP-CDO.
She has published her research studies in reputable journals and
presented them in national and international fora.

HEIDEMAE R. TABOR is an Instructor of the Department of

Mathematics Education of the College of Science and Technology
Education (CSTE) of the University of Science and Technology of
Southern Philippines (USTP), Cagayan de Oro City. She graduated her
Bachelor of Science in Secondary Education major in Mathematics at
Cagayan de Oro College and Master of Science in Teaching Mathematics
at USTP-CDO. She is currently pursuing her Doctor of Philosophy in
Mathematics Education in the same institution. Before she joined USTP,
she was an Academic Coordinator and Mathematics Teacher to children
with special needs at iLearn Educational Intervention and Therapy
Center from 2014-2021.