AGT 230: AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

INTRODUCTION
The field of agriculture is a very dynamic field of study as many fields which changes from time
to time for it to develop. The most important objective of agricultural development is to
influence farmers to adopt/accept changes which will eventually improve their farming activities
and income. The change can emanate from the acceptance of new technology by farmers based
on the transfer of technology model (ToT), as it was assume that transfer of technology from
research institutions to farmers will trigger agricultural development.
Agricultural extension in its broad sense is considered an important instrument to support
farmers’ efforts in agricultural development in changing environment. The spread of innovations
and subsequent adoption of new ideas by farmers is the key responsibility of agricultural
organizations in developing countries. Extension services globally are being evaluated for their
relevance in terms of economical, social, technological and political development.
Graduates of agriculture often emerged enriched with theoretical and to some extent with
practical knowledge of subject matter content, but with little knowledge of communication and
interpersonal skills of imparting agricultural innovations to poor rural farmers.
Definition
Agricultural extension can be defined as an informal out of school system of education design to
help farmers to satisfy their needs, interest and desires in order to improve their farming
activities and standard of living.
It can also be defined as the process of transferring skills, innovations, technologies and
knowledge to farmers, rural communities and other stake holders to improve their agricultural
activities, general productivity and their overall well- being.
The Need for Extension Work in Agriculture
There is no doubt that agricultural extension is fundamental in the transformation process of
agricultural production activities in many parts of the world. Therefore, agricultural extension
plays a crucial role for sustainable agricultural development.
There is need for extension work in agriculture in order to bridge the gap between rural
farmers’ knowledge and available scientific knowledge in farming. The main concern of
agricultural extension is to provide farmers with the necessary education, skill and technical
information to enable them take effective farm management decisions to enhance their farming
practices. Thus, there is need for extension in agriculture so that changes may occur in all areas
of agricultural activities of farmers. Thus it may assume any of the following dimensions;
a-The farmers’ changing attitudes towards credit. He might be reluctant to accept credit for
purchase of needed farm inputs such as fertilizer, herbicides, improve seeds e.t.c. because of his
believe in self sufficiency.
b. The farmer understands that his poor yields are due to depleted soil and that he needs to
replenish the soil by the application of manures and fertilizer. This new conviction replaces an
earlier one which rested on the believe that poor yield resulted from a curse from Gods or the
manipulation of his enemies.
c. The farmer acquiring the skills needed for improved farm practices against the traditional
methods he has been using.
This indicates that every aspect of agriculture requires adequate extension services for it to
develop and be sustained. The importance of agricultural extension lies in the teaching of
farmers how to raise their own standard of living by adopting innovations and proven
technologies in their farming practices. Therefore, there is great need for extension. There is
need for extension work in agriculture because it involves;
-Encouraging adoption of improved farming methods such as climate resilience agriculture and
conservation agriculture
-Disseminating information on best practices, new technologies and new research findings.
-Supporting farmer organizations, cooperatives and community groups.
- Providing training, demonstrations and on-farm guidance.
-Facilitating access to credit, markets and other resources.
The goal is to enhance agricultural development, food security and livelihood of farmers, while
prompting sustainable agricultural practices and environmental stewardship.
History of Agricultural Extension
-Agricultural Extension in the World
The term extension was derived from the practice of British universities of having educational
programmes within the universities and other programmes outside the university buildings. The
programmes conducted outside the university were described as “extension education”. The
expression connote that an extension of knowledge from the university to places and people far
beyond the university building.
The term extension education was first introduced in 1873 by Cambridge University in
England to describe a system of education to disseminate the information and knowledge to rural
people where they live and work. Within short period of time, the idea has spread to Europe and
other part of America. Extension work is an out of school system of education in which adult and
young people learn by doing.
The term agricultural extension was only adopted in 1914when the United States Federal Smith –
Lever Act of 1914 formalized a nation wide cooperative federal state county programme and
gave operational responsibility to the land grant colleges and universities. In the beginning,
extension teaching was concerned primarily with the improvement of agriculture, using
conventional teaching methods. As time went on, home economics, youth programmes, and rural
community programmes were added. Agricultural extension spread to tropical Africa, the
Caribbean, Asia, and Latin America in bilateral aid programmes after Second World War.
Agricultural Extension in Nigeria
The history of agricultural extension is interwoven with the agricultural development in general.
This is because it is concerned with all areas of agriculture and it has been categorized as
follows;
The pre-colonial period
During this period conscious efforts were made in the selection, introduction and teaching the
practices involved in producing good varieties of crops and breeds of animals. Farmers select the
best seeds for multiplication which the seedlings were being transplanted to their farms.
Similarly, farmers introduce to their farms improved seeds and animals from the neighboring
communities and from trans-Saharan traders from neighboring countries. The farmers
themselves experimented upon and projected their production methodologies without the
assistance of formerly designated extension agents.
Extension teaching during this period was largely through apprenticeship. Families have thought
there succeeding generation crop production, animal husbandry and soil management through
observation and participation by learners.
-The Colonial Period
During the colonial era by the British, many agricultural initiative programmes were under taken
with the purpose of increasing production. The first step was the establishment of department of
botanical research in 1893with its head quarters at Olakimeji in the former western region. Its
main responsibilities include conducting research in both agriculture and forestry. In 1905, The
British Cotton Growers Association Acquired 10.35 kilometer squire of land at the site now
called More Plantation Ibadan for growing cotton to feed British textile mills. In 1910, More
plantation Ibadan becomes head quarters of the department of agriculture in southern Nigeria
while department of agriculture was opened in the north in 1912. In 1921, a Unified Department
of Agriculture was established in Nigeria after the amalgamation of North and South. The major
policy of the central Department of Agriculture was to increase production of export crops for
the British markets which were ready to absorb them for there industrial growth.
The British government also established some agricultural development schemes to upgrade
skills of farmers and to produce agricultural commodities. The kware irrigation scheme was
established in 1926. It was situated 16 miles or 25.74km north of sokoto town. Its main purposes
were to increase rice yields and provide experimental data on production under severe drought
during dry season and flooding during rainy season.
The colonial period also witness the establishment of Niger Agricultural Project in 1949 with the
aim of producing groundnut as export product and guinea corn for local consumption.
-The Post Colonial Period
This is the period after independence; agricultural extension during this period can be
categorized into two groups;
a-Government organized agricultural extension programmes which include;
1-National Accelerated Food Production Project (NAFPP) 1972
2-River basin Development Authority (RBDA) 1973
3-Agricultural Development Project (ADPs) 1975
4-Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) 1976
5- Green Revolution Programme (GRP) 1980
6- Accelerated Development Area Project (ADAP) 1982
7-Multi-State Agricultural Development Area Project (MSAP) 1986
8-The Nigerian Agricultural Insurance scheme (NAIS) 1986
9-National Fadama Development Project (NFDP) 1992
10-National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) 2004
B-Private agencies extension programmes which include;
1-Oil companies such as Shell etc
2- Some NGOs such Leventis foundation etc
3-The tobacco Company
Many international organizations have been involved in agricultural extension programmes and
rural developments in Nigeria, notable among them are;
1- World Bank
2- Food and Agricultural Organization, FOA of the United Nations
3- International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
4- United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

OBJECTIVE SOF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Each and every extension programme should have clearly defined objectives for it to be
successful. Objectives are the direction of movement. Objectives in agricultural extension means
the direction in which an extension worker wants to take his clientele or the distance he wants to
cover. For instance, in a poultry programme, the objective may be to increase the average flock
size among poultry farmers from 2000 to 5000 layers per farmer within the next five years.
However the goal for the current year may be to increase size by 1000. It should be borne in
mind that not all the farmers want to go in the same direction or can cover the same distance.
KINDS OF OBJECTIVES
The following are kinds of objectives in extension
1. Individual or Family Objectives- These are personal goals pursued in the production of crop,
animal, and general improvement of home. In pursuing individual objective, one acts on his own
independent of the group.
2. Group Objective- This refers to the purpose a group wants to achieve. Such group may be
young farmers’ club, farmers’ cooperative society, farmers’ council, marketers etc. The objective
of the group may be to improve the quality of their produce such as cocoa, rice, beans, maize
e.t.c. or market their produce in order to maximize profit. In pursuing such objectives, the group
could exert some influence on individuals to cooperate in achieving such results. The time spent
by the extension worker in helping them to define their objectives can help them acquire the
ability to acquire the ability to develop some focus, which in turn, will motivate them toward
greater achievement.
3. Short term or immediate objectives-These are objectives that are set to be achieved within
short period of time. These could be objectives that take care of daily needs of individuals or
those set to address issues that demand urgent attention in order to avert dangerous
consequences.
4. Long Term Objectives- These are objectives set by an individual or group to be attained
during relatively long period of time. This could be because of long and complex process
involved in achieving the objectives or the objectives are intended to be achieved in phases.
5. Broad Objectives- These are all inclusive objectives of society. They are achieved with great
difficulty mainly because progress is not that apparent as in the more specific objectives.
Another difficulty is that measurement of progress is not feasible. They cover many aspects of
issues to be achieved within a specified time frame.

CIRCUMSTANCES UNDER WHICH ADULT LEARN

Adults unlike children have special cases when it comes to learning. For you to effectively
transmit the message to them, you have to consider the situation under which they learn. These
situations are the circumstances which they learn and may include the following;
1. The extension agent is assessed to be knowledgeable and capable of transmitting information
effectively. Adult learners have much more experience than children. They may know certain
things other than what the extension is teaching them. As a result of that, they may not accept all
what the extension worker says without checking them against what they have learnt from
experience. The more knowledgeable and experienced the farmers are, the more they will expect
the extension worker to back up any rule, recommendation, prescription with sound argument,
proof and demonstration of evidence.
2. The content of learning is access to relate to their immediate needs and problems and would
solve them. Extension education differs from school or class room education, it prepares its
clientele to tackle the problems of today and help them to live here and now. The subject matter
is largely practical and need immediate application of solutions to their problems.
3. The method of learning is informal- Unlike other formalized institutions of learning,
agricultural extension operates informally in non-class room system. Where farmers gather for
education is a class, since the farmers’ needs are the most important. There is no need for a fixed
class, curriculum or course of study. The subject matter is largely practical and needs immediate
application of solutions to problems. The audience most a times is heterogeneous comprising
young and adults of both sexes.
4. The learning process is not made cumbersome- It is therefore, to start from general concepts of
human behaviour and then apply them according to different set of circumstances as they occur.
Extension worker should therefore start from simple to complex matters in his interaction with
adults for better attention and understanding.
5.The language approach adopted by the teacher are understood – The basic concept of extension
can be understood on the ground that human behaviour arises from interaction of man and his
environment, therefore extension worker should use a language that farmers can understand well.
The approach which he may use in interacting with the farmers also should be acceptable to
them, since he is dealing with mostly adults.
6. The teacher is acceptable to them- The teacher should try as much as he can to be acceptable
them in such a way that the learners could be bold enough to confront him with their
dissatisfaction. Since adults learners require equal treatment in all matters, the need for learners’
center curriculum becomes more apparent. We require scientific study of the adults in order to
better satisfy their needs.
PRICIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
These are the guide lines for the conduct of extension work and they are the bed rock upon which
extension work or services rests. They are fundamental guides which differentiate between
extension and non-extension work. These principles differ with the kind of community in which
extension education is carried out. Extension workers therefore, should endeavor to follow
democratic methods in their dealings with farmers.
The main objective of extension is to initiate actions that might lead to improvement on the
farms, in the homes and in within community institutions. The reason for this is that, methods
adopted by extension worker are of great importance for his ultimate success. These principles
include;
-Extension education should start where people are – That is at the level of their knowledge,
understanding, interest and the degree of readiness of the people. New ideas must be related to
what the farmers already know and that with which they are familiar with. It means personal
contact with local condition and its environment, an understanding of social structure, the habits,
tradition, attitude and economic status of the people and the society.
-As a means to help people to help themselves- An extension worker can not go far with people
unless they want to help themselves. Therefore, programs must start with the felt needs of the
people and proceed to others that are also needed by them. An extension worker should try to
discover the real needs of the people. All people in the community do not want the same thing at
the same time, and in the same fashion. Their values differ and do so their goals and ability to
achieve them.
-Use of different teaching Methods to convey the information. A teaching method can be
conceived in teaching a segregated learning unit. This is equally based on the principle of variety
in the spice of life and that no method will help to bring out desirable changes in people. The
implication of this principle is that, the more the variety of ways a topic is presented and
practiced, the quicker the people tend to understand the subject matter.
-Use of local leaders and existing institutions. Extension worker should take the advantage of
any existing groups or institutions to involve people in extension programmes. People in rural
areas tend to listen more to local leaders than even the extension workers since they are power
brokers and inability of the extension worker to work with them makes it for him not to succeed
in his programmes. This principle must be adhered to if innovation is to be well adopted by the
local people.
The use of local leaders makes it possible for extension agents spread services over a wide range
area within short period of time. There are numerous organizations and groups that are in
existence in Nigeria such as Farmers’ cooperative societies, Farmers councils, Village unions
etc. All these groups should be used more intensively in involving the people in extension work.
-The best programmes are the ones planned by people and extension worker working together.
Planning programmes with local people is an important part of extension teaching. By
participating in programme planning, people learn to work together as decisions made by people
have more force and greater support than decision made for them by an outsider.
-Extension work should be based on facts and knowledge. This principle can be achieved
through the process of working closely with researchers and the farmers. Therefore, extension in
this regard will be seen as an intermediary or a link between researcher and the farmers. Any
new idea an extension worker is presenting to farmers, he should make sure that he has facts on
the ground to protect the idea and the idea has to be something practicable. He should also have
in-depth knowledge of the idea so that he can be able to transmit the new technology effectively
and be able to answer any question which may arise from the farmers.
-Extension worker should promote the use and development of volunteer leaders. It is through
this forum that the extension agent can reach many people and educate them on the need for
change. This principle therefore sees volunteer leaders as loud speakers for extension. Without
the use of these local leaders, most of the planned programmes would not be achieved.
-The principle of professionalism should be followed. Extension workers should therefore work
with professionals who can sell their ideas or programmes to the clientele. Credibility is
therefore essential here. It should provide continuous opportunity, additional training and
professional improvement for its staff. Extension worker should be professional in the field or
aspect which he needs his clientele to understand and make use of it, which is he has to be vast in
the subject matter so that he can pass the information perfectly.

EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

The most important aspect of agricultural extension is to convey farm information and research
findings to the clientele (farmers). To achieve this, selection of appropriate teaching method to
convey the information or message is required. Extension teaching methods are the channels,
media and avenues through which these farm information and research findings are conveyed or
become accessible to farmers. An understanding of the strength and weakness of the various
extension teaching methods available to extension worker is essential. This is because the result
of any extension work depends on the method he used to convey the message and to persuade
them to adopt new farm practice.
A variety of teaching method should be used if maximum impact is to be made. This is because
people learn and acquire information in different ways. This is particularly true of farmers who
mostly have varying learning styles and preferences for receiving information. Based on the level
of felt needs, some will attend educational meetings, some will attend educational tours or field
days, some will read materials given to them. Others will read material sent to them, while others
will watch television, video tapes or listen to radio programmes and still others will prefer
individual consultations.
 It is necessary for all extension service providers to understand the classification and
usefulness of various extension teaching methods so that they will know which method is best
for a particular situation .The methods use in extension are;
A-Individual Method
B- Group Method
C- Mass Media Method
A-Individual Method –This involves the use of spoken language to contact the farmers and
convey the message and new ideas to farmers, because learning is an individual process. The
extension worker must know the farmer and his situation very well to be able to convince him to
adopt a new practice. The degree of farmers’ participation in response to development
programme is dependent on the ability of the extension worker to establish good rapport with
them through personal contact. This involves the use of spoken language, farm and home visit.
Telephone calls, office calls, personal letters etc.
B-Group Method- Group participation is very instrumental in influencing the thinking of
farmers, their feeling and action on the subject matter under discussion. When an extension
worker presents an idea to a group, the participants may ask questions, exchange ideas with one
another and may stimulate one another. Group method therefore have been found to assist people
in moving from awareness stage to interest stage and even to trial stage of adoption process.
During the meeting process, provision should be made for use of models, charts, specimens,
pictures etc. to illustrate points. Towards the end of the meeting, time should be allowed for
question and answers which will help clarify specific ideas. Group method includes general
meetings, group discussion, field days, method demonstration, tours etc.
C- Mass Media Method- This extension method of teaching is being used because of high
speed and low cost with which information can be communicated within short period of time and
can cover a very large area. It exposes large number of people to the same information at the
same time. They are generally useful as initial source of information to farmers and constitute
methods of notifying farmers of new development and emergencies and acts as stimulants in
stimulating farmers’ interest in new ideas and practices. The various tools which come under
mass media classification include news papers, magazines, radio, television, publications, mails
and other social media channels.

EXTENSION COMMUNICATION
Generally, extension services are communicative in nature. The ultimate aim of extension system
is to effectively deliver information to end users in comprehensive and utilizable manner.
Agricultural extension communication cut across all areas of agriculture such as animal
production, forestry, crop production, food processing, environmental conservation, farm
mechanization etc. where there are much information to disseminate to enhance the production
capacity of those involved.
Effective extension communication involves using appropriate communication channels,
strategies and methods to reach and engage the target audience taking into account there needs
preference and cultural background.
Agricultural extension communication can be defined as the means of transmission or sending
information, new ideas or message to farmers with conscious intention of changing there
behaviour towards farming activities.
It also refers to the process of sharing information, ideas, and knowledge between extension
agents, experts and target audiences such as farmers, communities and organizations.
Characteristics of Extension Communication
1.Agricultural extension communication is a two way process- The extension agent communicate
to farmers and farmers also give feed back on innovations that has been introduce to them.
2. Communication in extension communicates ideas- The extension agent must know and
receive the impact point which must be accurate, clear and appropriate to farmers.
3. Communication must be organized. Presentation of ideas should be arranged to cover the
essential areas. Extension worker should be timely and address the issue in articulate manner.
Materials to be used must be carefully selected and arranged so that it can proceed step by step
and in logical manner.
4. Communicator must assume some social responsibilities- Ideas that are communicated may
sometimes have harmful effects. For example, the extension agent may encourage the use of
chemicals in disease and pests control, some could be harmful to human being. The extension
worker should try to communicate effectively to farmers in such a way that they can fully
understand how to handle them and avoid side effects of such to them and their families.
5. Receiver must cooperate in communication- It is important that the materials presented in
communication should be arranged in such a way that the clientele will want to cooperate by
listening, watching or responding to such messages.
6. It should be noted that there are some standard that affect the success of a communicator.
These include the use of correct words, symbols, knowledge or their meanings. Conform into
local customs and courtesy, local authority and be in good taste etc.
Elements of Extension Communication
For effective communication to take place there has to be key factors that influence the
effectiveness of the communication. These factors are the elements of extension communication
which are;
1.The communicator/sender- This is an individual, group working together or an institution
responsible for the initiation of communication and ensuring that the objectives of the exercise
are clearly defined and achieved. It is important that he should be adequately trained and
competent in disseminating information to clientele.
Characteristics of a Good Communicator
1. A good communicator should have the interest of the audience and their welfare. Understand
how his message can help and how he himself can improve and update his skills.
2. A good communicator should speak concisely and clearly
3. Prepares his communication clearly and carefully using the most appropriate materials and
devices.
4. Use simple language that is easily understood by the audience.
5. He has to have good understanding of the audience. He should have good knowledge of the
interest, needs of the audience and how to present the message.
6. Appreciate the need for mutual understanding between the teacher and the learner.
Factors that Lead to Poor Extension Communication by the Communicator
1. The communicator not given full information to the audience. If he gives half information as it
relates to learners problem he may be causing more problems rather than solving the problems.
2. Failure to appreciate the need to keep to time of appointment and not being innovative.
3. The communicator not starting from the area of need and interest of the audience.
2. The Message
This is the information that a communicator wishes to pass to the audience. It could be the
innovation that is being introduced to the clientele. Message content should be relevant to the
receiver; this implies that the message sent must be technically feasible, economically beneficial
and acceptable with respect to the norms and values of society.
Characteristics of message
a. It must be simple, timely and factual.
b. It must be inline with the need and interest of the group receiving the message.
c. Be appropriately organized and should start from simple to complex perspective.
d. Relative advantage, the degree to which the new idea as perceived as being better than
the one it seeks to replace.
e. Observability, the degree to which the result of an innovation or the message content are
visible to the farmers.
3. The Channels
These are means through which a message travels from the source to the receiver and vice
versa. Communication channels may assume the following
a. Physical channels which involve direct contact with the audience such as visits, seminars,
workshops, exhibitions, advisory village meetings, agricultural shows etc.
b. Non-physical channels such as Tv, radio, phone calls, news papers, magazines and other
print media channels. The more sense are employed in the communication process, the most
likely the communication message will be easily understood.
4. The Receiver
These are the target audiences of the communication process. They are those whom the
source/ sender wish to receive, understand and use the new idea or innovation. In extension the
receivers could be farmers, processors and other end users of information. The receiver starts the
feed back process and also serves as the last person in the communication process.
5. The Effect
Communication effect connotes the phonotypical or overt change in the receivers behavior,
which occurs as a result of the message received. This change in behavior could be in terms of
knowledge, skills, attitude or habit. Effective communication takes place if it results in the
intended behaviour of the receiver or audience.
6. Feed Back
This refers to response from the receiver to the source. By the concept of feed back in the
communication process, the source is thus seen as the receiver. Feed back is an indispensable
device that can be harnessed to measure the success or failure of communication process. In fact,
sending a message alone without finding out the extent of its diffusion and use among members
of social system and of curse the effect of such a message could be a useless exercise.

CONCEPT OF INNOVATION AND ADOPTION IN EXTENSION

Innovation
An innovation is object, practice/skill or an idea that is perceived new by individual or other
units of adoption. Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes aware of
objects around oneself and of events taking place. The technologies develop through research are
innovations. These may be new herbicides and medicines, breeds of animals, variety of crops,
new practice or techniques of doing things etc. Farmers themselves may develop some new
practices which are also innovations. Irrespective of the time period the idea or practice was
originally developed, when a person first become aware of it, it is an innovation to that person.
Diffusion
This is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among members of the social system. It is a special type of communication, in which the
message is concerned with new idea. It is this “newness” of the idea in the message content of
communication that gives diffusion its special character. The diffusion of an innovation is
essentially a social process in which subjectively perceived information about a new idea is
communicated.
Adoption
Diffusion of an innovation in a social system takes place through its adoption by individual or
groups. Adoption is the decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action.
Diffusion of an Innovation
Diffusion of an innovation refers to the spread of those innovations through a population, and is
simply the result of a host of individual adoption decisions.
Innovation in Agricultural Extension
Innovation---An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an
individual or other units of adoption. Perception is an activity through which an individual
becomes aware of object around oneself and of events taking place. The technologies developed
through research are innovations. These may be new varieties of crops, new breeds of animals,
new machines for carrying out different work on farm, chemicals, medicines, new technique or
practice of doing things etc. Irrespective of the time period the idea or practice was originally
developed, when a person first become aware of it, it is an innovation to that person.
Diffusion—Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channel over time among members of the social system. It is a special type of communication, in
that messages are concerned with new ideas. It is this “newness” of the idea in the message
content of communication that gives diffusion its special character. The diffusion of an
innovation is essentially a social process in which subjectively perceived information about anew
idea is communicated.
Adoption --- A diffusion of an innovation within a social system takes place through its adoption
by individual or groups. Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best
course of action available.
Diffusion of an innovation—Diffusion of an innovation refers to the spread of those
innovations through a population, and is simply the result of a host of individual adoption
decisions. If individual adoption decisions are, to an extent, predictable, then the large diffusion
process is also predictable. It follows a pattern, and that element of predictability has substantial
implications. Therefore the diffusion process can be explained with terms given by Rogers as
“the spread of new idea from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate use of adopters”.
The diffusion of innovations is essentially a social process in which subjectively perceived
information about a new idea is communicated.
The process by which new idea is communicated within a social system is called “diffusion”. An
innovation, however, diffuse within a social system through its adoption by an individual or
groups.
Adoption process ---This is the mental process through which a farmer passes from the first
stage of acquiring knowledge of an innovation to taking decision weather to accept or reject it
and confirmation of his decision. The process consists of the following steps.
1. Knowledge: The farmer comes to know about the technology through his personal contact
with extension personnel, peers (friend and neighbours) or through his exposure to radio,
television, magazines etc. At this stage the farmer is exposed to the existence of the technology
and he develops an understanding about it.
2. Persuasion: In the persuasion stage, the farmer develops a favourable (positive) or
unfavourable (negative) attitude towards the technology. This depends upon the extent of
knowledge he acquires, the credibility of the source through which he gets the information on the
technology and finally how he interprets the technology or the information.
3. Decision: The farmer may opt to choose either to adopt or reject the technology. Normally he
may not adopt it unless he/she tries it on a small scale himself or he observes the trial by farmers
with similar socio-economic status or by extension personnel who organizes demonstrations on
the use of the technology. Till this stage, it is a mental exercise, which goes on within an
individual.
4. Implementation: In this stage, the farmer implements his decision to adopt or reject the
technology. He is more actively engaged in seeking information about the source and availability
of the technology, procedure to use it and possible solution for the likely problems he may
encounter while using the technology.
5. Confirmation: At this stage, the farmer seeks additional knowledge and information as
reinforcement of the decision already made to confirm whether he has taken the right decision.
If the additional information is conflicting with the earlier information, he may possibly alter his
decision.
To what extent the farmer adopts a particular innovation could be measured as the ratio of actual
adoption and the potentiality of adoption. It is expressed on the percentage. The extent of
adoption of various technologies are significantly influenced by important factors such as
farmers’ education, size of family, land holding, herd size, training received, contact with
extension agent, innovative proneness, level of aspiration, knowledge and attitude of farmers and
so on .
The Stages of Adoption
A diffusion of innovation within a social system takes place through its adoption by individual or
groups. Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action
available. The decision to adopt an innovation an innovation involves a process composed of
learning, deciding, and acting over a period of time. The adoption process, as a decision-making
process goes through a number of mental stages before making a final decision to adopt an
innovation. The way in which an individual adopts an innovation involves the following five
stages:
a. Awareness stage—This is the starting stage the farmer comes to know the existence of the new
idea but he doesn’t have full information about the idea. At this stage, the farmer is aware of the
idea but lack full information about it.
b. Interest stage— The farmer develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional
information about it either from the extension officer or from fellow farmers or from any other
source which he feels credible. That means the farmer acquires more information about an
innovation or idea by wanting to know what the innovation/idea is, how it works and what its
potentialities are.
c. Evaluation stage-- At the evaluation stage, the farmer makes mental application of the new
idea in the present and anticipated future situations and decides whether or not to try it. He
judges the utility of the innovation. Make an assessment whether the idea is applicable to his
own situation and if applied what would be the result.
c. Trial stage—The farmers may not take up any new idea or an innovation right away on a large
scale because he/she doesn’t want to take risk even though the potential of the idea has been
proved. The new idea is applied on a small scale in order to determine its utility, feasibility and
applicability in his own situation.
e. Adoption Stage—Being satisfied with the performance of the new idea tested on small scale in
his own situation, the farmer uses the new idea continuously on full scale. Trial may be
considered as the practical evaluation of an innovation. The innovation now becomes a part of
his farming activities. It provides the advantage of the innovation and hence the farmer takes
final decision and applies the innovation in a scale appropriate to his own situation on a
continued basis.
ADOPTER CATEGORIES
There are five adopter categories, or classifications of the members of a social system on the
basis on their innovativeness. The categories are as follows:
1. Innovators are the first 2.5% of the individuals in a social system to adopt an innovation.
There interest in new ideas leads them out of local cycle of peer network and into more
cosmopolite social relationships. Communication patterns and friendship among a clique of
innovators are common, even though the geographical distance between the innovators may be
considerable. Being an innovator has several prerequisites. Control of substantial financial
resources is helpful to absorb the possible loss from an unprofitable innovation. The ability to
apply and understand complex technical knowledge is also needed. The innovator must be able
to cope with a high degree of uncertainty about an innovation at the time of adoption. Though an
innovator may not be respected by the other members of social system, he plays great role in the
diffusion process.
2. Early adopters are the next and they constitute 13.5% of the adoption process. They are more
integrated part of the local system than are innovators. Where as innovators have urban contacts
(cosmopolitanism), early adopters live within the local communities. They have the greatest
degree of opinion leadership in most system. Potential adopters look to early adopters for advice
and information about the innovation. This adopter category is generally sought by change
agents as a local missionary for speeding diffusion process. They are generally not too far ahead
of the average individual in innovativeness; they serve as role models for many other members
of the social system. They are respected by their peers and are the embodiment of success and
are discrete in the use of new ideas. They know that to continue to earn this esteem of colleagues
and to maintain a central position in the communication network of the system; they must make
judicious innovative decisions. They decrease uncertainty about the new idea by adopting it and
then conveying subjective evaluation of the innovation to near peers through interpersonal
networks.
3. Early majority are the next with 34% of the population in the system. They adopt new ideas
just before average member of the system. They interact frequently with there peers, but seldom
holds the position of opinion leadership in a system. They have unique position between early
adopters and late adopters which make them an important link in the diffusion process. They
provide interconnectedness in the system’s interpersonal network. They make one third of the
members of the system. They deliberate for some time before adopting a new idea. They follow
with deliberate willingness in adopting innovations but seldom lead.
4. Late majority are the next with 34% of individuals in the system. They also make one-third of
the members of the system. They adopt as a result of increasing pressures from peers. They
follow innovations with skeptical care and mostly they do not accept until most others in their
system have done so. The weight of system norms must definitely favor an innovation before the
late majority is convinced. Their relatively scarce resources means that most of the uncertainty
about a new idea must be removed before the late majority feel that it is safe to adopt. They are
isolates, traditional bound and do not encourage any adoption. Their participation in community
social system or organization is very low. They are low in their education, change agent contact
and media exposures.
5. Laggards are the last that constitute the remaining 16% of the individuals in the system. They
possess almost no opinion leadership. They are traditional minded people; many are nearly
isolated in the social network of the social system. They hardly participate in community social
systems or organizations and their activities are very low. They are low in their education,
change agent contact and media exposures. The point of reference for the laggards is the past.
They tend to be suspicious of the innovation the change agents. Resistance to innovations on the
part of laggards may be entirely rational from the laggards’ view point as their resources are
limited and they must be certain that new idea will not fail before they can adopt. They are the
last to adopt or do not even adopt the innovation.
Attributes of an Innovation
1. Relative Advantage – This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be better than
the idea it supersedes. The relative advantage may have number of dimensions. For example, if
the new idea gives more yield or income or saves time, labour, cost, has less risk than the
existing one. Multiple use of an innovation may be a form of relative advantage. For example,
equipment or material which can be used for number of activities has more advantage than the
one with single purpose. The advantage of location for a specific enterprise in specific areas may
provide some relative advantage. The innovations with relative advantage may be adopted easily
and quickly. The degree of relative advantage is often expressed as economic profitability, social
prestige, or other benefits. The nature of the innovation determines what specific type of relative
advantage (economical, social and the like) is important to adopters.
2. Compatibility—This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with
the existing values, past experiences and needs of the receivers. An idea that is not compatible
with the salient characteristics of social system will not be adopted so rapidly as an idea that is
compatible. It ensures greater security and less risk to the receiver and makes the new idea more
meaningful to him. An innovation may be compatible (1) with socio-cultural values and beliefs
(2) with previously introduced ideas or (3) with client needs for innovations.
3. Complexity—This is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be relatively difficult
to understand and use. The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of the social
system is negatively related to its rate of adoption. That means the higher the complexity of the
technology, the lower the rate of adoption of innovation. However, complexity of an innovation
may not deter its adoption provided it has relative advantage. Complex technologies, because of
their complicated and intricate nature, require consistent training and communication support for
the clientele, for their adoption and continued use.
4. Trialability—Is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented on a limited basis
before deciding to adopt. New ideas that can be tried on the installment plan will generally be
adopted more rapidly than innovations that are not divisible. Trialability of an innovation is
important for its diffusion for several reasons. The feeling of insecurity associated with the
adoption of something new and previously unknown is greatly minimized if it can be tried out on
small scale. The result of the trial, if successful, not only minimizes the insecurity and risk, it
also gives the farmer an opportunity to evaluate the innovation in terms of its feasibility and
applicability to his own situation.
Earlier adopters tend to be more concerned about the trialability of an innovation than later
adopters. Trialability of an innovation as perceived by the members of the social system is
positively related to its rate of adoption. Transfers of technologies are faster with technologies
which can be demonstrated on small scale basis (trial basis).
5. Observability—Is the degree to which the result of an innovation are visible/observable,
demonstrable and communicable to farmers .The result of some ideas are easily observed and
communicated to others, where as some are difficult to describe to others. This is perceived by
members of social system as it is positively related to its rate of adoption. The visible impact of
an innovation facilitates its diffusion in a social system. The problem of lack of observability
may, however, be overcome by strengthening extension effort like training and communication
which enlarge one reasoning and vision.
6. Divisibility-- This is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with small
units. Purchase of tractors or harvesters and use is a one time investment. Part of it can not be
purchase and tried in phases though they could be hired.
7. Accessibility— This is the degree to which an innovation can be readily available with little or
no effort. There is little need for change agent to push farming inputs that farmers either can not
afford or for infrastructures do not exist for its distribution.
Reason for Adoption/ Rejection of an Innovation
The adoption/rejection of an innovation or technology depends to a great extend on the following
elements of technology transfer.
a. The farmers’ knowledge and attitude towards the technology which in turn depend on their
socio-economic status which include his caste, education, family size and type, income, herd size
b. The quality of extension service and number of extension personnel per thousand farm
families or thousand animals.
c. Perception of the technology by the farmer under his situation as superior and relatively
advantageous than the existing technology or other way.
d. The extent to which requisite infrastructural facilities and support services are accessible to the
farmers.
Improving the Rate of Adoption
1.Make sure that the critical elements in technology adoption are the characteristics of
technology, socio-economic characteristics of the farmer, quality of extension work and
accessibility of infrastructural facilities, which are appropriate and matching.
2. Field testing of technology is essential for identifying the conditions suitable for technology
adoption as well as for modifying it to suite the requirements of the target group. It is worth
conducting on farm trials to test and evaluate the technologies.
3. Make sure the technology developed addresses the needs of the farmer and definitely superior
to the existing technology. The researcher must be in close touch with the user of his/her
technology starting from planning the research project to the final evaluation of the project.
4. Efforts must be made to educate the farmers to improve the knowledge and skill to change
their attitude favourable to technologies.
5. The knowledge of the farmer which is a pre-requisite to the adoption could be reinforced
through combination of communications media, such as radio, Tv, social media and trough
demonstrations and group discussion.
6. The extension agencies must strive hard to translate the technologies in to suitable messages as
to enable the literate farmers to understand the message without any ambiguity. Conflicting
messages must be avoided. It is better to identify the technologies suitable for the area and all the
extension agencies operating in the area must make similar recommendations.
7. Motivation of the farmers to increase production.
8. Frequent interaction between the scientist, extension personnel and farmers to discuss several
issues pertaining technology development, processing , refinement and utilization.
9. Making sure that all the necessary technical inputs is in adequate quantities.
10. Efficient livestock and crop marketing network must be created in the area as it motivates the
farmers to improve production.

AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

Meaning of audio-visual aids-These are devices that are used by the speaker in order to assist
learners to easily understand and remember the information and knowledge that he/she trying to
pass across the audience. It helps to make teaching and learning more effective by engaging
more than one sense at a time. Some of the reasons why we use audio-visual aids include;
1. To capture audience attention.
2. They can highlight the main points of the talk clearly and concisely.
3. People mostly remember messages perceived with several senses better than those perceived
with single a single sense.
4. The possibility of misinterpreting concepts is reduced.
5. Some aids help us to structure our messages in a systematic manner.
However, regardless of the benefits of audio-visual aids they will be of little use if operators do
not know how to incorporate them effectively into a presentation. Introducing them at the wrong
time or using them incorrectly can disrupt the flow of a presentation and thereby forgetting
essential or vital information intended for the listeners.
There are effective ways of incorporating audio-visual aids which include;
1. Select the audio-visual aids in accordance with:
a. The educational and instructional objectives of embarking of the activity
b. Composition and size of the audience (Is it large or small audience? How young or old are the
audience? How educated are they? e.t.c.)
c. The nature of the extension message (it should be noted that abstract concepts are difficult to
convey visually).
d. The available audio-visual aids.
2. It is necessary to display them where they can be seen by everyone. Audio materials that can
not be heard or lettering that can not be seen will make the audience become restless and
inattentive.
3. When using the audio-visual aids you should position them away from your body e.g. when
discussing something on chart, graphs or slide, you should use a pointer such as ruler, since this
allows the presenter stand further away from the aid.
4. Talk to the audience not the audio-visual aids. Although you need to glance at the aid
occasionally, and the audience attention will naturally be focused upon it. It is still important to
maintain eye contact with the audience.
5. Display the audio visual aids only when discussing them. When it is no longer the focus of
attention, remove it or turn it off. When ever an audio-visual aid is in sight, some listeners will
be focused upon it and not on the presenter.
6. Explain the audio-visual aid clearly and concisely. The presenter should use it to reinforce
message, complement and supplement spoken words, refer to subject matter content, explain
them and ask questions about them. In using them, do not assume that the audience knows the
purpose of presenting them.
Types of Audio -Visual Aids
1. Overhead transparencies— These are an effective and commonly used audio-visual aids. They
can be used in small or large meetings which are formal or informal.
2. Video Tape-They are used when teachers want to present information that entails objects.
Professionally produced video tapes on wide variety of subjects can be rented or purchased for
educational purposes. Also, educators may wish to shoot their own video using video concorders,
to show in class room or extension settings.
3. Photographs and Pictures-Theses aids serve basically the same purpose as physical models.
The photographs must be quite large for ease of viewing by the entire audience. They are not
practical for use in large groups.
4. Posters and flip Charts—They are very effective for summarizing information. Care should be
taken to ensure that graphs and charts are as simple as possible and large enough to see.
5.35mm Slides-They represent an easily manageable and elegant visual format. They allow you
to bring realism in to your presentation.
6. Computer Generated slides/Graphics—These are similar to overhead transparencies in that
they can provide textual information through the use of a computer (usually laptop) and a
computer projector. However, computer generated slides also can encompass scaned-in
photographs and slides, clip art, audio clips and video segments.
THE CONCEPT OF EXTENSION ADMINISTRATION
Administration in extension is concerned mainly with bringing human beings together for the
purpose of executing extension work or function. For a meaningful extension administration,
mutual co-existence among members of an extension system is necessary. Extension
administration recognizes the existence of people with diverse interest, attitude, aptitude and
social background. Therefore, extension is designed to serve farmers with differences in
orientation.
Principles of Extension Administration
1. Effective administration occurs when authority and responsibilities delegated and assigned to
an individual or group are clearly defined and understood. A job description which clearly set out
the duties of each person and the degree of authority given is very crucial. Job description is a
statement describing the duties of a worker. Job specification is a statement that explains the
minimum requirements of the staff qualification.
2. A two way communication channel must exist for a meaningful administration of an extension
system to be achieved. Vertical and horizontal communication should be maintained to develop
desirable staff attitude and interest in an organization. Thus, communication is in separately link
with co-ordination which is a process by which multitude of skills, attitude and interest in an
agency are bound together.
3. The structure of an administrative organization is established in a subordinate-super-ordinate
manner or hierarchy. Each worker should know his supervisor. Each supervisor is expected to
supervise a person. Each member of staff within the extension agency should report to one and
only leader. This structure should be made flexible and modifiable.
4. The authority delegated to an individual in an organization should be commensurate with the
responsibility assign to him. Responsibility implies accountability for the performance of the
duty. Responsibility can not exist without authority. Responsibility can not be delegated but
authority can be delegated. Authority is the supreme coordinating power within an organization.
5. Effective use of specialized knowledge in planning and implementation programme is very
important and greatly require in performance oriented extension administration. One of the
greatest problems facing administration world over is inadequate use of specialized knowledge in
policy formulation, planning and execution programmes. Extension administration requires
specialized knowledge in various aspects of agriculture and extension services. Efficiency in
extension administration depends on the extent to which specific issues recommended by
specialists in different discipline can be adequately addressed and controlled.
Conditions Necessary for Successful Extension Administration
The success of administration in an extension service depends on the following conditions:
1. The extension service should be seen as an institution established for the purpose of assisting
rural people through educational process to make maximum use of their available resources.
2. Administration should realize the need for the identification of sources of technological
information to be used for the solution of problems of rural people.
3. Extension administration should regard extension education as the sharing of technical
knowledge useful for solving recognized problems of rural people.
4. Extension education should be available to all rural people irrespective of race, creed, social
class or sex.
5. Extension administrators and extension policy makers should develop extension services
adapted to the social realities and social organizations of the society being served.
6. There is need to establish institutions for training personnel required for the effective running
of extension services.
7. There is need for the organizing the educational and training methods to suit the skills,
attitudes, abilities, knowledge and resources of the people.
8. The principle of local involvement or participation in the planning of extension programmes
should be ensured at all times.
9. Efforts should be made for auxiliary services such as transport, veterinary services and credits.
Essential Task of an Extension Administrator
For effective extension administration to take place, an administrator should perform some
certain tasks. The tasks should include those that must be performed on a daily or weekly basis.
These tasks of execution are eight.
1. Assigning Task to Staff Members- The good administrator places each staff in a job for which
he is well qualified. He needs to consult other staff members before assigning tasks.
2. Authorizing expenditures – Expenditures have to be approved before being used. How best to
use the available funds allotted in the budget should be determined.
3. Supervising personnel- Direct supervision is carried out to ensure that workers perform
efficiently. Quite often, supervision is delegated to others who inform the administrator about
what each worker does.
4. Maintaining Physical Facilities- All physical facilities should be accounted for. Availability,
proper storage and functioning should be maintained.
5. Resolving Conflict- Conflicts which occur between individuals in the organization must be
promptly resolved. Conflicts may also occur between subordinate units.
6. Revising Programme- Programmes may be revised to meet new situations. Modification of
work plans are allowed from time to time.
7. Assessing and reporting progress work. Work accomplishments should be assessed annually
and periodically. It is important to regularly submit written reports of programme activities.
8. Recruitment and promoting employees- Administrators are often involved in replacing staff or
recruiting new ones when vacancies exist. Appropriate disciplinary measures may be taken when
necessary.

Opinion Leaders
These are informal leaders that are able to influence others. This informal leadership is not a
function of an individual’s final position or status in a system, but is earned and maintained by
individual’s technical competence, social accessibility, and conformity to the system of norms
which make them to serve as an opt model for the innovation behaviours of their followers.
They have more exposure to external communication, higher social status, greater mass media
exposure, greater change agent contact, greater social participation, more urban contact and
innovativeness. Opinion leaders are individuals who receive information fro media and pass it
along to their peers. They are individuals who are knowledgeable about various topics and whose
advice is taken seriously by others. The opinion leader is the agent who is an active media user
and who interprets the meanings of the media messages or content for lower-end media users.
Characteristics of Opinion Leaders
1. External communication-They have greater exposure to mass media than their followers.
2. They are socially accessible and have greater social participation than their followers.
3. They have higher socio-economic status than their followers.
4. Innovativeness- If opinion leaders are to be accepted by their peers as competent and trust
worthy, they should accept new ideas before their followers, hence they are more innovative.
5. They conform to the system of norm- They conform to the system of norm of their system.
TYPES OF LEADERS
--Situational leader- This refers to one who foresees crisis or the needs of a group and takes
initiative in rectifying the situation or mobilizing to meet such situation. This is why some people
argued that leaders aren’t born but made by a situation.
--Dictatorial Leader—Generally when a situation brings up a leader, there is a tendency that this
individual do either feel that he has the obligation to remain at the head to watch over the interest
of that group perpetually irrespective of their wishes, or that the only befitting gratitude which
the group he has helped could render him is to allow him rule over them.
--Traditional or Hereditary Leader— This is one who is born into heredity leadership which a
custom and tradition recognize . His leadership status is therefore ascribed rather than achieved.
In other words he has authority by virtue of the tradition of the community. In some cases, the
leader becomes a mere figure head as other people are vested with the role of leading the
community on his behalf.
--Charismatic leader—The term “charisma” means divine or spiritual power. It also means a
quality or characterizer that enables an individual to influence his fellow men. A charismatic
leader is therefore a person who poses such qualities like good looks, high level of intelligence,
ability to speak, fearlessness and commitment to certain ideals which when taken altogether
makes people follow him altogether without questioning his authority. He has a more or less
magical appeal to the people and they may in fact, come to regard him as their savior. He himself
some time may begin to feel that he has been divinely inspired to lead. This type of leader thrives
most in crisis situations where he can display or exhibit his qualities. A number of political
leaders in Nigeria can be looked upon as charismatic leaders.
Functions of Community Leaders in Agricultural Extension
Community leaders perform many functions to promote their agricultural extension development
particularly in Nigerian rural communities. Some of the functions are:
1. Education: They take part in training other community residents how to carry out agricultural
extension programmes once they have under gone such training themselves. They therefore
increase the volume of teaching carried out in the rural communities.
2. Legitimation: They give out approval to rural development programmes which are brought
into their communities for implementation. The approval of a leader is very crucial in
determining whether many agricultural development programme brought into the community are
accepted or rejected by the generality of the residents of the community.
3. Planning: They take part in planning extension and other rural development programmes
which are to take place in their communities. Community leaders some time act as officials such
as chairman of programme planning committees set up in their committees to plan rural
development programmes.
4. Programme Execution: They take an active part in carrying out rural development in their
communities. Specifically, they contribute money, landed properties, time and energy and attend
meeting aimed at facilitating the execution of rural development programme. They also organize,
supervise and motivate other people to carry out rural development programmes and to
contribute to contribute their resources to such programmes.
5. Spokesman ship: They also represent the community in extralocal meetings. In less instances,
they select other community residents to represent them in meetings outside the community so
that they can concentrate on dealing with local pressing issues.
6. Father-figure: Community leaders are looked upon as fathers of their communities particularly
by outsiders. Many issues concerning the community are therefore referred to the leaders first
before attempting to reach other community residents. So many issues are resolved at the the top
by the leaders.
7. Summoning to meetings: The leader summons other elders to his house for a meeting
regularly. He summons other village residents for meetings frequently to deliberate on
community issues or to visitors to the community who might be interested in meeting them. The
leader normally ensures that such meeting is necessary before he summons the general
community meetings. He often chooses another resident for summoning people for him.
Extension Programme Planning
Programme planning in extension refers to a conscious effort to use resources at the disposal of
extension personnel and extension organization as well as the abilities, skills and knowledge
inherent in the system to achieve the best possible result in helping to improve agriculture and
farmers to higher level of productivity. It involves s stating programme objectives/goals and
determining the most effective means and activities needed to attain the objectives/goals. In
doing so, planning specifies time, human and material resources needed, cost estimates and
performance indicators.
Principles of Programme Planning
1.Extension programmes should be based on an analysis of the past experiences, present
situation and future needs of the people.
2. Extension programme should have clear and significant objectives, which could satisfy
important needs of the people. Objectives should be clearly stated and selected. The emphasis
will be on what is attainable rather than on what is ideal although one should not lose sight of the
ideal.
3. Extension programmes should determine priority on the basis of available resources and time.
4.Extension programmes should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of resources. To
make programme practical and workable it is important to clearly indicate the availability of
funds, facilities, supplies and needed personnel and how these resources will be utilized.
5. Extension programme should have a general agreement at various levels. The extension
programme at any level should not contradict the extension programme of any other department
or level.
6. Extension programme planning should involve people at local level. They should be involved
in stages starting from programme formulation to programme implementation.
7. It should involve the use of relevant institutions and organizations as it can not be
implemented in isolation and it requires the support of many institutions and organizations. The
programme should broadly indicate the institutions and organizations to be involved and how
they shall contribute in attaining programme objectives.
8. Extension programme should have definite plan of work .It may be separately drawn up or
incorporated in it. It should at least broadly indicate how it will be executed.
9. It should provide for evaluation of result and reconsideration of the programme. It should
make provision for periodical monitoring and evaluation of result to judge its progress. On the
basis of evaluation of results, the programme should be suitably modified for attainment of
objectives within the stipulated time.
10. It should provide means of equitable distribution of benefits to members of the community.
Steps in Programme Planning
1.Collection of data: It is essential that extension worker should collect the necessary data about
the area. This will enable him to know the areas of constraints that need extension attention must.
2. Situation analysis: Having collected the relevant data about the area, the extension worker
should then assemble, interpret and organize basic facts, be it social, economical, cultural and
educational that reveal the major situation and current problems of concern to farmers. Situation
analysis guides the extension workers not bring in facts that are not needed in the programme.
3.Definition of problem: Situation analysis will to a large extent reveal the farmers problems.
These problems should therefore, be defined in the context of extension. Efforts should be made
to see whether some of the problems and interest expressed by the farmers could be
accommodated in the laid policy by the government.
4. Programme objectives: It is necessary that clear cut objectives should be formulated. The
extension agent should decide exactly what changes are expected to be made and who and who
are to make changes as well as when are the changes expected to be made.
5. Plan of work/calendar of work: This involves listing the activities to be carried out in a
systematic manner, which should be prepared. Similarly, the calendar should also be drawn
indicating when the various activities are to be carried out. The necessary materials and inputs
should be ready well ahead of time.
6.Execution of work: different approaches are required in the execution of various extension
work. Therefore, necessary training and retraining of the farmers is essential in carrying out the
planned programme. Some method should be used such as organizing tours and demonstrations
so as to convince the farmers that the recommended practices in the programme would work.
7. Determining progress: As the execution of the programme goes on, progress made should be
recorded and monitored on regular basis. This serves the main purpose of ensuring that input
deliveries, work schedules, target outputs and other required actions are progressing according to
what has been planned.
8. Evaluation: Every extension programme must be measured against its set objectives. The basis
for evaluating the extent to which the extension programme solves the problem must be worked
out. Review the objectives against what is to be measured.
9. Reconsideration: This take place depending on the outcome of evaluation. For instance, if
evaluation shows some areas of weakness and shortcomings, alternative strategies and
approaches could be considered in order to attain programme objectives. However, in this
circumstance some strategies already used could be reconsidered this time ensuring that the
shortcoming earlier noted are significantly eliminated or subdued.
10. Beginning of the next cycle: This is of two dimensions. The first involve that the cycle has
been successfully completed. In this case, a complete new programme process is begun. The
other involves that there are some anomalies, shortcomings and problems identified in the first
cycle requires overhaul. This then entails going through the process again strengthening area of
weaknesses.