Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

MODULE-1
FLIGTH CONTROL SYSTEMS

Aircraft flight controls are the means by which a pilot controls the direction and attitude of an
aircraft in flight. The flight controls are essential to keep the aircraft at a required attitude
during flight. Today’s aircraft employ a variety of flight control systems. For example, some
aircraft in the sport pilot category rely on weight-shift control to fly while balloons use a
standard burn technique. Helicopters utilize a cyclic to tilt the rotor in the desired direction
along with a collective to manipulate rotor pitch and anti-torque pedals to control yaw.

Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems.

 The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system
and are required to control an aircraft safely during flight.
 Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary
control system and improve the performance characteristics of the airplane or relieve
the pilot of excessive control forces. They also assist the primary flight controls in the
movement of aircraft about its axis.

A properly designed aircraft is stable and easily controlled during normal maneuvering. Control
surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation. The types of stability an aircraft
exhibits also relate to the three axes of rotation.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES

Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate responsiveness to control inputs
while allowing a natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft and sluggish, and the
aircraft responds slowly to control applications. At higher airspeeds, the controls become increasingly
firm and aircraft response is more rapid.

The Primary flight controls surfaces are incorporated into the wing and empennage.
 The elevators on horizontal tail for Pitch control
 Rudder on the vertical tail for yaw control
 Ailerons outboard on the wing operated differentially for roll control

Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces, changes the airflow and pressure
distribution over and around the airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/
control surface combination, and allows a pilot to control the aircraft about its three axes of rotation

Ailerons:
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edge of
each wing and move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bellcranks,
pulleys, and/or push-pull tubes to a control wheel or control stick. Moving the control wheel, or control
stick, to the right causes the right aileron to deflect upward and the left aileron to deflect downward. The
upward deflection of the right aileron decreases the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. The
corresponding downward deflection of the left aileron increases the camber resulting in increased lift on the
left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the aircraft
to roll to the right.

Elevator
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the
ailerons on small aircraft, the elevator is connected to the
control column in the flight deck by a series of
mechanical linkages. The up-elevator position decreases
the camber of the elevator and creates a downward
aerodynamic force, which is greater than the normal tail-
down force that exists in straight-andlevel flight. The
overall effect causes the tail of the aircraft to move down
and the nose to pitch up.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

RUDDER
The rudder controls movement of the aircraft about its vertical axis.
This motion is called yaw. The rudder is a movable surface hinged to
a fixed surface to the vertical stabilizer or fin. The rudder is
controlled by the left and right rudder pedals. When the rudder is
deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite
direction. By pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. This alters
the airflow around the vertical stabilizer/rudder and creates a
sideward lift that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the
airplane to the left. Rudder effectiveness increases with speed;
therefore, large deflections at low speeds and small deflections at
high speeds may be required to provide the desired reaction.

There are additional other primary control surfaces to meet the

demand of pitch, yaw and roll described below:

 Variable Incidence Horizontal Stabiliser

The horizontal tail itself is rotated and is used for pitch control where elevator is of inadequate size.
On large transport aircraft, the stabiliser is used for pitch trim and this eliminates the need for
deflecting the elevator for trimming purpose.

 Canard
The canard design utilizes the concept of two lifting surfaces. The
canard functions as a horizontal stabilizer located in front of the main
wings for the purpose of longitudinal stability and control. The
difference is that the canard actually creates lift and holds the nose up,
as opposed to the aft-tail design which exerts downward force on the tail
to prevent the nose from rotating downward.

 Elevons:
Elevons or tailerons are aircraft control surfaces that combine the
functions of the elevator (used for pitch control) and the aileron (used
for roll control), hence the name. They are frequently used on tailless
aircraft such as flying wings. An elevon that is not part of the main
wing, but instead is a separate tail surface, is a stabilator.

 Flaperons:

Flaperons are a specialised type of aircraft flight control surface

that combine aspects of both flaps for overall lift of the wing
and ailerons for roll control. These controls are found on
aircraft which are designed to operate from short runways.
The use of flaperons instead of separate flaps and ailerons can
result in an overall reduction in the weight of an aircraft.
Flaperons are often mounted well clear of the trailing edge of

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

the wing to ensure undisturbed airflow across the flight control surface whilst at low speed or at
high angles of attack. This helps to reduce stall speed and improves low speed handling
characteristics.

 Ruddervators

The combination of vertical fin and stabiliser into one pair of

controls form a Vee shape, known as V-tail. The V-tail design
utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to perform the same functions as
the surfaces of a conventional elevator and rudder configuration.
The fixed surfaces act as both horizontal and vertical
stabilizers.When serving as elevators, the surface on each side of
the tail move in the same direction. When serving as rudder, the
surfaces move in opposite direction.

 Stabilator

A stabilator performs the function of a horizontal stabiliser and elevator. These surfaces are actually the
two halves of the main horizontal stabiliser. Both halves operate symmetrically like stabiliser for pitch
control and differentially for roll control to augment the ailerons. They are used on light aircraft and
high performance military aircraft.
Stabilators are designed to pivot about their aerodynamic center and, as a consequence, very little pilot
effort is required to make a control input. This amount of effort does not vary with airspeed or angle of
attack. To prevent over-controlling, the stabilator on a light aircraft is fitted with an anti-servo tab on its
trailing edge.

SECONDARY CONTROL SURFACES

Following secondary control surfaces are installed on aircraft, the number and types of which depends on
the speed of the aircraft and its intended operation .

 High Lift Devices

Flaps
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft. These surfaces, which are attached to
the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given AOA.There are four
common types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

1. The plain flap is the simplest of the four types. It increases

the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant increase in the
coefficient of lift (CL) at a given AOA .

2. The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil
and produces a slightly greater increase in lift than the plain
flap.

3. The most popular flap on aircraft today is the slotted flap.

Variations of this design are used for small aircraft, as well as
for large ones. Slotted flaps increase the lift coefficient
significantly more than plain or split flaps

4. Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. This flap design not
only changes the camber of the wing, it also increases the wing
area.

Leading Edge Devices

High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. The most common types are
fixed slots, movable slats, leading edge flaps, and cuffs

1. Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface and delay
airflow separation at higher angles of attack. The slot does not
increase the wing camber, but allows a higher maximum CL
because the stall is delayed until the wing reaches a greater
AOA.
2. Movable slats consist of leading edge segments that move on
tracks. Opening a slat allows the air below the wing to flow over
the wing’s upper surface, delaying airflow separation.
3. Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used to increase
both CL-MAX and the camber of the wings. This type of
leading edge device is frequently used in conjunction with
trailing edge flaps and can reduce the nose-down pitching
movement produced by the latter.
4. Leading edge cuffs, are used to increase both CL-MAX and the
camber of the wings. Unlike leading edge flaps and trailing edge
flaps, leading edge cuffs are fixed aerodynamic devices

 Spoilers
Found on some fixed-wing aircraft, high drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to
spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. Spoilers are often used for roll control,
an advantage of which is the elimination of adverse yaw.
 Trim Tabs
Th e most common installation on small aircraft is a single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of
the elevator. They are used for trimming an aircraft for straight and level flight . The trim tab is used to
"trim", or counteract the aerodynamic force on, the control surface and thus stabilise the aircraft in the axis of
rotation associated with the primary control. Trim tabs can be either flight adjustable or fixed.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

The architecture of flight control system essential for all flight operations has changed significantly
over years. Smaller and less complex aircraft use a simple cable, pulley and push-pull rods. Larger
aircraft requires higher pilot control forces. The various flight controls are mentioned below:

Conventional SYSTEMS
A simple flight control system may be all mechanical or unboosted i.e, operated entirely through
mechanical linkgages and cables from the control stick to the control surface. It is generally used
on small aircraft. In this case the hinge moment generated by the surface deflection is low, which
can be sustained by the pilot . The primary control surfaces are moved manually through a series of
push-pull rods, cables, bell cranks, sectors etc.
There are two types of mechanical systems are-
 PUSH PULL ROD
 CABLE PULLEY

 PUSH PULL ROD

-A sequence of rods links the control surface to the cabin input as shown in the fig below.
-Bell crank lever is used to alter the direction of the force and to obtain the conventional
coupling between stick movement and the control surface deflection.
- It is well known for their ease of movement.
- A single push pull rod can transfer either tension or compression loads.
-The push pull rods are made of heat treated aluminium alloy tubing with threaded ends
riveted to each other.

Figure 1
 CABLE AND PULLEY SYSTEM
- In this cables are used in the place of rods.
- Pulleys are used to alter the direction of lines, equipped with idlers to reduce any slack.
- A quadrant is employed at the base of the control column to impart force and motion to
the cable system.
- A torque tube is attached to the control surface, which changes the linear motion of the
cable into rotary motion to deflect the control surface.
- In case of large aircrafts cable and pulley system is preferred over a push-pull rod
system.
- For a pressurised aircraft, the control cables pass from pressurised section to the
unpressurised section through sir pressure seals.
- A simple cable-pulley system is shown in the Figure 2.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

Figure 2

Push-pull rods Cable-Pulley system

This flight control system is quite heavier due Although the cables are lighter, the cable
to the usage of metal rods for force installation tends to become heavier.
transmission
Bell crank lever is used to alter the direction Pulleys are used to alter the direction of lines.
of force
It can transfer tension or compression loads It can transfer only tension loads
It is preferred for a smaller aircraft It is preferred in large aircraft as the cables
are more flexible and allows to reach more
remote areas of aircraft

Powere d flight controls

Powered flight controls are employed in high-performance aircraft, and are generally of two
main types
(a) power-assisted and
(b) power-operated.
The choice of either system for a particular type of aircraft is governed by the forces
required to overcome the aerodynamic loads acting on the flight control surfaces. In basic
form, however, both systems are similar in that a hydraulically-operated servo-control unit,
consisting of a control valve and an actuating jack, is connected between the pilot's controls
and relevant control surfaces. The major difference, apart from constructional features, is in
the method of connecting actuating jacks to control surfaces.

POWER-ASSISTED SYSTEM
Power assisted flight control, also called Power boosted flight control is a system where
power is used as assistance to the pilot.
-The pilot will still get feed back of the air loads imposed on the control.
-In the event of hydraulic failure the pilot can still operate the control.
-Manual and power assisted flying controls are known as reversible flying controls.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

In a power-assisted system, the pilot's

control is connected to the control
surface, e.g. control column to
elevators, via a control lever.
 When the pilot moves the control
column to initiate a climb say, the
control lever pivots about point 'X',
and accordingly commences moving
the elevators up.
 At the same time, the control valve
pistons are displaced and this allows
oil from the hydraulic system to flow
to the left-hand side of the actuating jack piston
 The reaction of the pressure exerted on the piston causes the whole servo-unit, and control
lever, to move to the left, and because of the greater control effort produced the pilot is
assisted in making further upward movement of the elevators.

POWER-OPERATED SYSTEM
In a fully powered system there is no physical connection between the pilot's controls and the
control surfaces and therefore there is no
feedback of control forces to the pilot.
This type of powered control system is known
as an irreversible control and requires some
form of artificial feel.
 In a power-operated system the pilot's control
is connected to the control lever only, while the
servo-unit is directly connected to the flight
control surface.
 Thus, in the example considered, the effort
required by the pilot to move the control
column is simply that needed to move the
control lever and control valve piston.
 It does not vary with the effort required to
move the control surface which, as
it is supplied solely by servo-unit hydraulic power.
 Since no forces are transmitted back to the pilot he has no 'feel' of the aerodynamic loads
acting on the control surfaces. It is necessary therefore, to incorporate an 'artificial feel'
device at a point between the pilot's controls, and their connection to the servo-unit control
lever

POWERED CONTROL UNIT.

Actuation has always been important to the ability of the flight control system to attain its
specified performance. The development of analogue and digital multiple control lane

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

technology has put the actuation central to performance and integrity issues. Some of the
actuation systems (Powered control unit) have been discussed below:

MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEM

The conventional linear actuator used in powered flight controls would be of the type show in
Figure 3. This type of actuator would usually be powered by one of the aircraft hydraulic
systems – in this case the blue channel is shown. As the pilot feeds a mechanical input to the
flight control actuator, the summing link will rotate about the bottom pivot, thus applying an
input to the servo valve. Hydraulic fluid will then flow into one side of the ram while exiting
the opposite side resulting in movement of the ram in a direction dependent upon the
direction of the pilot’s command. As the ram moves, the feedback link will rotate the
summing link about the upper pivot returning the servo valve input to the null position as the
commanded position is achieved.The attributes of mechanical actuation are straightforward;
the system demands a control movement and the actuator satisfies that demand with a power
assisted mechanical response.

Figure 3: Mechanical PCU

ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
The flight controls which are controlled by electronic signals to a hydraulic powered flight
control fall into two categories:

i. Fly-by-wire
ii. Auto-Pilot

FLY-BY-WIRE

Fly-by-wire (FBW) control system replaced the conventional manual flight controls
of an aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are
converted to electronic signals and transmitted by wires (hence the flyby-wire term).
Flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control surface
to provide the ordered response. The fly-by-wire system also allows automatic
signals sent by the aircraft's computers to perform functions without the pilot's input,
as in systems that automatically help stabilize the aircraft. The whole system in FBW

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

act as a closed feedback

loop.

 This flight control

system consists of
electro-hydraulic
servo valves used to
convert small
electrical voltages to
hydraulic power and
are used to operate
the actuators.
 The actuator position
is measured by
Linear Variable
Differential
Transformers
(LVDT) and Rotary
Variable Differential Transformers(RVDT) to translate linear motion and angular
displacement resp. to electric signals.
 The pilots demand is compared with LVDT/RVDT feedback. When the feedback
signal is equal to the command signal, a null condition us reached and control surface
movement stops.
AUTO-PIlOT
It is a Self-steering system.
An autopilot consists of mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle
without assistance from a human being. Flights are safer, smoother and more efficient.
The basic schematic of an autopilot looks like a loop, with sensors sending data to the
autopilot computer, which processes the information and transmits signals to the
servo, which moves the control surface, which changes the attitude of the plane, which
creates a new data set in the sensors, which starts the whole process again. This type
of feedback loop is central to the operation of autopilot systems . Autopilot FCS is shown

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

below.

Fly-by-Light
A flight control system using optical fibre and optical sensors is called Fly-By-Light (FBL)
system. It has large data bandwidth and light weight.
It makes use of optic cables to transmit the control signals.
Electric signals from the computer are converted into light signals and sent through the fiber
optic cables to electro-optic converters. The light signals gets converted into electrical signals
for actuation of hydraulic control valves.
This system significantly reduces the aircraft weight. but it is susceptible to electromagnetic
interference.

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
The hydraulic system today remains a most effective source of power for both primary and
secondary flying controls, and for undercarriage, braking and anti-skid systems.
 The transmission of the force by the movement of fluid is referred to as fluid power.
Systems that use compressible fluids are pneumatic systems and those using
incompressible fluids are called hydraulic systems.
 Hydraulic system transmits the power by means of fluid flow under pressure. Liquids
are incompressible and enable movement to be transmitted through the pipes over a
great distance without loss of time or motion.
 The hydraulic system today remains a most effective source of power for
both primary and secondary flying controls, and for undercarriage, braking
and anti-skid systems

HYDRAULIC FLUID

Hydraulic fluid is used in fluid power systems mainly because of its incompressibility or
stiffness. The working fluid will be considered as a physical medium for transmitting power,
and the conditions under which it is expected to work, for example maximum temperature
and maximum flow rate.
 Practical applications of hydraulic fluid are based on Pascal’s law.
Pascal’s Law statement: The pressure in an enclosed container is transmitted equally
to all points of the container
 The properties such as Viscosity, Chemical stability , fire and Flash point are
considered while selecting the hydraulic fluid.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

FUNCTIONS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID

 It ensures a hydraulic machine functions safely, repeatedly, reliably, and efficiently.

 It helps to cool a system by dispersing heat throughout the system, particularly by
carrying it away from devices that create heat such as actuators, heat exchangersetc.
 It also helps to lubricate and seal internal components within a hydraulic system. Ex :
valves, pumps and motors.
 Hydraulic fluids minimize contamination in a hydraulic system, as the fluid
simply carries any particles and water away from critical components to the
filters and reservoir, where they are captured or settled.

TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUID

There are three types of hydraulic fluids used in aircraft industry:

1. Vegetable Base Hydraulic fluid:

- Composed of castor oil and alcohol
-Used in older aircraft.
-Naturally occurring
-Flammable
2. Mineral Base Hydraulic fluid:
- Processed form Petroleum products.
- Ex: DTD 585, MIL-H-5606, H 515
- Easily available, reasonably priced,
- low rate of change of viscosity with respect to temperature compared to
other fluids.
- flammable and is limited to a working temperature of about 130 ◦C.
(They may be labelled as HH which means that it’s a refined mineral oil that
is non inhibited. HL has additives to make it anti corrosion and anti-rust. HM
type has additives for anti-wear in addition to the additives of HL type.)

3. Phosphate Ether Based Fluid:

-Solutia Skydrol LD-4, Skydrol 500B-4 or Skydrol 5
Exxon Type IV HJ4AP or Type V HJ5MP
-Non-Petroleum products
- Fire-resistant but not fire proof as they burn under certain conditions.
- Less corrosive and low weight

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENETS

Hydraulic system can be closed or open. Closed systems are used for the aircraft
application.
Hydraulic system has minimum number of basic components for the power
transmission as shown in the fig. above .
Components of Hydraulic system are:
1. Reservoir
2. Hydraulic Pump
3. Valves
4. Accumulator
5. Filter
6. Actuators
7. Pressure Regulating devices

The functions of the above components are described below:

1. Reservoir
 Hydraulic reservoir stores the fluid and provides the air space for expansion of
the fluid when its volume increases due to temperature change.
 It holds a reserve supply of fluid to account for thermal contraction of oil and
leakage.
 Reservoirs can either be vented or unpressurized ( open to the atmosphere) or
pressurised (closed to the atmosphere)
 Baffles and fins are used in the reservoirs to prevent the fluid within the
reservoir from swirling and surging which can cause foam or air to enter the
pump.
 Filters are used to keep the foreign matter from entering the reservoir.

2. Hydraulic Pump
 A hydraulic pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic
(pressure) energy is used to operate an actuator.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

 It takes the fluid from the reservoir and deliver it to rest of hydraulic
circuit.
 It is characterised by its flow rate capacity, power consumption, drive
speed etc.
 Basic types of hydraulic pumps are:
Hand Pump
They are used to supply fluid under pressure to sub-systems. Systems using hand
pumps are classified as emergency system.
Powered Pump
These pumps are driven by aircraft engine or they are electric motor driven.
Constant Displacement Pump
It displaces or delivers a constant fluid output for any speed.
Variable Displacement Pump
It has a fluid output that varies to meet he demand of the system.

3. Pressure Regulating Devices

They are the safety devices used for monitoring the pressure in the hydraulic system.
Some of these devices are described below

Relief Valve
 It prevents the pressure building up to a point where it might blow off the seals
and burst.
 Used to relive excessive pressure caused by thermal expansion, pressure surges
and failure of a hydraulic pump compensator or other regulating devices.

Thermal Relief Valve

 It relives pressure that builds up in an isolated part of the system due to heat.
 It is used in the system where check valve or selector valve prevents pressure
being relived through the main relief valve.

Pressure Regulator Valve or Unloading valve

 It automatically maintains the pressure within a specified range and to keep the
pump unloaded when o unit in the system is actuated.

Pressure Reducing Valve

 It is used where it is necessary to lower the normal system operating pressure to
a specified amount for operation of certain units.

4. Accumulator
 It is used to store the fluid under pressure with the help of compressible medium
like air or nitrogen.
 It supplements the pump when several units operate at a time.
 It dampens the pressure usrges due to rapid pressure variations in the hydraulic
system.
 It helps in marinating a constant pressure within the hydraulic system.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

5. Flow Control Unit/Valves

It ensures the right amount of fluid in a required direction to a desired system output
and comprises of the following :

Selector Valve:
It controls the direction of flow of the fluid used to actuate hydraulic components.

Check Valve
It ensures flow according to the need of the system. It allows free flow of fluid in one
direction but no flow or restricted flow in the other direction..

Sequence Valve
It Controls the sequence of operation in the hydraulic system. It ensures that actuating
unit operates at proper time and sequence.

Priority valve
It provides adequate fluid flow to units requiring immediate completion of action.
The valve is installed between in the line between an actuating unit and is source of
operating pressure. When the system pressure drops below normal, the priority valve
automatically reduces the rate of flow to the unit not requiring immediate completion
of action.

6. Hydraulic Actuators
-Transform energy in the form of fluid pressure into linear or rotary motion to
perform work.
- They are usually installed in a manner that the piston rod end of the cylinder is
attached to mechanism to be actuated, with the other end attached to the aircraft
structure.

7. Filters
 It can remove practically all foreign particles found in the hydraulic fluid the
pressure line, in the return line or in it may be located in any other location
where they are needed to safeguard the system against foreign paricles in the
fluid.

HYDRAULIC FUSES
Fuses are incorporated in the hydraulic systems to prevent continued loss of fluid in
case of leakage and are not needed for the operation of system.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENETS

The easy availability of high pressure air from the modern engine is key to the use of
pneumatic power as a means of transferring energy or providing motive power on the aircraft.
The availability of high pressure, high temperature air bled from the compressor section of
the engine lends itself readily to the ability to provide pneumatic power for actuation, air
conditioning or heating functions for other aircraft subsystems.
Other areas of the aircraft use pneumatic principles for sensing the atmosphere surrounding
the aircraft for instrumentation purposes.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

Low Pressure System

It is used for engine starting, anti-icing/de-icing, air conditioning and
pressurisation. The regulated pressure in the system is of the order of 45 to
50 psi.

High Pressure system

It consists of one or more high pressure cylinders, and is used for operation
of landing gear, wheel brakes, flaps, doors etc. Air is stored in metallic
cylinders at pressure ranging from 1000-3000 psi.

A typical Pneumatic system is shown in the fig. above.

 The compressor is driven by the accessory gearbox of the engine.
 The discharge air from the compressor is directed to the unloading
valve which maintains the system pressure.
 A shuttle valve installed between the compressor and the main system
makes it possible to charge the system from the ground source.
 When the engine is not running and air is supplied from the external
source, the shuttle slides over and isolates the compressor.
 A moisture separator collects the moisture from the air and holds it
until the system is shut down.
 The air then passes through the desiccant where traces of moisture is
removed.
 The air then passes through a sintered metallic filter. This ensures the
air going to main system free from moisture and contaminants.
 The storage air cylinder is used for both normal and emergency
operations.
Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE
Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

The components of Pneumatic system are described below:

1. Air filter
- It is used in the system lines to remove any foreign matter that may enter.
- Air filters have a removable element and built-in relief valve which is designed to
open and bypass the air supply around the filter element in the event of element
getting clogged.

2. Check Valve
- Flap type check valves are used in pneumatic system.
- They are also one direction flow control valves.

3. Moisture Separator
It absorbs any moisture caused by compressor. A complete moisture separator
consists of pressure switch, a drain valve and a check valve

4. Desiccant / Chemical Dryer

.- Absorbs any moisture that collects in the lines and other part of the system.
- Each drier contains replaceable cartridge, which is blue in colour. If any change in
colour is observed, the cartridge is considered to be contaminate with moisture and
should be replaced

5. Pressure Reducing Valve

It reduces the air pressure in the cylinder to a workable pressure for operation of
certain components.

6. Relief Valve
It is used to protect the system from over pressurization. It acts as a pressure limiting
unit and prevents the excessive pressure from bursting the pneumatic lines .

7. Shuttle Valve
-It allows the pneumatic system to operate from the ground source.
- Also when the pressure from the external source is higher than that of a compressor,
the shuttle valve slides over and isolates the compressor.
- It is used to provide an emergency pneumatic backup for hydraulically operated
landing gears.

USE OF BLEED AIR

When air enters a turbine engine, it goes through a series of compressors, which significantly
increase the air temperature and pressure before mixing that air with fuel and igniting it. A
small portion of that compressed air does not enter the combustion chamber and is bypassed
does not contribute to the thrust. This high pressure and high temperature air can be ‘bled’
from the engine to perform various functions around the aircraft.
The largest subsystem user of bleed air is the air system. Bleed air is used as the primary
source of air into the cabin and fulfils the following functions:
• Cabin environmental control – cooling and heating
• Cabin pressurisation
Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE
Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

• Cargo bay heating

• Fuel system pressurisation in closed vent fuel system used in some military aircraft.

The are other subsystems where the engine bleed is used are:
• Wing and engine anti-ice protection
• Engine start
• Thrust reverser actuation
• Hydraulic system

EMEGENCY LOWERING OF LANDING GEAR AND

BRAKING

A more common use of electricity in gear retraction systems is that of an electric/hydraulic

system and is known as a power pack system.
A small lightweight hydraulic power pack contains reservoir, a reversible electric motor-
driven hydraulic pump, a filter, high-and-low pressure control valves, a thermal relief valve,
and a shuttle valve and incorporates an emergency hand pump.
A hydraulic actuator for each gear is driven to extend or retract the gear by fluid from the
power pack.

When the flight deck gear selection handle is put in the gear-down position, a switch is made
that turns on the electric motor in the power pack. The motor turns in the direction to rotate
the hydraulic gear pump so that it pumps fluid to the gear-down side of the actuating

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE

Module-1 Aircraft System and Instrumentation

cylinders. Pump pressure moves the spring-loaded shuttle valve to the left to allow fluid to
reach all three actuators. Restrictors are used in the nose wheel actuator inlet and outlet ports
to slow down the motion of this lighter gear. While hydraulic fluid is pumped to extend the
gear, fluid from the upside of the actuators returns to the reservoir through the gear-up check
valve. When the gear reach the down and locked position, pressure builds in the gear-down
line from the pump and the low-pressure control valve unseats to return the fluid to the
reservoir. Electric limit switches turn off the pump when all three gear are down and locked.

To raise the gear, the flight deck gear handle is moved to the gear-up position. Fluid from the
gear-down side of the actuators returns to the reservoir through the shuttle valve. When the
three gears are fully retracted, pressure builds in the system, and a pressure switch is opened
that cuts power to the electric pump motor.

BRAKING

Stopping an aircraft safely at high landing speeds on a variety of runway surfaces and
temperatures, and under all weather conditions demands an effective braking system. Its
design must take into account tyre to ground and brake friction, the brake pressure/volume
characteristics, and the response of the aircraft hydraulic system and the aircraft structural
and dynamic characteristics . The normal functions of landing, deceleration and taxying to
dispersal or the airport gate require large amounts of energy to be applied to the brakes.
Wherever possible, lift dump and reverse thrust will used to assist braking. However it is
usual for a large amount of heat to be dissipated in the brake pack.

Suresh P Asst. Professor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engg, DSCE