MA 101 (Mathematics I)

Hints/Solutions for Practice Problem Set - 1

Ex.1(a) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If both (xn ) and (yn ) are unbounded
sequences in R, then the sequence (xn yn ) cannot be convergent.
Solution: The given statement is FALSE, since both (xn ) = (1, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0, ...) and
(yn ) = (0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 3, ...) are unbounded sequences in R but the sequence (xn yn ) = (0, 0, 0, ...) is
convergent.

Ex.1(b) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If both (xn ) and (yn ) are increasing
sequences in R, then the sequence (xn yn ) must be increasing.
Solution: The given statement is FALSE, since both (xn ) = (− n1 ) and (yn ) = (n2 ) are increasing
sequences in R but the sequence (xn yn ) = (−n) is not increasing.

Ex.1(c) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If (xn ), (yn ) are sequences in R
such that (xn ) is convergent and (yn ) is not convergent, then the sequence (xn + yn ) cannot be
convergent.
Solution: The given statement is TRUE. If (xn + yn ) is convergent, then since (xn ) is also conver-
gent, (yn ) = (xn + yn ) − (xn ) must be convergent, which is not true.

Ex.1(d) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: A monotonic sequence (xn ) in R
is convergent iff the sequence (x2n ) is convergent.
Solution: The given statement is TRUE. If (xn ) is convergent, then by the product rule, (x2n ) =
(xn xn ) is also convergent. Conversely, let (x2n ) be convergent. Then
√ (x2n ) is bounded, i.e. there
exists M > 0 such that |x2n | ≤ M for all n ∈ N. This gives |xn | ≤ M for all n ∈ N. So (xn ) is
bounded. Since it is given that (xn ) is monotonic, we can conclude that (xn ) is convergent.

Ex.1(e) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If (xn ) is an unbounded sequence
of nonzero real numbers, then the sequence ( x1n ) must converge to 0.
Solution: The given statement is FALSE. The sequence (xn ) = (1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, ...) is not bounded,
but x1n 6→ 0, because ( x1n ) has a subsequence (1, 1, ...) converging to 1.

Ex.1(f ) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If xn = (1 − n1 ) sin nπ 2

for all n ∈ N,
then the sequence (xn ) is not convergent although it has a convergent subsequence.
1
Solution: The given statement is TRUE. We have x2n = (1 − 2n ) sin nπ = 0 and
1 π 1
x4n+1 = (1 − 4n+1 ) sin(2nπ + 2 ) = 1 − 4n+1 for all n ∈ N. Hence x2n → 0 and x4n+1 → 1. Thus
(xn ) has two convergent subsequences (x2n ) and (x4n+1 ) with different limits and therefore (xn ) is
not convergent.
∞
P ∞
P
Ex.1(g) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If both the series xn and yn
n=1 n=1
∞
P
of real numbers are convergent, then the series xn yn must be convergent.
n=1
n
Solution: The given statement is FALSE. Taking xn = yn = (−1) √
n
for all n ∈ N, we find that both
∞ ∞
yn are convergent by Leibniz’s test (since ( √1n ) is a decreasing sequence
P P
the series xn and
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
√1 1
P P
of positive real numbers with lim = 0), but we know that the series xn y n = n
is not
n→∞ n n=1 n=1
convergent.

Ex.1(h) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If f : R → R is continuous and

f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ Q, then it is necessary that f (x) > 0 for all√x ∈ R.
Solution: The given statement is FALSE, because√if f (x) = |x − 2| for all x ∈ R, then f : R → R
is continuous and f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ Q, but f ( 2) = 0.

Ex.1(i) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: There exists a continuous function
from (0, 1) onto (0, ∞).
x
Solution: The given statement is TRUE. The function f : (0, 1) → (0, ∞), defined by f (x) = 1−x
y
for all x ∈ (0, 1), is continuous. Also, f is onto, because if y ∈ (0, ∞), then x = 1+y ∈ (0, 1) such
that f (x) = y.

Ex.1(j) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: There exists a continuous function
from [0, 1] onto (0, 1).
Solution: The given statement is FALSE. If possible, let there exist a continuous function f :
[0, 1] → (0, 1) which is onto. Then there exists x0 ∈ [0, 1] such that f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1].
Since 0 < 21 f (x0 ) < 1 and since f is onto, there exists c ∈ [0, 1] such that f (c) = 21 f (x0 ). From
above, we get f (x0 ) ≤ f (c), i.e. f (x0 ) ≤ 12 f (x0 ), which is not possible, since f (x0 ) > 0. Hence
there does not exist any continuous function from [0, 1] onto (0, 1).

Ex.1(k) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: There exists a continuous function
from (0, 1) onto [0, 1].
Solution: The function f : (0, 1) → [0, 1], defined by f (x) = | sin(2πx)| for all x ∈ (0, 1), is
continuous. Since f ( 21 ) = 0 and f ( 14 ) = 1, by the intermediate value theorem, for each k ∈ (0, 1),
there exists c ∈ ( 14 , 12 ) such that f (c) = k. Hence f is onto.

Ex.1(l) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If f : R → R is continuous and

bounded, then there must exist c ∈ R such that f (c) = c.
Solution: The given statement is TRUE. Since f is bounded, there exists M > 0 such that
|f (x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ R. Let g(x) = f (x) − x for all x ∈ R. Since f is continuous, g : R → R is
continuous. If f (−M ) = −M or f (M ) = M , then we get the result by taking c = −M or c = M
respectively. Otherwise g(−M ) = f (−M ) + M > 0 and g(M ) = f (M ) − M < 0. Hence by the
intermediate value theorem, there exists c ∈ (−M, M ) such that g(c) = 0, i.e. f (c) = c.

Ex.1(m) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If both f : R → R and g : R → R

are continuous at 0, then the composite function g ◦ f : R → R must be continuous at 0.
 The given statement is FALSE. If f (x) = x + 1 for all x ∈ R and if
Solution:
2 if x ∈ R \ {1},
g(x) =
3 if x = 1,
then both f : R → Rand g : R → R are continuous at 0, but g ◦ f : R → R is not continuous at
2 if x ∈ R \ {0},
0, since (g ◦ f )(x) =
3 if x = 0,
so that lim (g ◦ f )(x) = 2 6= 3 = (g ◦ f )(0).
x→0

Ex.1(n) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If f : R → R is not differentiable at

x0 ∈ R and g : R → R is not differentiable at f (x0 ), then g ◦ f : R → R cannot be differentiable
at x0 . 
1 if x ≥ 0,
Solution: The given statement is FALSE. If f (x) = |x| for all x ∈ R and if g(x) =
−1 if x < 0,
then f : R → R is not differentiable at 0 and g : R → R is not differentiable at f (0) = 0, but
(g ◦ f )(x) = 1 for all x ∈ R, so that g ◦ f is differentiable at 0.
f (x+h)−f (x−h)
Ex.1(o) State TRUE or FALSE giving proper justification: If f : R → R is such that lim h
h→0
exists (in R) for every x ∈ R, then f must be differentiable on R.
Solution: The given statement is FALSE. Let f (0) = 1 and f (x) = 0 if x(6= 0) ∈ R. Then for every
x ∈ R, lim f (x+h)−f
h
(x−h)
= lim 0−0
h
= 0, but f (being not continuous at 0) is not differentiable at 0.
h→0 h→0

Ex.2(a) Using the definition of convergence of sequence, examine whether the sequence n + 23


is convergent.
Solution: If possible, let (n + 32 ) be convergent. Then there exist ` ∈ R and n0 ∈ N such that
|n + 23 − `| < 1 for all n ≥ n0 ⇒ n < ` − 12 for all n ≥ n0 , which is not true. Therefore the given
sequence is not convergent.

Ex.2(b) Using the definition of convergence of sequence, examine whether the sequence
3


(−1)n n+2 is convergent.
3 3
Solution: Let ε > 0. For all n ∈ N, we have |(−1)n n+2 − 0| = n+2 < n3 . There exists n0 ∈ N such
that n0 > 3ε . Hence |(−1)n n+23
− 0| < n30 < ε for all n ≥ n0 and so the given sequence is convergent
(with limit 0).

Ex.2(c) Using
the definition of convergence of sequence, examine whether the sequence
(−1)n (1 − n1 ) is convergent.
Solution: If possible, let the given sequence (xn ) (say) be convergent with limit `. Then there exists
m ∈ N such that |xn − `| < 41 for all n ≥ m ⇒ |x2m − `| < 14 and |x2m+1 − `| < 14 ⇒ |1 − 2m 1
− `| < 41
1
and |1 + ` − 2m+1 | < 41 ⇒ 2 − ( 2m 1 1
+ 2m+1 ) < 12 ⇒ 32 < 2m 1 1
+ 2m+1 ≤ 12 + 12 = 1, which is a
contradiction. Therefore the given sequence is not convergent.

Ex.2(d)
 2 Using
 the definition of convergence of sequence, examine whether the sequence
3n +sin n−4
2n2 +3
is convergent.
2 |2 sin n−17|
Solution: Let ε > 0. For all n ∈ N, we have | 3n 2n
+sin n−4
2 +3 − 32 | = 4n2 +6
< 19
4n2
. There exists
√
19 3n2 +sin n−4
n0 ∈ N such that n0 > Hence |
√
2 ε
. 2n2 +3
− 32 | < 19
4n20
< ε for all n ≥ n0 and so the given
sequence is convergent (with limit 32 ).
 √ 
2 n+3n
Ex.2(e) Using the definition of convergence of sequence, examine whether the sequence 2n+3
is convergent. √ √ √
n+3n
Solution: Let ε > 0. For all n ∈ N, we have | 2 2n+3 − 32 | = |44n+6
n−9|
< 4 4n
n+9
< √1n + √9n = 10
√
n
.
√
There exists n0 ∈ N such that n0 > 100
ε2
. Hence | 2 2n+3
n+3n
− 32 | < √10
n0
< ε for all n ≥ n0 and so the
given sequence is convergent (with limit 32 ).
1
Ex.3(a) Let a, b, c be distinct positive real numbers and let xn = (an + bn + cn ) n for all n ∈ N.
Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
1
Solution: Let α = max{a, b, c}. Then αn ≤ an + bn + cn ≤ 3αn for all n ∈ N. So α ≤ xn ≤ 3 n α
1 1
for all n ∈ N. Since 3 n → 1, 3 n α → α. Hence by sandwich theorem, it follows that the sequence
(xn ) is convergent and lim xn = α.
n→∞

Alternative solution: Let α = max{a, b, c}. Then αn ≤ an + bn + cn = αn [( αa )n + ( αb )n + ( αc )n ] ≤

αn [( αa )n + ( αb )n + ( αc )n ]n for all n ∈ N. So α ≤ xn ≤ α[( αa )n + ( αb )n + ( αc )n ] for all n ∈ N. Since
( αa )n + ( αb )n + ( αc )n → 1, by sandwich theorem, it follows that (xn ) is convergent and lim xn = α.
n→∞
1−n+(−1)n
Ex.3(b) Let xn = 2n+1 for all n ∈ N for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is
convergent. Also, find the limit ifn it is convergent.
1 (−1)
−1+ n 1 (−1)n
Solution: We have xn = n
1
2+ n
for all n ∈ N. Since n
→ 0 and n
→ 0, by the limit rules
0−1+0 1
for algebraic operations, (xn ) is convergent with lim xn = 2+0
= −2.
n→∞
 k
Ex.3(c) Let |α| > 1, k > 0 and xn = αnn for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn )
is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
Solution: We have lim | xxn+1
n
| = lim (1 + n1 )k |α|
1 1
= |α| < 1. Hence (xn ) converges to 0.
n→∞ n→∞

Ex.3(d) Let xn = p(n)2n

for all n ∈ N, where p(x) is a polynomial in the real variable x of de-
gree 5. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
Solution: The highest power of n in each of p(n) and p(n + 1) is 5 and the coefficient of n5 in p(n)
and p(n+1) is same. Hence dividing both numerator and denominator by n5 and using the fact that
2n
1
n
→ 0, it follows that lim p(n+1)
p(n)
= 1 and consequently lim | xxn+1
n
| = lim p(n+1)
2n+1
· p(n) = 12 < 1.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
This implies that (xn ) is convergent with limit 0.

Ex.3(e) Let xn = 3.5.7.··· .(2n+1)

2.5.8.··· .(3n−1)
for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is conver-
gent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
3
2+ n
Solution: We have lim | xxn+1 | = lim 2n+3
= lim 2
2 = 3 < 1. Hence (xn ) is convergent and
n→∞ n n→∞ 3n+2 n→∞ 3+ n
lim xn = 0.
n→∞

Ex.3(f ) Let xn = n1 sin2 n for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is convergent.
Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
Solution: Since 0 ≤ n1 sin2 n ≤ n1 for all n ∈ N and since n1 → 0, by sandwich theorem, (xn ) is
convergent with limit 0.
1 1 1
Ex.3(g) Let xn = (n+1) 2 + (n+2)2 + · · · + (n+n)2 for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn )

is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.

1
n n 0
Solution: We have 0 ≤ xn ≤ (n+1) 2 for all n ∈ N and (n+1)2 = (1+ 1 )2 → (1+0)2 = 0. Hence by
n
n
sandwich theorem, it follows that (xn ) is convergent with limit 0.
2
Ex.3(h) xn = n3n+1 + n32n+2 + · · · + n3n+n for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn )
is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
Solution: We have (1 + 2 + · · · + n) n3n+n ≤ xn ≤ (1 + 2 + · · · + n) n3n+1 for all n ∈ N. Also,
1 1
1+ n 1+ n
(1 + 2 + · · · + n) n3n+n = 2(1+ 12 )
→ 1
2
and (1 + 2 + · · · + n) n3n+1 = 2(1+ 13 )
→ 12 . Hence by sandwich
n n
theorem, (xn ) is convergent with limit 12 .

Ex.3(i) xn = √n12 +1 + √n12 +2 + · · · + √n2 +n+1

1
for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence
(xn ) is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
1
1+ n
Solution: We have √nn+12 +n+1 ≤ xn ≤
√n+1 for all n ∈ N. Also, √ n+1
2
n +1 2
n +n+1
= q
1 1
→ 1 and
1+ n +
n2
1+ 1
√n+1 = q n → 1. Hence by sandwich theorem, (xn ) is convergent with limit 1.
n2 +1 1+ 12
n

Ex.3(j) Let xn = √1n ( √1+1 √3 + √3+1 √5 + · · · + √2n−1+1 √2n+1 ) for all n ∈ N. Examine whether
the sequence (xn ) is convergent.
√ Also,
√ find√the limit if√it is convergent.
√ √
Solution: Since xn = 2√1 n ( 3 − 1 + 5 − 3 + · · · + 2n + 1 − 2n − 1) = 2√1 n ( 2n + 1 − 1) =
q
1
2
( 2 + n1 − √1n ) for all n ∈ N and since n1 → 0, by the limit rules for algebraic operations, (xn )
√
is convergent with lim xn = 12 ( 2 + 0 − 0) = √12 .
n→∞

Ex.3(k) Let xn = ( sin n+cos

3
n n
) for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is conver-
gent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
Solution: We have 0 ≤ |xn | ≤ ( 23 )n for all n ∈ N. Since ( 32 )n → 0, by sandwich theorem, it follows
that |xn | → 0 and consequently (xn ) is convergent with limit 0.
 √
Ex.3(l) Let xn = 4n2 + n − 2n for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is con-
vergent. Also, find the limit
√ if it is convergent. n
Solution: For all n ∈ N, 4n2 + n − 2n = √4n2 +n+2n = √ 1 1 . Since n1 → 0, by the limit rules
4+ n +2
for algebraic operations, (xn ) is convergent and lim xn = √ 1 = 14 .
n→∞ 4+0+2
√ √
Ex.3(m) Let xn = n2 + n − n2 + 1 for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is
convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
1
n−1 1− n
Solution: For all n ∈ N, we have xn = √n2 +n+ √
n2 +1
= √ 1 q 1
. Since n1 → 0, by the limit
1+ n + 1+
n2

rules for algebraic operations, (xn ) is convergent and lim xn = √ 1−0√ = 12 .

n→∞ 1+0+ 1+0
√
Ex.3(n) Let x1 = 1 and xn+1 = 1 + xn for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn )
is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
√
Solution: We have x2 = 2 > x1 . Also, if xk+1 > xk for some k ∈ N, then xk+2 = 1 + xk+1 >
√
1 + xk = xk+1 . Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn+1 > xn for all n ∈ √ N. So
√
(xn ) is increasing. Again, x1 < 3 and if xk < 3 for some k ∈ N, then xk+1 = 1 + xk < 1 + 3 < 3.
Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn < 3 for all n ∈ N. So (xn ) is bounded above.
√
Consequently (xn ) is convergent. If ` = lim xn , then xn+1 → ` and since xn+1 = 1 + xn for
n→∞
√ √ √ √
all n ∈ N, we get ` = 1+ ` ⇒ ` = 2 or 3−2 5 . Since xn ≥ 1 for all n ∈ N, ` ≥ 1 and so ` = 3+2 5 .
3+ 5

Ex.3(o) Let x1 = 4 and xn+1 = 3 − x2n for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn )
is convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
Solution: We have x1 > 2 and if we assume that xk > 2 for some k ∈ N, then xk+1 > 3 − 1 = 2.
Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn > 2 for all n ∈ N. Therefore (xn ) is
bounded below. Again, x2 = 25 < x1 and if we assume that xk+1 < xk for some k ∈ N, then
1
xk+2 − xk+1 = 2( x1k − xk+1 ) < 0 ⇒ xk+2 < xk+1 . Hence by the principle of mathematical induction,
xn+1 < xn for all n ∈ N. Therefore (xn ) is decreasing. Consequently (xn ) is convergent. Let
` = lim xn . Then lim xn+1 = 3 − lim2 xn ⇒ ` = 3 − 2` (since xn > 2 for all n ∈ N, ` 6= 0)
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
⇒ (` − 1)(` − 2) = 0 ⇒ ` = 1 or ` = 2. But xn > 2 for all n ∈ N, so ` ≥ 2. Therefore ` = 2.
Alternative solution: For all n ∈ N, we have |xn+2 − xn+1 | = |xn+12||xn | |xn+1 − xn |. Also, as shown in
the above solution, xn > 2 for all n ∈ N. Hence |xn+2 − xn+1 | ≤ 12 |xn+1 − xn | for all n ∈ N. It fol-
lows that (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in R and hence (xn ) is convergent. To show that lim xn = 2,
n→∞
we proceed as in the above solution.
√
Ex.3(p) Let x1 = 0 and xn+1 = 6 + xn for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn )
is convergent. Also, find √the limit if it is convergent. √
Solution: We have x2 = 6 > x1 . Also, if xk+1 > xk for some k ∈ N, then xk+2 = 6 + xk+1 >
√
6 + xk = xk+1 . Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn+1 √ > xn for all√n ∈ N. So
(xn ) is increasing. Again, x1 < 3 and if xk < 3 for some k ∈ N, then xk+1 = 6 + xk < 6 + 3 = 3.
Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn < 3 for all n ∈ N. So (xn ) is bounded
√ above.
Consequently (xn ) is convergent. If ` = lim xn , then xn+1 → ` and since xn+1 = 6 + xn for all
√ n→∞
n ∈ N, we get ` = 6 + ` ⇒ `2 − ` − 6 = 0 ⇒ ` = 3 or −2. Since xn ≥ 0 for all n ∈ N, ` ≥ 0 and
so ` = 3.
√
Ex.3(q) Let x1 > 1 and xn+1 = xn for all n ∈ N. Examine whether the sequence (xn ) is
convergent. Also, find the limit if it is convergent.
√
Solution: We have x1 > 1 and if we assume that xk > 1 for some k ∈ N, then xk+1 = xk > 1.
√
Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn > 1 for all n ∈ N. Again, x2 = x1 ≤ x1
√ √
and if we assume that xk+1 ≤ xk for some k ∈ N, then xk+2 = xk+1 ≤ xk = xk+1 . Hence by
the principle of mathematical induction, xn+1 ≤ xn for all n ∈ N. Thus (xn ) is decreasing and
bounded below. Consequently (xn ) is convergent. If ` = lim xn , then lim xn+1 = ` and since
√ √ n→∞ n→∞
xn+1 = xn for all n ∈ N, we get ` = ` ⇒ `2 = ` ⇒ ` = 0 or 1. Since xn > 1 for all n ∈ N,
` ≥ 1 and so we must have ` = 1.

Ex.4 Let (xn ), (yn ) be sequences in R such that xn → x ∈ R and yn → y ∈ R. Show that
lim max{xn , yn } = max{x, y}.
n→∞
Solution: We know that max{xn , yn } = 21 (xn + yn + |xn − yn |) for all n ∈ N. Since xn → x and
yn → y, xn +yn → x+y and |xn −yn | → |x−y|. Consequently lim max{xn , yn } = 12 (x+y+|x−y|) =
n→∞
max{x, y}.
√
Ex.5 If a sequence (xn ) of positive real numbers converges to ` ∈ R, then show that lim xn =
√ n→∞
`.
Solution: In view of Ex.2 of Tutorial
√ Problem Set, we get ` ≥ If a ≥p0 and b ≥ 0, then
√ 0. √
1
2
(a + b − |a − b|) = min{a, b} ≤ ab and hence it follows that | a − b| ≤ |a − b|. Let ε > 0.
2
Since xn → `, there exists n0 ∈ N such that √ |xn −p`| < ε for all n ≥ n0 . Therefore using the
√
inequality obtained
√ above, we get | xn − `| ≤ |xn − `| < ε for all n ≥ n0 . Consequently
√
lim xn = `.
n→∞

Ex.6 Let (xn ) be a convergent sequence in R with lim xn = ` = 6 0. Show that there exists
n→∞
n0 ∈ N such that xn 6= 0 for all n ≥ n0 .
Solution: Since xn → ` and |`| > 0, there exists n0 ∈ N such that |xn − `| < 12 |`| for all n ≥ n0 .
If for some n ≥ n0 , xn = 0, then we obtain |`| < 21 |`|, which is not possible. Hence xn 6= 0 for all
n ≥ n0 .
1 1 1
Ex.7 If xn = n+1 + n+2 + · · · + n+n for all n ∈ N, then show that the sequence (xn ) conver-
gent.
1 1 1 2 1
Solution: For all n ∈ N, we have xn+1 − xn = 2n+1 + 2n+2 − n+1 ≥ 2n+2 − n+1 = 0 ⇒ xn+1 ≥ xn
1 1 1
for all n ∈ N ⇒ (xn ) is increasing. Also, xn ≤ n + n + · · · + n = 1 for all n ∈ N ⇒ (xn ) is bounded
above. Therefore (xn ) is convergent.

Ex.8(a) Let x1 = 1 and xn+1 = 2+x 1+xn

n
for all n ∈ N. Show that the sequence (xn ) in R is
Cauchy (and hence convergent). Also, find the limit.
1
Solution: Since xn+1 = 1 + 1+x n
for all n ∈ N, we have |xn+2 − xn+1 | = | 1+x1n+1 − 1+x
1
n
| =
|xn+1 −xn |
for all n ∈ N. Also, x1 = 1 and if we assume that xk ≥ 1 for some k ∈ N, then
|1+xn+1 ||1+xn |
1
xk+1 = 1 + 1+x k
≥ 1. Hence by the principle of mathematical induction, xn ≥ 1 for all n ∈ N.
Consequently |xn+2 − xn+1 | ≤ 14 |xn+1 − xn | for all n ∈ N. It follows that (xn ) is Cauchy and hence
1
√
(xn ) converges. Let ` = lim xn . Then lim xn+1 = ` and so we get ` = 1+ 1+` ⇒ `2 = 2 ⇒ ` = 2
√ n→∞ n→∞ √
or − 2. Since xn ≥ 1 for all n ∈ N, we must have ` ≥ 1 and so ` = 2.

Ex.8(b) Let x1 > 0 and xn+1 = 2 + x1n for all n ∈ N. Show that the sequence (xn ) in R is
Cauchy (and hence convergent). Also, find the limit.
1
Solution: We have |xn+2 − xn+1 | = | xn+1 − x1n | = |x n+1 −xn |
|xn+1 ||xn |
for all n ∈ N. Also, x2 = 2 + x11 > 2
and if we assume that xk > 2 for some k ≥ 2, then xk+1 = 2 + x1k > 2. Hence by the principle
of mathematical induction, xn > 2 for all n ≥ 2. Consequently |xn+2 − xn+1 | ≤ 14 |xn+1 − xn |
for all n ≥ 2. It follows that (xn ) is Cauchy and hence (xn ) converges. Let ` = lim xn . Then
√ n→∞
lim xn+1 = ` and so we get ` = 2 + 1` ⇒ `2 − 2` − 1 = 0 ⇒ ` = 1 ± 2. Since xn > 2 for all
n→∞ √
n ≥ 2, we must have ` ≥ 2 and so ` = 1 + 2.
Ex.9(a) If xn = (−1)n n2 for all n ∈ N, then examine whether the sequence (xn ) has a con-
vergent subsequence?
Solution: If possible, let the given sequence have a convergent subsequence ((−1)nk n2k ). Then
((−1)nk n2k ) must be bounded. So there exists M > 0 such that |(−1)nk n2k | ≤ M for all k ∈ N ⇒
n2k ≤ M for all k ∈ N, which is not possible, since (nk ) is a strictly increasing sequence of positive
integers. Therefore the given sequence cannot have any convergent subsequence.
3
Ex.9(b) If xn = (−1)n 5n3n−2 sin n
for all n ∈ N, then examine whether the sequence (xn ) has a
convergent subsequence.
Solution: Since |xn | = 3−5 2 | sin n|3 ≤ 5 for all n ∈ N, the sequence (xn ) is bounded and hence by
n
Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, (xn ) has a convergent subsequence.

Ex.10 If a, b ∈ R, then show that the series a + (a + b) + (a + 2b) + · · · is not convergent

unless a = b = 0.
Solution: Let sn = a + (a + b) + · · · + a + (n − 1)b = n[a + 21 (n − 1)b] for all n ∈ N. If b 6= 0, then the
sequence (a + 21 (n − 1)b) is not bounded and so the sequence (sn ) is not bounded, which implies
that (sn ) is not convergent. If b = 0, then the sequence (sn ) = (na) is not bounded and hence is
not convergent if a 6= 0. Thus the given series is not convergent (i.e. (sn ) is not convergent) if
a 6= 0 or b 6= 0.
If a = b = 0, then the series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which is clearly convergent.
∞
n!
P
Ex.11(a) Examine whether the series nn
is convergent.
n=1
Solution: Taking xn = n!
nn
for all n ∈ N, we find that lim | xxn+1 n n
| = lim ( n+1 ) = lim 1
1 n =
n n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ (1+ n )
1
e
< 1. Hence by the ratio test, the given series is convergent.
∞
P (2n)!
Ex.11(b) Examine whether the series nn
is convergent.
n=1
(2n)! (2n)!
Solution: For all n ∈ N, we have · nn
= 2n
n
2n−1
n
· · · n+1
n
· n! ≥ 1. Hence lim n 6= 0 and
n→∞ n
consequently the given series is not convergent.
∞
1
sin n1 is convergent.
P
Ex.11(c) Examine whether the series n
n=1
∞
1 1 1 1
P
Solution: Since 0 ≤ n
sin n
≤ n2
for all n ∈ N and since the series n2
converges, by comparison
n=1
test, the given series is convergent.
∞ q
2n2 +3
P
Ex.11(d) Examine whether the series 5n3 +1
is convergent.
n=1 r
q 3 q
2 +3 2+
Solution: Let xn = 2n
5n3 +1
and yn = √1n for all n ∈ N. Since lim xn
= lim n2
5+ 13
= 2
6= 0
n→∞ yn n→∞ n
5
∞
P ∞
P
and since yn is not convergent, by limit comparison test, xn is not convergent.
n=1 n=1
∞
nn
P
Ex.11(e) Examine whether the series 2n2
is convergent.
n=1
nn 1 n
Solution: Taking xn = 2n2
for all n ∈ N, we have lim |xn | n = lim n = 0 < 1 (since
n→∞ n→∞ 2
2n
lim n+1
n+1 · = 1
< 1). Hence by the root test, the given series is convergent.
n→∞ 2 n 2
∞ 1
((n3 + 1) 3 − n) is convergent.
P
Ex.11(f ) Examine whether the series
n=1
1 1
Solution: Taking xn = (n3 + 1) 3 − n ≥ 0 and yn = n2
for all n ∈ N, we have
 ∞
xn n2 (n3 +1−n3 ) 1
= 31 . Since
P
lim = lim 3 +1)2/3 +n(n3 +1)1/3 +n2 = lim (1+ 13 )2/3 +(1+ 13 )1/3 +1
yn is convergent,
n→∞ yn n→∞ (n n→∞ n n n=1
P∞
xn is also convergent by limit comparison test.
n=1
∞ √ √
P n+1− n
Ex.11(g) Examine whether the series n
is convergent.
√ √ n=1
n+1− n
Solution: Let xn = = √ 1 √ and yn = 1
for all n ∈ N. Since lim xynn =
n n( n+1+ n) n3/2 n→∞
∞ ∞
lim √ 1 1
P P
1
= 2
and since yn is convergent, by limit comparison test, xn is convergent.
n→∞ 1+ n +1 n=1 n=1
∞
P n n 2
Ex.11(h) Examine whether the series ( n+1 ) is convergent.
n=1
n n 2 1
Proof: Taking xn = ( n+1 ) for all n ∈ N, we have lim |xn | n = lim (1+11 )n = 1
e
< 1. Hence by
n→∞ n→∞ n
the root test, the given series is convergent.
∞ √
n+1
(−1)n+1
P
Ex.11(i) Examine whether the series n+1
is convergent.
√n=1 √ 3
n+1
Solution: For n ∈ N, the inequality n+1+1
n+2
< is equivalent to
the inequality (n + 1) 2 <
n+1
√ 3 √
(n+2) n+1. Since n(n+2)2 −(n+1)3 = n2 +n−1 > 0 for all n ∈ N, we get (n+1) 2 <(n+2) n+1
√ √ √ 
n+1+1 n+1 n+1
for all n ∈ N and hence n+2 < n+1 for all n ∈ N. Consequently the sequence n+1 is de-
√ √1 + 1
n+1 n n
creasing. Also, n+1
= 1
1+ n
→ 0. Hence by Leibniz’s test, the given series converges.
√
x+1
Alternative method for showing decreasing: Let f (x) = x+1
for all x ≥ 1. Then f : [1, ∞) → R
√
1−x−2 x
is differentiable and f 0 (x) = √
2 x(x+1)2
≤ 0 for all x ≥ 1. Hence f is decreasing on [1, ∞) and so
f (n + 1) ≤ f (n) for all n ∈ N.
∞
xn
P
Ex.12 Find all x ∈ R for which the series n!
is convergent.
n=1
Solution: For x = 0, the given series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which clearly converges. We now
∞ n
xn+1 |x|
· xn!n | = lim n+1 x
P
assume that x 6= 0. Then lim | (n+1)! = 0 < 1. So by the ratio test, n!
is
n→∞ n→∞ n=1
absolutely convergent and hence convergent. Therefore the given series is convergent for all x ∈ R.
∞
P (x+2)n
Ex.13 Find all x ∈ R for which the series 3n
√
2n+1
is convergent.
n=1
Solution: If x = −2, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which is clearly convergent. Let
n
x(6= −2) ∈ R and let an = 3n(x+2)
√ for all n ∈ N. Then lim | an+1 | = 13 |x + 2|. Hence by ratio
2n+1 n→∞ an
∞
an is convergent (absolutely) if 31 |x + 2| < 1, i.e. if x ∈ (−5, 1) and is not convergent if
P
test,
n=1
∞ ∞
1
P P (−1)n
3
|x + 2| > 1, i.e. if x ∈ (−∞, −5) ∪ (1, ∞). If x = −5, then an = √
2n+1
is convergent by
n=1 n=1
1 1
Leibniz test, since ( √2n+1 ) is a decreasing sequence of positive real numbers and lim √2n+1 = 0.
n→∞
∞ ∞ ∞
√ 1 √1
P P P
Again, if x = 1, then an = 2n+1
is not convergent by limit comparison test, since n
n=1 n=1 n=1
√ ∞
lim √ n √1
P
is not convergent and = 6= 0. Therefore the set of all x ∈ R for which an is
n→∞ 2n+1 2
n=1
convergent is [−5, 1).
∞
an
P
Ex.14 Show that the series an +n
is convergent if 0 < a < 1 and is not convergent if a > 1.
n=1
 ∞
an
< an for all n ∈ N and an is convergent. Hence by
P
Solution: If 0 < a < 1, then 0 < an +n
n=1
∞
an an 1
P
comparison test, an +n
is convergent if 0 < a < 1. Again, if a > 1, then an +n
= 1+ ann
→ 1 6= 0
n=1
∞
an n
P
and hence an +n
is not convergent if a > 1. (We have used that lim n = 0, which follows from
n=1 n→∞ a
n+1 an 1
the fact that lim n+1 · = < 1.)
n→∞ a n a
∞
1
P
Ex.15 If 0 < xn < 2
for all n ∈ N and if the series xn converges, then show that the se-
n=1
∞
xn
P
ries 1−xn
converges.
n=1
Solution: Since 0 < xn < 12 for all n ∈ N, we have 0 < 1−x
xn
n
< 2xn for all n ∈ N. Also, since
P∞ ∞
P xn
2xn converges, by comparison test, 1−xn
converges.
n=1 n=1

Ex.16 Let (xn ), (yn ) be sequences in R such that |xn | ≤ |yn | for all n ∈ N. Find out (with
justification) the true statement(s) from the following.
∞
P ∞
P
(a) If the series yn converges, then the series xn must converge.
n=1 n=1
P∞ ∞
P
(b) If the series xn converges, then the series yn must converge.
n=1 n=1
P∞ ∞
P
(c) If the series yn converges absolutely, then the series xn must converge absolutely.
n=1 n=1
P∞ ∞
P
(d) If the series xn converges absolutely, then the series yn must converge absolutely.
n=1 n=1

∞
P ∞
P ∞
P
Solution: By comparison test, |xn | is convergent (i.e. xn is absolutely convergent) if |yn |
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
1
P P
is convergent (i.e. yn is absolutely convergent) and so (c) is true. Again, we know that n2
n=1 n=1
∞
1
is not convergent. Also, since ( n1 ) is a decreasing sequence of positive real
P
is convergent and n
n=1
∞
1
P (−1)n
numbers with n
→ 0, by Leibniz’s test, n
is convergent. Hence to see that (a) is false,
n=1
n
we can take xn = n1 , yn = (−1)
n
for all n ∈ N and to see that (b) and (d) are false, we can take
1 1
xn = n2 , yn = n for all n ∈ N.
∞ ∞
x2n is not convergent, then show that
P P
Ex.17 If a series xn is convergent but the series
n=1 n=1
∞
P
the series xn is conditionally convergent.
n=1
∞
P
Solution: Since xn is convergent, xn → 0, and so there exists n0 ∈ N such that |xn | < 1 for
n=1
∞
all n ≥ n0 . Hence x2n ≤ |xn | for all n ≥ n0 . Since x2n is not convergent, by comparison test,
P
n=1
∞
P ∞
P
|xn | is not convergent. Consequently xn is conditionally convergent.
n=1 n=1
√ ∞
(−1)n ( n2 + 1 − n) is conditionally convergent.
P
Ex.18(a) Examine whether the series
√ n=1
1
Solution: Let xn = n2 + 1 − n for all n ∈ N. Then xn > 0 for all n ∈ N and xn = √n2 +1+n =
1
q n
1
→ 0. Also, xn+1 = √ 1
< √ 1
n2 +1+n
= xn for all n ∈ N, i.e. the sequence (xn )
1+ +1 (n+1)2 +1+(n+1)
n2
 ∞
(−1)n+1 xn is convergent and hence the given series
P
is decreasing. Therefore by Leibniz’s test,
n=1
is convergent.
∞
1 xn q 1 1
P
Again, if yn = n
for all n ∈ N, then lim = lim = 6= 0. Since yn is not con-
n→∞ yn n→∞ 1+ 12 +1 2
n=1
n
∞ ∞ √
|(−1)n ( n2 + 1 − n)| is not
P P
vergent, by limit comparison test, xn is not convergent, i.e.
n=1 n=1
convergent. Thus the given series is conditionally convergent.
∞
P (−1)n
Ex.18(b) Examine whether the series n2 +(−1)n
is conditionally convergent.
n=2
∞ ∞
P (−1)n P 1
Solution: By comparison test, the series n2 +(−1)n
= n2 +(−1)n
is convergent, since
n=2 n=2
∞
1 2 1
P
0< n2 +(−1)n
< n2
for all n ≥ 2 and n2
is convergent. Thus the given series is not conditionally
n=2
convergent.
∞ 2
(−1)n a n+n
P
Ex.18(c) Examine whether the series 2 (where a ∈ R) is conditionally convergent.
n=1
2
Solution: Let a ∈ R and let xn = a n+n 2 for all n ∈ N. Then xn > 0 for all n ∈ N and
a2 a2 2
xn = n2 + n → 0. Also, xn+1 = (n+1)2 + n+1 < na2 + n1 = xn for all n ∈ N, i.e. the sequence (xn )
1 1

is decreasing. Therefore by Leibniz’s test, it follows that the given series is convergent.
2
∞
Again, if yn = n1 for all n ∈ N, then lim xynn = lim ( an + 1) = 1 6= 0. Since
P
yn is not convergent,
n→∞ n→∞ n=1
∞ ∞ 2
|(−1)n a n+n
P P
by limit comparison test, xn is not convergent, i.e. 2 | is not convergent. Thus
n=1 n=1
the given series is conditionally convergent.
∞
log(n+1)
− 5)n is convergent.
P
Ex.19 Find all x ∈ R for which the series √
n+1
(x
n=1
Hint: If x = 5, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which is clearly convergent. Let
x(6= 5) ∈ R and let an = log(n+1)
√
n+1
(x − 5)n for all n ∈ N. Since lim log(x+2)
log(x+1)
= 1 (using L’Hôpital’s
x→∞

rule), by sequential criterion of limits, we get lim log(n+2)

= 1 and so lim an+1 = |x − 5|. Hence
n→∞ log(n+1)
n→∞ an
P∞
by the ratio test, an converges (absolutely) if |x − 5| < 1, i.e. if x ∈ (4, 6) and diverges if
n=1
|x − 5| > 1, i.e. if x ∈ (−∞, 4) ∪ (6, ∞). If f (x) = log √ x for all x > 0, then f : (0, ∞) → R
x
is differentiable and f 0 (x) < 0 for all x > e2 . Hence f is decreasing on (e2 , ∞). Consequently
 ∞ ∞ ∞
log(n+1)
the sequence log √n
P P
n
is decreasing. If x = 6, then a n = √
n+1
diverges, by Cauchy’s
n=16 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
(−1)n log(n+1)
P P
condensation test. Again, if x = 4, then an = √
n+1
converges, by Leibniz’s test.
n=1 n=1
Therefore the set of all x ∈ R for which the given series converges is [4, 6).
∞
P (−1)n (x+3)n
Ex.20 Find all x ∈ R for which the series n5n
is conditionally convergent.
n=1
Solution: If x = −3, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which is clearly absolutely conver-
n n
gent. Let x(6= −3) ∈ R and let an = (−1)n5(x+3)
n for all n ∈ N. Then lim an+1 = 15 |x + 3|. Hence
n→∞ an
∞
an converges absolutely if 15 |x + 3| < 1, i.e. if x ∈ (−8, 2) and diverges if
P
by the ratio test,
n=1
∞ ∞
1 1
P P
5
|x + 3| > 1, i.e. if x ∈ (−∞, −8) ∪ (2, ∞). If x = −8, then an = n
diverges. If x = 2,
n=1 n=1
 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
P P (−1)n P P 1
P
then an = n
converges by Leibniz’s test, but |an | = n
diverges, i.e. an is con-
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
∞
P
ditionally convergent. Therefore the set of all x ∈ R for which an converges conditionally is {2}.
n=1

Ex.21 Let f, g : R → R be such that |f (x)| ≤ |g(x)| for all x ∈ R. If g is continuous at 0

and g(0) = 0, then show that f is continuous at 0.
Solution: Let ε > 0. Since g is continuous at 0, there exists δ > 0 such that |g(x)| = |g(x)−g(0)| <
ε for all x ∈ R with |x − 0| < δ. So |f (x) − f (0)| ≤ |f (x)| + |f (0)| ≤ |g(x)| + |g(0)| = |g(x)| < ε
for all x ∈ R with |x − 0| < δ. Therefore f is continuous at 0.
 1
sin x1 if x 6= 0,
Ex.22 Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x
0 if x = 0.
Examine whether f is continuous at 0.
2
Solution: Let xn = (4n+1)π for all n ∈ N. The sequence (xn ) in R converges to 0, but the sequence
π
(f (xn )) = (2nπ+ 2 ) cannot converge because it is not bounded. Therefore f is not continuous at 0.

Ex.23 Give an example (with justification) of a function f : R → R which is discontinuous

at every point of R but |f | : R → R is continuous.

1 if x ∈ Q,
Solution: Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) =
−1 if x ∈ R \ Q.
If x0 ∈ Q, then there exists a sequence (tn ) in R \ Q such that tn → x0 . Since f (tn ) = −1 for
all n ∈ N, f (tn ) → −1 6= 1 = f (x0 ). Hence f is not continuous at x0 . Again, if x0 ∈ R \ Q,
then there exists a sequence (rn ) in Q such that rn → x0 . Since f (rn ) = 1 for all n ∈ N,
f (rn ) → 1 6= −1 = f (x0 ). Hence f is not continuous at x0 . Thus f is discontinuous at every point
of R.
However, |f |(x) = |f (x)| = 1 for all x ∈ R and so |f | : R → R is continuous.
√
Ex.24 Let f : R → R be continuous such that f (x) = x2 + 5√for all x ∈ Q. Find f ( 2). √
Solution: such that rn → 2. Since f is continuous at 2, we
√ There exists a sequence 2(rn ) in Q √
have f ( 2) = lim f (rn ) = lim (rn + 5) = ( 2)2 + 5 = 7.
n→∞ n→∞

1 1
Ex.25 Evaluate lim sin((2nπ + 2nπ
) sin(2nπ + 2nπ
)).
n→∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: We have (2nπ + 2nπ ) sin(2nπ + 2nπ ) = 2nπ sin 2nπ + 2nπ sin 2nπ → 1, since | 2nπ sin 2nπ |≤
1
1 1 1 1 sin sin x
2nπ
→ 0 ⇒ 2nπ sin 2nπ → 0 and 2nπ sin 2nπ = 2nπ
1 → 1, using lim x
= 1. Since the sine
2nπ x→0
1 1
function is continuous at 1, it follows that lim sin((2nπ + 2nπ
) sin(2nπ + 2nπ )) = sin 1.
n→∞

Ex.26 Let f : R → R be continuous such that f (0) > f (1) < f (2). Show that f is not one-one.
Solution: We choose k ∈ R such that f (1) < k < min{f (0), f (2)}. Then by the intermediate
value theorem, there exist c1 ∈ (0, 1) and c2 ∈ (1, 2) such that f (c1 ) = k and f (c2 ) = k. Since
c1 6= c2 , we conclude that f is not one-one.

Ex.27 Let f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be continuous. Show that there exists c ∈ [0, 1] such that f (c) + 2c5 =
3c7 .
Solution: Let g(x) = f (x) + 2x5 − 3x7 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Since f is continuous, g : [0, 1] → R is
continuous. If f (0) = 0 or f (1) = 1, then we get the result by taking c = 0 or c = 1 respectively.
Otherwise g(0) = f (0) > 0 and g(1) = f (1) − 1 < 0 (since it is given that 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for all
x ∈ [0, 1]). Hence by the intermediate value theorem, there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that g(c) = 0,
i.e. f (c) = c.

Ex.28 Show that there exists c ∈ R such that c179 + 1+c2163

+sin2 c
= 119.
179 163
Solution: Let f (x) = x + 1+x2 +sin2 x − 119 for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is continuous and
f (−2) < 0, f (0) > 0. Hence by the intermediate value theorem, there exists c ∈ (−2, 0) such that
f (c) = 0, i.e. c179 + 1+c2163
+sin2 c
= 119.

Ex.29 Let f, g : [−1, 1] → R be continuous such that |f (x)| ≤ 1 for all x ∈ [−1, 1] and g(−1) = −1,
g(1) = 1. Show that there exists c ∈ [−1, 1] such that f (c) = g(c).
Solution: Let ϕ(x) = f (x) − g(x) for all x ∈ [−1, 1]. Since f and g are continuous, ϕ : [−1, 1] → R
is continuous. If f (−1) = −1 or f (1) = 1, then we get the result by taking c = −1 or c = 1
respectively. Otherwise ϕ(−1) = f (−1) + 1 > 0 and ϕ(1) = f (1) − 1 < 0 (since it is given that
|f (x)| ≤ 1 for all x ∈ [−1, 1]). Hence by the intermediate value theorem, there exists c ∈ (−1, 1)
such that ϕ(c) = 0, i.e. f (c) = g(c).

Ex.30 Let x ∈ R and n ∈ N. Show that

(a) if n is odd, then there exists unique y ∈ R such that y n = x.
(b) if n is even and x > 0, then there exists unique y > 0 such that y n = x.
Solution: Let f (t) = tn − x for all t ∈ R, so that f : R → R is continuous.
(a) We first assume that n is odd. Then lim f (t) = ∞ and lim f (t) = −∞. So there exist
t→∞ t→−∞
x1 > 0 and x2 < 0 such that f (x1 ) > 0 and f (x2 ) < 0. By the intermediate value property of
continuous functions, there exists y ∈ (x2 , x1 ) such that f (y) = 0, i.e. y n = x. If possible, let
there exist u ∈ R such that u 6= y and un = x. Clearly either both u and y must be non-negative
or both u and y must be negative. We consider the case 0 ≤ y < u. (Other cases can be handled
similarly.) Then x = y n < un = x, which is a contradiction. Thus the uniqueness of y is proved.
(b) We now assume that n is even and x > 0. Then f (0) < 0 and lim f (t) = ∞. So there exists
t→∞
x1 > 0 such that f (x1 ) > 0. By the intermediate value property of continuous functions, there
exists y ∈ (0, x1 ) such that f (y) = 0 i.e. y n = x. If possible, let there exist u > 0 such that
u 6= y and un = x. Without loss of generality, let u > y. Then x = un > y n = x, which is a
contradiction. This proves the uniqueness of y.

Ex.31 If f : [0, 1] → R is continuous and f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ [0, 1], then show that there
exists α > 0 such that f (x) > α for all x ∈ [0, 1].
Solution: Since f : [0, 1] → R is continuous, there exists x0 ∈ [0, 1] such that f (x) ≥ f (x0 ) for all
x ∈ [0, 1]. Choosing α = 12 f (x0 ), we find that α > 0 and f (x) > α for all x ∈ [0, 1].

Ex.32 Give an example of each of the following.

(a) A function f : [0, 1] → R which is not bounded.
(b) A continuous and bounded function f : R → R which does not attain sup{f (x) : x ∈ R} as
well as inf{f (x) : x ∈ R}.
(c) A continuous and bounded function f : (0, 1) → R which attains both
sup{f (x) : x ∈ (0, 1)} and inf{f (x) : x ∈ (0, 1)}.
 1
x
if x ∈ (0, 1],
Hint: (a) If f (x) =
0 if x = 0,
then f : [0, 1] → R is not bounded.
x
(b) The function f : R → R, defined by f (x) = 1+|x| for all x ∈ R, is continuous and bounded.
However, neither sup{f (x) : x ∈ R} = 1 nor inf{f (x) : x ∈ R} = −1 is attained by f at any point
of R.
(c) The function f : (0, 1) → R, defined by f (x) = sin(2πx) for all x ∈ (0, 1), is continuous and
bounded. Also, sup{f (x) : x ∈ (0, 1)} = 1 = f ( 14 ) and inf{f (x) : x ∈ (0, 1)} = −1 = f ( 43 ).

Ex.33 If f (x) = x sin x for all x ∈ R, then show that f : R → R is neither bounded above
nor bounded below.
Solution: If possible, let f be bounded above. Then there exists M > 0 such that f (x) ≤ M
for all x ∈ R and hence 2nπ + π2 = f (2nπ + π2 ) ≤ M for all n ∈ N. This gives n ≤ 2π
1
(M − π2 )
for all n ∈ N, which is not possible. Hence f is not bounded above. Again, if possible, let f
be bounded below. Then there exists K > 0 such that f (x) ≥ K for all x ∈ R and hence
−2nπ − 3π2
= f (2nπ + 3π
2
1
) ≥ K for all n ∈ N. This gives n ≤ − 2π (K + 3π
2
) for all n ∈ N, which is
not possible. Hence f is not bounded below.

Ex.34 Let p be an nth degree polynomial with real coefficients in one real variable such that
n(6= 0) is even and p(0) · p(n) (0) < 0. Show that p has at least two real zeroes.
Solution: Let p(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an for all x ∈ R, where ai ∈ R for i = 0, 1, ..., n,
n ∈ N is even and a0 6= 0. Then p is infinitely differentiable (and so also continuous) and
p(n) (0) = n!a0 . Since p(0) · p(n) (0) < 0, we have a0 an < 0, i.e. a0 and an are of different signs.
Let us assume that a0 > 0, so that an < 0. (The case a0 < 0 and so an > 0 is almost similar.)
Since p(x) = a0 xn (1 + aa10 · x1 + · · · + an−1
a0
1
· xn−1 + aan0 · x1n ) for all x(6= 0) ∈ R, we get lim p(x) = ∞
x→∞
and lim p(x) = ∞. So there exist x1 > 0 and x2 < 0 such that p(x1 ) > 0 and p(x2 ) > 0. Since
x→−∞
p(0) = an < 0, by the intermediate value theorem, there exist c1 ∈ (x2 , 0) and c2 ∈ (0, x1 ) such
that p(c1 ) = 0 and p(c2 ) = 0.

Ex.35 Let f : R → R be continuous at 0 and let g(x) = xf (x) for all x ∈ R. Show that
g : R → R is differentiable at 0.
Solution: Since lim g(x)−g(0)
x−0
= lim f (x) = f (0) (because f is continuous at 0), g is differentiable
x→0 x→0
at 0.

Ex.36 Let α > 1 and let f : R → R satisfy |f (x)| ≤ |x|α for all x ∈ R. Show that f is dif-
ferentiable at 0.
Solution: We have |f (0)| ≤ |0|α = 0 ⇒ f (0) = 0 and so | f (x)−f
x−0
(0)
| ≤ |x|α−1 for all x(6= 0) ∈ R.
Since lim |x|α−1 = 0, by sandwich theorem for limit of functions, we get lim | f (x)−fx−0
(0)
| = 0. It
x→0 x→0
follows that lim f (x)−f
x−0
(0)
= 0 and consequently f is differentiable at 0.
x→0

Ex.37 Let f (x) = x2 |x| for all x ∈ R. Examine the existence of f 0 (x), f 00 (x) and f 000 (x), where
x ∈ R.  3
x if x ≥ 0,
Solution: Here f (x) = 3
−x if x < 0.

0 3x2 if x > 0,
Clearly f : R → R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) ∈ R and f (x) =
−3x2 if x < 0.
Also, lim f (x)−f
x−0
(0)
= lim x2 = 0 and lim f (x)−f
x−0
(0)
= lim (−x2 ) = 0.
x→0+ x→0+ x→0− x→0−
0 f (x)−f (0)
Hence f (0) = lim x−0 = 0.
x→0 
0 00 6x if x > 0,
Again, it is clear that f : R → R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) ∈ R and f (x) =
−6x if x < 0.
f 0 (x)−f 0 (0) f 0 (x)−f 0 (0)
Also, lim x−0
= lim 3x = 0 and lim x−0
= lim (−3x) = 0.
x→0+ x→0+ x→0− x→0−
00 f (x)−f 0 (0)
0
Hence f (0) = lim x−0
= 0.
x→0 
6 if x > 0,
Finally, it is clear that f 00 : R → R is differentiable at all x(6= 0) ∈ R and f 000 (x) =
−6 if x < 0.
f 00 (x)−f 00 (0) f 00 (x)−f 00 (0)
Also, lim x−0
= lim 6 = 6 and lim x−0
= lim (−6) = −6.
x→0+ x→0+ x→0− x→0−
f 00 (x)−f 00 (0) 000
Hence lim x−0
does not exist, i.e. f (0) does not exist.
x→0

x | cos πx | if x 6= 0,
 2
Ex.38 Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) =
0 if x = 0.
Examine whether f is differentiable (i) at 0 (ii) on (0, 1).
Solution: (i) For each ε > 0, choosing δ = ε > 0, we find that f (x)−f x−0
(0)
= |x|| cos πx | ≤ |x| for
 f (x)−f (0)
all x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x| < δ. Hence lim x−0
= 0 and consequently f is differentiable at 0
x→0
(with f 0 (0) = 0).
f (x)−f ( 32 ) −x2 cos π −0 d
(ii) Since lim 2 x− 2
= lim
2 x− 32
x
= dx
(−x2 cos πx )|x= 2 (applying L’Hôpital’s rule) =
x→ 3 + 3 x→ 3 + 3

f (x)−f ( 32 ) x2 cos π −0 d
π and lim
2 x− 23
= lim
2
x
x− 32
= dx
(x2 cos πx )|x= 2 (applying L’Hôpital’s rule) = −π,
x→ 3 − x→ 3 − 3

f (x)−f ( 32 ) 2
lim x− 23
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 3
∈ (0, 1). Consequently f is
x→ 23
not differentiable on (0, 1).

Ex.39(a) Examine whether f : R → R, defined as below, is differentiable at 0.

1
2n+1
if x = 21n for some n ∈ N,
f (x) =
0 otherwise.
f ( 21n )−f (0) f ( 1 )−f (0) f ( 1 )−f (0) f ( 1 )−f (0)
Solution: Since 1/2n
= 12 and 3n1/3n = 0 for all n ∈ N, 2n1/2n → 12 and 3n1/3n → 0.
As 21n → 0 and 1
3n
→ 0, by the sequential criterion of limit, it follows that lim f (x)−f x−0
(0)
does not
x→0
exist. Consequently f is not differentiable at 0.

Ex.39(b) Examine whether f : R → R, defined as below, is differentiable at 0.

1
4n
if x = 21n for some n ∈ N,
f (x) =
0 otherwise.
f (x)−f (0)
Solution: For all x(6= 0) ∈ R, we have x−0
≤ |x|. Hence for each ε > 0, taking δ = ε > 0,
f (x)−f (0) f (x)−f (0)
we find that x−0
< ε for all x ∈ R satisfying 0 < |x − 0| < δ. Therefore lim x−0
=0
x→0
0
and consequently f is differentiable at 0 (with f (0) = 0).

Ex.40 Let f : R  → R be differentiable at 0 and f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0. Show that g : R → R,

f (x) sin x1 if x 6= 0,
defined by g(x) = is differentiable at 0.
0 if x = 0,
g(x)−g(0) f (x) f (x) f (x)
Solution: Since 0 ≤ x−0
= x
| sin x1 | ≤ x
for all x(6= 0) ∈ R and since lim x
=
x→0
f (x)−f (0)
lim x−0
= |f 0 (0)| = 0, by the sandwich theorem for limits of functions, we get lim g(x)−g(0)
x−0
=
x→0 x→0
g(x)−g(0)
0. It follows that lim x−0
= 0 and consequently g is differentiable at 0 (with g 0 (0) = 0).
x→0

Ex.41 Let f (x) = x3 + x and g(x) = x3 − x for all x ∈ R. If f −1 denotes the inverse func-
tion of f and if (g ◦ f −1 )(x) = g(f −1 (x)) for all x ∈ R, then find (g ◦ f −1 )0 (2).
Solution: Since f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 1 6= 0 for all x ∈ R, f : R → R is one-one. Also, since f is an odd
degree polynomial in R, by the intermediate value property of continuous functions, f : R → R is
onto. Hence f −1 : R → R exists and is differentiable. By chain rule and the rule for derivative of
inverse, we get (g ◦ f −1 )−1 (2) = g 0 (f −1 (2))(f −1 )0 (2) = g 0 (1) f 01(1) (since f (1) = 2) = 21 .

Ex.42 If a, b, c ∈ R, then show that the equation 4ax3 + 3bx2 + 2cx = a + b + c has at least
one root in (0, 1).
Solution: Let f (x) = ax4 +bx3 +cx2 −(a+b+c)x for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is differentiable and
f (0) = 0 = f (1). Hence by Rolle’s theorem, the equation f 0 (x) = 0, i.e. 4ax3 +3bx2 +2cx = a+b+c
has at least one root in (0, 1).
a0 a1 an
Ex.43 If a0 , a1 , ..., an ∈ R satisfy 1.2 + 2.3 + · · · + (n+1)(n+2) = 0, then show that the equa-
n
tion a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x = 0 has at least one root in [0, 1].
a0 2 a1 3 an
Solution: Let f (x) = 1.2 x + 2.3 x + · · · + (n+1)(n+2) xn+2 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Then f : [0, 1] → R is
twice differentiable and f 0 (x) = a0 x + a21 x2 + · · · + n+1 x , f 00 (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn for all
an n+1
x ∈ [0, 1]. Since f (0) = 0 = f (1), by Rolle’s theorem, there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
Again, since f 0 (0) = 0, by Rolle’s theorem, there exists α ∈ (0, c) such that f 00 (α) = 0. Thus the
equation a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn = 0 has a root α ∈ [0, 1].

Ex.44 Show that the equation |x10 − 60x9 − 290| = ex has at least one real root.
Solution: Let f (x) = |x10 − 60x9 − 290| − ex for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is continuous and
10 9 −290
f (0) = 289 > 0. Again, lim x −60xex
= lim 10!
ex
(using L’Hôpital’s rule ten times) = 0. Hence
x→∞ x→∞
10 9
there exists M > 0 such that | x −60x ex
−290
| < 1 for all x > M and consequently f (2M ) < 0.
Therefore by the intermediate value property of continuous functions, the equation f (x) = 0 has
at least one root in (0, 2M ). Hence the given equation has at least one real root.

Ex.45(a) Find the number of (distinct) real roots of the equation x2 = cos x.
Solution: Let f (x) = x2 − cos x for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is twice differentiable with
f 0 (x) = 2x + sin x and f 00 (x) = 2 + cos x for all x ∈ R. Since f 00 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ R, as a
consequence of Rolle’s theorem, it follows that the equation f 0 (x) = 0 has at most one real root
2
and hence the equation f (x) = 0 has at most two real roots. Again, since f (− π2 ) = π4 > 0,
2
f (0) = −1 < 0 and f ( π2 ) = π4 > 0, by the intermediate value property of continuous functions,
the equation f (x) = 0 has at least one root in (− π2 , 0) and at least one root in (0, π2 ). Therefore
the given equation has exactly two (distinct) real roots.

Ex.45(b) Find the number of (distinct) real roots of the equation e2x + cos x + x = 0.
Solution: Let f (x) = e2x + cos x + x for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is differentiable with
f 0 (x) = 2e2x + (1 − sin x) > 0 for all x ∈ R. As a consequence of Rolle’s theorem, the equation
f (x) = 0 has at most one real root. Again, since f (− π2 ) = e−π − π2 < 0 and f (0) = 2 > 0, by the
intermediate value property of continuous functions, the equation f (x) = 0 has least one root in
(− π2 , 0). Therefore the given equation has exactly one (distinct) real root.

Ex.46 Let f : R → R be twice differentiable such that f (0) = 0, f 0 (0) > 0 and f 00 (x) > 0
for all x ∈ R. Show that the equation f (x) = 0 has no positive real root.
Solution: Since f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, f 0 is strictly increasing on R and so f 0 (x) > f 0 (0) > 0 for
all x > 0. This implies that f is strictly increasing on [0, ∞) and so f (x) > f (0) = 0 for all x > 0.
Thus the equation f (x) = 0 has no positive real root.

Ex.47 Show that between any two (distinct) real roots of the equation ex sin x = 1, there ex-
ists at least one real root of the equation ex cos x + 1 = 0.
Solution: Let f (x) = sin x − e−x for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is differentiable (also continuous).
Let a, b ∈ R with a < b be such that ea sin a = 1 = eb sin b. Then f (a) = 0 = f (b). By Rolle’s
theorem, there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0, i.e. cos c + e−c = 0 ⇒ ec (cos c + e−c ) = 0 ⇒
ec cos c + 1 = 0. Thus c ∈ (a, b) is a root of the equation ex cos x + 1 = 0.

Ex.48 Let f (x) = 3x5 − 2x3 + 12x − 8 for all x ∈ R. Show that f : R → R is one-one and
onto.
Solution: Here f : R → R is differentiable and f 0 (x) = 15x4 − 6x2 + 12 = 15[(x2 − 51 )2 + 19
25
] 6= 0
for all x ∈ R. As a consequence of the mean value theorem, f : R → R is one-one. Again, since
f is an odd degree polynomial with real coefficients in one real variable, by Ex.12(c) of Tutorial
Problem Set, f : R → R is onto.

Ex.49(a) Show that x−1 x

< log x < x − 1 for all x(6= 1) > 0.
Solution: Let f (x) = log x for all x > 0. Then f : (0, ∞) → R is differentiable and hence for
each x(6= 1) ∈ (0, ∞), there exists c between 1 and x such that f (x) − f (1) = (x − 1)f 0 (c), i.e
log x = x−1
c
. Since x1 < 1c < 1 if x > 1 and 1 < 1c < x1 if 0 < x < 1, we get x−1
x
< x−1
c
< x − 1 for
x−1
all x(6= 1) > 0. Hence x < log x < x − 1 for all x(6= 1) > 0.
Ex.49(b) Show that 1 + x < ex < 1 + xex for all x(6= 0) ∈ R.
Solution: Let f (x) = ex for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is differentiable and hence for each x(6=
0) ∈ R, by the mean value theorem, there exists c between 0 and x such that f (x) − f (0) = xf 0 (c),
i.e. ex − 1 = xec . Since 1 < ec < ex if x > 0 and ex < ec < 1 if x < 0, we get x < xec < xex for
all x(6= 0) ∈ R. Hence 1 + x < ex < 1 + xex for all x(6= 0) ∈ R.

Ex.49(c) Show that 2 sin x + tan x > 3x for all x ∈ (0, π2 ).

Solution: Let f (x) = 2 sin x + tan x − 3x for all x ∈ [0, π2 ). Then f : [0, π2 ) → R is twice differ-
entiable and f 0 (x) = 2 cos x + sec2 x − 3 for all x ∈ [0, π2 ), f 00 (x) = 2 sin x(sec3 x − 1) > 0 for all
x ∈ (0, π2 ). Hence f 0 is strictly increasing on [0, π2 ) and so f 0 (x) > f 0 (0) = 0 for all x ∈ (0, π2 ).
Thus f is strictly increasing on [0, π2 ) and so f (x) > f (0) = 0 for all x ∈ (0, π2 ). Consequently
2 sin x + tan x > 3x for all x ∈ (0, π2 ).

Ex.49(d) Show that (1 + x)α ≥ 1 + αx for all x ≥ −1 and for all α > 1.
Solution: Let α > 1 and let f (x) = (1 + x)α − (1 + αx) for all x ≥ −1. Then f : [−1, ∞) → R is
differentiable and f 0 (x) = α[(1 + x)α−1 − 1] for all x ≥ −1. Clearly f 0 (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [−1, 0]
and f 0 (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [0, ∞). Hence f is decreasing on [−1, 0] and increasing on [0, ∞). So
f (x) ≥ f (0) = 0 for −1 ≤ x ≤ 0 and also f (x) ≥ f (0) = 0 for x ≥ 0. Therefore f (x) ≥ 0 for all
x ≥ −1, which proves the required inequality.

Ex.50(a) Determine all the differentiable functions f : [0, 1] → R satisfying the conditions
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1 and |f 0 (x)| ≤ 21 for all x ∈ [0, 1].
Solution: If possible, let f : [0, 1] → R be a differentiable function satisfying the given conditions.
Then by the mean value theorem, there exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that f 0 (c) = f (1)−f 1−0
(0)
= 1, which
0 1
contradicts the given condition that |f (x)| ≤ 2 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Therefore no such differentiable
function can exist.

Ex.50(b) Determine all the differentiable functions f : [0, 1] → R satisfying the conditions
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1 and |f 0 (x)| ≤ 1 for all x ∈ [0, 1].
Solution: Let f be such a function and let g(x) = x − f (x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Then g : [0, 1] → R
is differentiable and g 0 (x) = 1 − f 0 (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Hence g is increasing on [0, 1] and
since g(0) = 0 = g(1), it follows that g is the constant function given by g(x) = 0 for all x ∈ [0, 1],
i.e. f (x) = x for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Also, if f (x) = x for all x ∈ [0, 1], then f satisfies all the given
conditions. Therefore there is exactly one function f satisfying the given conditions and it is given
by f (x) = x for all x ∈ [0, 1].

Ex.51 Let f : [0, 2] → R be differentiable and f (0) = f (1) = 0, f (2) = 3. Show that there
exist a, b, c ∈ (0, 2) such that f 0 (a) = 0, f 0 (b) = 3 and f 0 (c) = 1.
Solution: By Rolle’s theorem, there exists a ∈ (0, 1) such that f 0 (a) = 0. Again, by the mean
value theorem, there exists b ∈ (1, 2) such that f 0 (b) = f (2)−f 2−1
(1)
= 3. Hence by the intermediate
0
value property of derivatives, there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 1.

Ex.52(a) Evaluate the limit: lim ( sin1 x − x1 )

x→0
Solution: We have lim ( 1 − 1
) = lim x−sin x
= lim 1−cos x
(using L’Hôpital’s rule)
x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x x→0 sin x+x cos x
sin x
= lim (using L’Hôpital’s rule again) = 0.
x→0 2 cos x−x sin x
2
e−1/x
Ex.52(b) Evaluate the limit: lim x
=0
x→0
−1/x2 −1/x2 1
Solution: We have lim e
x
1/x
= lim e1/x2 = lim 2 2 (applying L’Hôpital’s rule) = lim 21 xe− x2 =
x→0 x→0 x→0 − x3 e1/x x→0
0.
Ex.52(c) Evaluate the limit: lim x(log(1 + x2 ) − log x2 )
x→∞
− 22
 x
1+ log(1+ x2 )
Solution: lim x(log(1 + 2 ) − log( x2 )) = lim x log x 2 = lim
x
1 = lim x
− 2 (1+ x2 )
1 (using
x→∞ x→∞ 2 x→∞ x x→∞ x
2
L’Hôpital’s rule) = lim 2 = 2.
x→∞ 1+ x
1
(1+x) x −e
Ex.52(d) Evaluate the limit: lim x
x→0
1
Solution: If f (x) = (1 + x) x for all x ∈ (−1, 1) \ {0}, then f : (−1, 1) \ {0} → R is differ-
h i 1
1 (1+x) x −e
entiable and f 0 (x) = (1 + x) x x−(1+x)
2
log(1+x)
x (1+x)
for all x ∈ (−1, 1) \ {0}. Hence lim x
=
x→0
1 − log(1+x) 1
lim (1 + x) x · lim x−(1+x)
x
log(1+x)
2 (1+x) (applying L’Hôpital’s rule) = e lim x(3x+2) (using lim (1 + x) x =e
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
and applying L’Hôpital’s rule in the second limit) = − 2e (using lim x1 log(1 + x) = 1).
x→0

2x+sin 2x+1
Ex.52(e) Evaluate the limit: lim 2
x→∞ (2x+sin 2x)(sin x+3)
π
Solution: Let xn = nπ and yn = (4n + 1) 2 for all n ∈ N. Then xn → ∞, yn → ∞ and
2xn +sin 2xn +1 1 1 1 2yn +sin 2yn +1 1 1 1
lim 2 = lim ( 9 + 18nπ ) = 9 , lim (2y +sin 2y )(sin y +3)2 = lim ( 16 + (4n+1)16π ) = 16 .
n→∞ (2xn +sin 2xn )(sin xn +3) n→∞ n→∞ n n n n→∞
2x+sin 2x+1
By the sequential criterion for existence of limits, it follows that lim (2x+sin 2x)(sin x+3)2
does not
x→∞
exist.
 1
 log x−log
f (x) a
Ex.53 If f : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞) is differentiable at a ∈ (0, ∞), then evaluate lim f (a)
.
x→a
1
Solution: Let g(x) = ( ff (x)
(a)
) log x−log a for all x(6= a) ∈ (0, ∞). Then g(x) > 0 for all x(6= a) ∈ (0, ∞)
d
log f (x)−log f (a) (log f (x)−log f (a))|x=a
and we have lim log g(x) = lim log x−log a
= dx
d
(log x−log a)|x=a
(applying L’Hôpital’s rule)
x→a x→a dx
f 0 (a) 0
= a f (a) . By the continuity of the exponential function, it follows that lim g(x) = eaf (a)/f (a) .
x→a
 sin x
x
if x(6= 0) ∈ R,
Ex.54 Let f (x) =
1 if x = 0.
Examine whether f : R → R is continuously differentiable.
Solution: Clearly f is differentiable at each x(6= 0) ∈ R and f 0 (x) = x1 cos x − x12 sin x for all
x(6= 0) ∈ R. Also, lim f (x)−f
x−0
(0)
= lim sinxx−x
2 = lim cos2xx−1 = lim − sin
2
x
= 0 (using L’Hôpital’s rule).
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
So f is differentiable at 0 and f 0 (0) = 0. Again, it is clear that f 0 : R → R is continuous at each
x(6= 0) ∈ R. Further, since lim f 0 (x) = lim x cos x−sin
x2
x
= lim −x2x
sin x
= lim (− 12 sin x) = 0 = f 0 (0)
x→0 x→0 x→0 x→0
(using L’Hôpital’s rule), f 0 is continuous at 0. Hence f is continuously differentiable.
√ 2
Ex.55(a) Using Taylor’s theorem, show that | 1 + x − (1 + x2 − x8 )| ≤ 21 |x|3 for all x ∈ (− 12 , 12 ).
√
Solution: Let f (x) = 1 + x for all x ∈ (− 12 , 21 ). Then f has derivatives of all orders in (− 12 , 12 )
and we have f 0 (x) = 2√1+x 1
, f 00 (x) = − 4(1+x) 1 000 3
3/2 and f (x) = 8(1+x)5/2 for all x ∈ (− 2 , 2 ).
1 1

By Taylor’s theorem, for each x ∈ (− 12 , 12 ), there exists c between 0 and x such that f (x) =
2 3 2 3 √ 2
f (0) + xf 0 (0) + x2! f 00 (0) + x3! f 000 (c) = 1 + x2 − x8 + x16 · (1+c)
1
5/2 . This gives | 1 + x − (1 + x2 − x8 )| =
√
|x|3 1 25/2 2
16
· (1+c)5/2
≤ 16
|x|3 = 4
|x|3 ≤ 12 |x|3 .
2 4 2 4 6
Ex.55(b) Using Taylor’s theorem, show that 1 − x2! + x4! > cos x > 1 − x2! + x4! − x6! for all
x ∈ (0, π).
Solution: Let f (x) = cos x for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is infinitely differentiable and
f 0 (x) = − sin x, f 00 (x) = − cos x, f 000 (x) = sin x, f (4) (x) = cos x, f (5) (x) = − sin x, f (6) (x) =
− cos x for all x ∈ R. If x ∈ (0, π), then by Taylor’s theorem, there exist c1 , c2 ∈ (0, x)
2 3 4 2 4
such that f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + x2! f 00 (0) + x3! f 000 (0) + x4! f (4) (c1 ) = 1 − x2! + x4! cos c1 and
2 5 6 2 4 6
f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + x2! f 00 (0) + · · · + x5! f (5) (0) + x6! f (6) (c2 ) = 1 − x2! + x4! − x6! cos c2 . Since
2 4 2 4 6
cos c1 < 1 and cos c2 < 1, it follows that 1 − x2! + x4! > cos x > 1 − x2! + x4! − x6! .
 3 3 5
Ex.55(c) Using Taylor’s theorem, show that x − x3! < sin x < x − x3! + x5! for all x ∈ (0, π).
Solution: Let f (x) = sin x for all x ∈ R. Then f : R → R is infinitely differentiable and f 0 (x) =
cos x, f 00 (x) = − sin x, f 000 (x) = − cos x, f (4) (x) = sin x, f (5) (x) = cos x for all x ∈ R. If x ∈ (0, π),
2
then by Taylor’s theorem, there exist c1 , c2 ∈ (0, x) such that f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + x2! f 00 (0) +
x3 000 3 2 5 3 5
3!
f (c1 ) = x − x3! cos c1 and f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) + x2! f 00 (0) + · · · + x5! f (5) (c2 ) = x − x3! + x5! cos c2 .
3 3 5
Since cos c1 < 1 and cos c2 < 1, it follows that x − x3! < sin x < x − x3! + x5! .
∞
n!xn .
P
Ex.56 Find the radius of convergence of the power series
n=0
Solution: If x = 0, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which is clearly convergent. Let
x(6= 0) ∈ R and let an = n!xn for all n ∈ N. Then lim | an+1
an
| = ∞ and so there exists n0 ∈ N such
n→∞
that | an+1
an
| > 2 for all n ≥ n0 . This gives |an | > 2n−n0 |an0 | for all n ≥ n0 and hence lim an 6= 0.
n→∞
∞
P
Consequently an is not convergent. Therefore the radius of convergence of the given power
n=1
series is 0.
∞
xn
P
Ex.57 Find the interval of convergence of the power series n
.
n=1
Solution: If x = 0, then the given series becomes 0 + 0 + · · · , which is clearly convergent. Let
n
∞
x(6= 0) ∈ R and let an = xn for all n ∈ N. Then lim | an+1
P
an
| = |x|. Hence by ratio test, an
n→∞ n=1
is convergent (absolutely) if |x| < 1, i.e. if x ∈ (−1, 1) and is not convergent if |x| > 1, i.e. if
∞ ∞
1
P P
x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). If x = 1, then an = n
is not convergent. Again, if x = −1, then
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
(−1)n
is convergent by Leibniz test, since ( n1 ) is a decreasing sequence of positive real
P P
an = n
n=1 n=1
1
numbers and lim = 0. Therefore the interval of convergence of the given power series is [−1, 1).
n→∞ n

Ex.58 Let f : [a, b] → R be a bounded function. If there is a partition P of [a, b] such that
L(f, P ) = U (f, P ), then show that f is a constant function.
Solution: Let P = {x0 , x1 , ..., xn }, where a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b. Since L(f, P ) = U (f, P ),
Pn
we get (Mi − mi )(xi − xi−1 ) = 0, where Mi = sup{f (x) : x ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]} and mi = inf{f (x) :
i=1
x ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]} for i = 1, 2, ..., n. Since Mi ≥ mi and xi − xi−1 > 0 for i = 1, 2, ..., n, it follows that
Mi − mi = 0, i.e. Mi = mi for i = 1, 2, ..., n. This implies that f is constant on [xi−1 , xi ] for each
i ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}. Hence f (x) = f (xi−1 ) = f (xi ) for all x ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] (i = 1, 2, ..., n). Consequently
f (x) = f (a) for all x ∈ [a, b]. Therefore f is a constant function.
n √
Ex.59(a) Evaluate the limit: lim n12
P
n2 − k 2
n→∞
√ k=1
Solution: Let f (x) = 1 − x2 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Considering the partition Pn = {0, n1 , n2 , ..., nn = 1}
of [0, 1] for each n ∈ N (and taking ck = nk for k = 1, ..., n), we find that
n n √
f ( nk )( nk − k−1 1
P P
S(f, Pn ) = n
) = n2
n2 − k 2 . Since f : [0, 1] → R is continuous, f is Riemann
k=1 k=1
integrable on [0, 1] and hence
n √ R1 √
lim n12 n2 − k 2 = lim S(f, Pn ) = f = 12 (x 1 − x2 + sin−1 x)|10 = π4 .
P
n→∞ k=1 n→∞ 0
1
Ex.59(b) Evaluate the limit: lim n1 [(n + 1)(n + 2) · · · (n + n)] n
n→∞
1 1
Solution: For each n ∈ N, let an = n1 [(n + 1)(n + 2) · · · (n + n)] n =
[(1 + n1 )(1 + n2 ) · · · (1 + nn )] n and
let f (x) = log(1 + x) for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Considering the partition Pn = {0, n1 , n2 , ..., nn = 1} of [0, 1]
 n
k
f ( nk )( nk − k−1
P
for each n ∈ N (and taking ck = n
for k = 1, ..., n), we find that S(f, Pn ) = n
) =
k=1
n
1
log(1 + nk ). Since f : [0, 1] → R is continuous, f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1] and hence
P
n
k=1
1
n R1
log(1+ nk ) log(1+x) dx = log 4e (integrating by parts).
P
lim (log an ) = lim = lim S(f, Pn ) =
n→∞ n→∞ n k=1 n→∞ 0
4
By the continuity of the exponential function, it follows that lim an = lim elog an = elog e = 4e ,
n→∞ n→∞
which is the required limit.

x
Rx t2
Ex.59(c) Evaluate the limit: lim 2 e dt.
x→0 1−ex 0
2
Solution: Since the function f : [−1, 1] → R, defined by f (x) = ex for all x ∈ [−1, 1], is
d
Rx t2 2
continuous, by the first fundamental theorem of calculus, dx e dt = ex for all x ∈ [−1, 1].
0
2 Rx 2
Rx xex + et dt 2 2 2
x 2 ex +ex +2x2 ex
Hence lim 2 et dt = lim 0
−2xex2
(applying L’Hôpital’s rule) = lim 2 2 (apply-
x→0 1−ex 0 x→0 x→0 −2ex −4x2 ex
ing L’Hôpital’s rule again) = −1.
 
18 +38 +···+(2n−1)8
Ex.59(d) Evaluate the limit: lim n9
.
n→∞
Solution: Let f (x) = 28 x8 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Considering the partition Pn = {0, n1 , n2 , ..., nn = 1} of
[0, 1] for each n ∈ N and observing that ci = 2i−1 2n
= 12 ( i−1
n
+ ni ) ∈ [ i−1
n n
, i ] for i = 1, ..., n, we find
n n
f ( 2i−1 i i−1 1
( 2i−1 )8 . Since f : [0, 1] → R is continuous, f is Riemann
P P
that S(f, Pn ) = 2n
)( n
− n
) = n n
i=1 i=1
 8 8 8
 R1 8 9
integrable on [0, 1] and hence lim 1 +3 +···+(2n−1)n9
= lim S(f, P n ) = f (x) dx = 2 9x |1x=0 = 2569
.
n→∞ n→∞ 0
n
1
f 0 ( 3n
k
P
Ex.60 If f : [−1, 1] → R is continuously differentiable, then evaluate lim ).
n→∞ n k=1
1

0 0
R3
Solution: Since f is continuous on [0, 1
3
], f is Riemann integrable on [0, 1
3
] and f 0 (t) dt =
0
lim S(f 0 , Pn ), where for each n ∈ N, Pn = {0, 3n
1 2
, 3n n
, ..., 3n = 13 } is a partition of [0, 13 ] and
kPn k→0
n n
S(f 0 , Pn ) = k k−1
)f 0 ( 3n
k 1
f 0 ( 3n
k k
∈ [ k−1 , k ] for k = 1, ..., n). So
P P
( 3n − 3n
) = 3n
) (taking ck = 3n 3n 3n
k=1 k=1
1
n 3
1
f 0 ( 3n
k
f 0 (t) dt = 3[f ( 13 ) − f (0)].
P R
limn
) =3
n→∞ k=1 0
π

π2
R2 x 2π 2
Ex.61(a) Show that 9
≤ sin x
dx ≤ 9
.
π
6

Solution: Let f (x) = sinx x for all x ∈ (0, π2 ]. Then f 0 (x) = sin x−x cos x
sin2 x
for all x ∈ (0, π2 ]. If
g(x) = sin x − x cos x for all x ∈ [0, π2 ], then g 0 (x) = x sin x ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [0, π2 ] and so g is
increasing on [0, π2 ]. Hence for all x ∈ [0, π2 ], g(x) ≥ g(0) = 0 and consequently f 0 (x) ≥ 0 for all
x ∈ (0, π2 ]. Therefore f is increasing on (0, π2 ] and so π3 = f ( π6 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f ( π2 ) = π2 . Since f is
π

π π π π π2 π π π
R2 x
continuous on [ 6 , 2 ], f is Riemann integrable on [ 6 , 2 ] and therefore 9 = 3 ( 2 − 6 ) ≤ sin x dx ≤
π
6
π π π2 2π 2
(
2 2
− π6 ) = 6
≤ 9
.
π
√ R3 √
3 sin x 2
Ex.61(b) Show that 8
≤ x
dx ≤ 6
.
π
4

Solution: Let f (x) = sin x

x
for all x ∈ (0, π2 ]. Then f 0 (x) = x cos x−sin x
x2
for all x ∈ (0, π2 ]. If
g(x) = x cos x − sin x for all x ∈ [0, π2 ], then g 0 (x) = −x sin x ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [0, π2 ] and so g is
decreasing on [0, π2 ]. Hence for all x ∈ [0, π2 ], g(x) ≤ g(0)
√
= 0 and consequently f 0 (x) ≤√ 0 for all
x ∈ (0, π2 ]. Therefore f is decreasing on (0, π2 ] and so 32π3 = f ( π3 ) ≤ f (x) ≤√ f ( π4 ) = 2 2
√ π
. Since
3 3 3 π
f is continuous on [ 4 , 3 ], f is Riemann integrable on [ 4 , 3 ] and therefore 8 = 2π ( 3 − π4 ) ≤
π π π π
π
R3 sin x √ √
2 2 π π 2
x
dx ≤ π
( 3
− 4
) = 6
.
π
4

Rb
Ex.62 If f : [a, b] → R is continuous, then show that there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) dx =
a
(b − a)f (c).
(This result is called the mean value theorem of Riemann integrals.)
Solution: Since f is continuous on [a, b], f is Riemann integrable on [a, b] and so m(b − a) ≤
Rb
f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a), where m = inf{f (x) : x ∈ [a, b]} and M = sup{f (x) : x ∈ [a, b]}. Since
a
f is continuous on [a, b], there exist α, β ∈ [a, b] such that f (α) = m and f (β) = M . Hence
Rb
f (x) dx
f (α) ≤ a
b−a
≤ f (β). By the intermediate value property of continuous functions, there exists
Rb
f (x) dx Rb
c between α and β (both inclusive) such that f (c) = a
b−a
, i.e. f (x) dx = (b − a)f (c).
a

Ex.63 Let f : [a, b] → R and g : [a, b] → R be continuous and let g(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]. Show
Rb Rb
that there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that f (x)g(x) dx = f (c) g(x) dx.
a a
(This result is called the generalized mean value theorem of Riemann integrals.)
Solution: Since f is continuous on [a, b], f is bounded on [a, b] and there exist α, β ∈ [a, b] such
that f (α) = inf{f (x) : x ∈ [a, b]} and f (β) = sup{f (x) : x ∈ [a, b]}. We have f (α) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (β)
for all x ∈ [a, b] ⇒ f (α)g(x) ≤ f (x)g(x) ≤ f (β)g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b] (since g(x) ≥ 0 for all
x ∈ [a, b]). Since f, g are continuous on [a, b], g, f g are Riemann integrable on [a, b] and hence we
Rb Rb Rb Rb Rb
obtain f (α) g(x) dx ≤ f (x)g(x) dx ≤ f (β) g(x) dx. If g(x) dx = 0, then f (x)g(x) dx = 0
a a a a a
Rb Rb
and so we can choose any c ∈ [a, b]. If g(x) dx 6= 0, then g(x) dx > 0 and hence we get f (α) ≤
a a
Rb
f (x)g(x) dx
a
Rb
≤ f (β). By the intermediate value property of the continuous function f , there exists c
g(x) dx
a
Rb
a
f (x)g(x) dx Rb Rb
between α and β (both inclusive) such that f (c) = Rb
, i.e. f (x)g(x) dx = f (c) g(x) dx.
g(x) dx a a
a
Rx
Ex.64 Let f : R → R be continuous and let g(x) = (x − t)f (t) dt for all x ∈ R. Show
0
that g 00 (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ R.
Rx Rx
Solution: We have g(x) = x f (t) dt − tf (t) dt for all x ∈ R. Since f is continuous, by the
0 0
Rx
first fundamental theorem of calculus, g : R → R is differentiable and g 0 (x) = f (t) dt + xf (x) −
0
Rx
xf (x) = f (t) dt for all x ∈ R. Again, since f is continuous, by the first fundamental theorem of
0
calculus, g 0 : R → R is differentiable and g 00 (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ R.
Rx

1 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
Ex.65 Let f (x) = and let F (x) = f (t) dt for all x ∈ [0, 2].
0 if 1 < x ≤ 2, 0
Is F : [0, 2] → R differentiable? Justify.
x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
Solution: We have F (x) =
1 if 1 < x ≤ 2.
F (x)−F (1)
Since lim x−1
= 1 6= 0 = lim F (x)−F
x−1
(1)
, F is not differentiable at 1 and hence F : [0, 2] → R
x→1− x→1+
is not differentiable.
Rx
Ex.66 If f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] is continuous, then show that the equation 2x − f (t) dt = 1 has
0
exactly one root in [0, 1].
Rx
Solution: Let g(x) = 2x − f (t) dt − 1 for all x ∈ [0, 1]. Since f is continuous, by the first funda-
0
mental theorem of calculus, g : [0, 1] → R is differentiable and g 0 (x) = 2−f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ [0, 1]
(since f (x) ≤ 1 for all x ∈ [0, 1]). As a consequence of Rolle’s theorem, the equation g(x) = 0 has
R1
at most one root in [0, 1]. Again, g(0) = −1 < 0 and g(1) = 1 − f (t) dt ≥ 0 (since f (t) ≤ 1 for
0
R1
all t ∈ [0, 1] ⇒ f (t) dt ≤ 1). If g(1) = 0, then 1 is the only root of the given equation in [0, 1].
0
Otherwise g(1) > 0 and hence by the intermediate value property of the continuous function g,
the equation g(x) = 0 has at least one root in (0,1). Thus the given equation has exactly one root
in [0, 1].
R∞ 2
Ex.67(a) Examine whether the improper integral e−t dt is convergent.
0
R1 −t2
R∞ 2 R∞ 2
Solution: Since e dt exists (in R) as a Riemann integral, e−t dt converges iff e−t dt con-
0 0 1
−t2 −t
Rx −t −1
R∞
verges. Now 0 < e ≤e for all t ≥ 1. Also, since lim e dt = lim (e −e ) = e−1 ,
−x
e−t dt
x→∞ 1 x→∞ 1
R∞ −t2
converges. Hence by the comparison test, e dt converges. By our remark at the beginning,
1
R∞ 2
e−t dt is convergent.
0
R∞ 2
Ex.67(b) Examine whether the improper integral te−t dt is convergent.
−∞
Rx −t2 −t2 2 R∞ 2
Solution: Since lim te dt = − 21 lim e |x0 = 1
lim (1
2 x→∞
− e−x ) = 21 , te−t dt is convergent.
x→∞ 0 x→∞ 0
R0 2 2 2 R0 2
Again, since lim te−t dt = − 12 lim e−t |0x = 1
lim (e−x −1)
2 x→−∞
= − 12 , te−t dt is convergent.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ −∞
Therefore the given integral is convergent.
R1
Ex.67(c) Examine whether the improper integral √ dt is convergent.
t−t2
0
1
R2 R1
Solution: The given integral is convergent iff both √ dt and √ dt are convergent. Let
t−t2 t−t2
0 1
2
f (t)
f (t) = √ 1
, g(t) = 1
√ and h(t) = √1 for all t ∈ (0, 1). Then lim = lim √1 = 1
t(1−t) t 1−t t→0+ g(t) t→0+ 1−t
1
R2 R1
and lim f (t) = lim √1 = 1. Since g(t) dt and h(t) dt are convergent, by the limit comparison
t→1− h(t) t→1− t 0 1
2
1
R2 R1
test, f (t) dt and f (t) dt are convergent. Therefore the given integral is convergent.
0 1
2
 R∞
Ex.68 Determine all real values of p for which the integral tp e−t dt converges.
1
[p]+2
p −t
Solution: Let p ∈ R and let f (t) = t e , g(t) = for all t ≥ 1. Then lim fg(t)
1
t[p]+2−p
(t)
= lim t et = 0
t→∞ t→∞
R∞
(using L’Hôpital’s rule [p] + 2 times). Since [p] + 2 − p > 1, g(t) dt converges and hence by the
1
R∞
limit comparison test, f (t) dt converges. Thus the given integral converges for all p ∈ R.
1

f (t)
Alternative solution: Let p ∈ R and let f (t) = tp e−t , g(t) = 1
t2
for all t ≥ 1. Then lim =
t→∞ g(t)
tP −2
lim et
= 0 (for p > 2, we use L’Hôpital’s rule n times, where n is the least positive integer
t→∞
R∞ R∞
≥ p − 2). Since g(t) dt converges, by the limit comparison test, f (t) dt converges. Thus the
1 1
given integral converges for all p ∈ R.
p
Ex.69 Find the area of the region enclosed by√the curve y = |x + 1| and the line 5y = x + 7.
Solution: Solving the equation 51 (x + 7) = x + 1 for x ≥ −1 and the equation 15 (x + 7) =
p p
−(x + 1) for x < −1, the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the curve y = |x + 1|
and the line 5y = x + 7 are found to be −2, 3 and 8. Hence the required area is
−1
R x+7 p R3 √ R8 √
( 5 − −(x + 1)) dx + ( x+7 5
− x + 1) dx + ( x + 1 − x+7
5
) dx = 53 .
−2 −1 3

Ex.70 The region bounded by the parabola y = x2 + 1 and the line y = x + 3 is revolved
about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution: Solving y = x2 +1 and y = x+3, we obtain the x-coordinates of the points of intersection
of the given parabola and the line as −1 and 2. Hence the required volume is
R2
π((x + 3)2 − (x2 + 1)2 ) dx = 117
5
π.
−1

Ex.71 The region bounded by the parabolas y 2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay (where a > 0) is re-
volved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution: Solving y 2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay, we obtain the x-coordinates of the points of intersec-
R4a x4 96 3
tions of the two parabolas as 0 and 4a. Hence the required volume is π(4ax − 16a 2 ) dx = 5 πa .
0

Ex.72 Find the area of the region that is inside the circle r = 2 cos θ and outside the cardioid
r = 2(1 − cos θ).
Solution: The given circle and the cardioid meet at three points corresponding to θ = 0, θ ! = π3
π/3 π/3
and θ = − π3 . By symmetry, the required area is 2 21 4 cos2 θ dθ − 12
R R
4(1 − cos θ)2 dθ =
0 0
√ π
4( 3 − 3 ).

Ex.73 Find the area of the region which is inside both the cardioids r = a(1 + cos θ) and
r = a(1 − cos θ), where a > 0.
Solution: The cardioids meet at three points corresponding to θ = 0, θ = π2 and θ = − π2 . By
π/2
R 1 2
symmetry, the required area is 4 2
a (1 − cos θ)2 dθ = 21 a2 (3π − 8).
0

Ex.74 Consider the funnel formed by revolving the curve y = x1 about the x-axis, between x = 1
and x = a, where a > 1. If Va and Sa denote respectively the volume and the surface area of the
funnel, then show that lim Va = π and lim Sa = ∞.
a→∞ a→∞
 Ra π 1
Ra 2π
q
1
Ra 2π
Solution: For each a > 1, we have Va = x2
dx = π(1 − a
) and Sa = x
1+ x2
dx ≥ x
dx =
1 1 1
2π log a. Hence lim Va = π and since lim log a = ∞, we get lim Sa = ∞.
a→∞ a→∞ a→∞