International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)

Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2024, pp. 222~238

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v15.i1.pp222-238  222

Performance improvement of a standalone PV system using

supercapacitors: modeling and energy management

Mohamed Salah Hassan1,2, Shimaa Hassan1, Mohamed Reda Mahmoud Hassan1,

Abou-Hashema Mostafa El-Sayed1, Masahito Shoyama2, Gamal Mahmoud Dousoky1,3
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Minya, Egypt
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
3
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Nahda University, Beni-Suef, Egypt

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Standalone photovoltaic (PV) systems are the most common and practical
application in remote areas and communities far from the power grid.
Received May 6, 2023 However, in the case of supplying a pulsating load with only a battery as a
Revised July 25, 2023 storage unit, their performance degraded. Therefore, hybrid electrical energy
Accepted Aug 9, 2023 storage (HEES) systems represent a viable solution. This paper investigates
the impact of utilizing a supercapacitor (SC) to work cooperatively with a
battery storage unit to enhance the overall system behavior. Two scenarios of
Keywords: battery storage systems with/without SC are considered. A comprehensive
modeling and sizing approach is established and presented in detail. Then, an
Energy management energy management system (EMS) is proposed to enhance the HEES system’s
PI controller performance. A proportional-integral (PI)-based controller is designed and
Pulsating load examined to control the power electronic converters and hence improve
Photovoltaic energy management. The HEES system operation is simulated and evaluated
Supercapacitor using MATLAB/Simulink to feed a pulsating load, where the drawn pulsated
load current is composed of two components: one component is supplied by
battery, and the other component is fed from SC. Finally, the performance of
the two hybrid configurations is evaluated in terms of battery voltage and
current fluctuations, transient response, and load voltage and current ripples.
The obtained results demonstrate the effectiveness of introducing SCs into
HEES system.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Mohamed Saleh Hassan
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University
Damaris, Minya, 2431436, Egypt
Email: [email protected]

NOMENCLATURE

CESs : Conventional energy sources 𝑑 : Helmholtz layer length (molecular radius)

EES : Electrical energy storage 𝑅 : Ideal gas constant (in 𝐽⁄𝐾. 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
EMS : Energy management system 𝐴𝑃𝑉 : Ideality factor
EV : Electric vehicles 𝐴𝑖 : Interfacial area between electrodes and electrolyte
FBC : Filtration based controller 𝐶𝐺𝐶 : Gouy-Chapman’s capacitance
FLC : Fuzzy logic controller 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 : Load demand power
HEES : Hybrid electrical energy storage 𝑓𝐿𝑃𝐹 : Low-pass filter frequency
HEVs : Hybrid electric vehicles 𝑐 : Molar concentration (mol·𝑚−3 )
LPF : Low-pass filter 𝑁𝑒 : Number of electrode layers;

Journal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescore.com

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  223

MPP : Maximum power point 𝑇 : Operating temperature (K)

MPPT : Maximum power point tracking 𝑉𝑆𝐶 : Output voltage of supercapacitor
PI : Proportional-integral 𝜀0 : Permittivity of free space
PSO : Particle swarm optimization 𝜀 : Permittivity of the electrolyte material
PV : Photovoltaic 𝐼𝑃ℎ : Photocurrent source
RBC : Rule-based controller 𝐾 : Polarization voltage (V)
RESs : Renewable energy sources 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 : Preset reference bus voltage
SC : Supercapacitor 𝑃𝑃𝑉 : PV output power
∗
𝑇 : Ambient temperature (K) 𝐼𝐵𝑎𝑡 : Reference battery current
∗
𝑄 : Battery capacity (Ah) 𝐼𝑆𝐶 : Reference SC current
∗
𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑖𝑛𝑡 : Battery initial state of charge 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 : Reference total current
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 : Battery internal resistance 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 : Reference temperature (298 K)
𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑡 : Battery state of charge 𝐼𝑟𝑠 : Reverse saturation current of module
𝐾 : Boltzmann’s constant 𝐼0 : Saturation current
𝑄𝑐 : Cell electric charge 𝑅𝑆 : Series resistor
𝑖𝑠𝑐 : Current of the SC module 𝐾𝑆𝐶 : Short circuit current temperature coefficient
𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 : DC load bus voltage 𝑅𝑆ℎ : Shunt resistor
𝐷1 : Duty cycle of Q1 in the bi-directional 𝐷2 : Duty cycle of Q2 in the bi-directional
buck-boost converter buck-boost converter
𝐸go : Silicon bandgap (~1.1eV) 𝜆 : Solar irradiance
𝑞 : Electron charge 𝑅𝑆𝐶 : Supercapacitor internal resistance (in Ω)
𝐴 : Exponential zone amplitude (V) 𝐸 : The controlled voltage source in battery model
𝐵 : Exponential zone time constant 𝐶𝑇 : Total capacitance of a SC cell
inverse (Ah−1 )
𝐹 : Faraday constant (in 𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 ) 𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟: 𝑆𝐶
Voltage across the storage element
𝐶𝐻 : Helmholtz’s capacitance

1. INTRODUCTION
Due to expanding environmental concerns regarding excessive energy consumption, weather
fluctuations, stratospheric ozone depletion, and the dependency of traditional energy sources on fossil fuels
that cannot be maintained over the long term, it is becoming increasingly essential to transition from finite,
non-renewable sources like fossil fuels to more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives. Owing
to the advantages of such renewable energy sources (RESs) over conventional energy sources (CESs),
including being clean, affordable, and limitless, many types of RESs, such as solar energy, wind energy,
biomass energy, and hydropower have gained popularity in countries all over the world [1]. Using photovoltaic
(PV) cells to generate electricity has many benefits, including being silent, cheap to maintain and run, and it
can be used as an integral part of the design process for new structures [2].
Standalone PV systems are the most common and practical application, especially in remote areas and
communities far from the power grid, but their reliability is influenced by atmospheric conditions, such as
temperature and solar radiation [3]. Electrical energy storage (EES) can help address these challenges by
fulfilling the demand specifications in the absence or deficiency of PV power generation. EESs have many
characteristics and features, and no one EES technology can meet all the desired requirements of a given
application, including power densities, energy densities, charge/discharge rates, and load profiles, including
pulsating loads (loads that vary rapidly over time). Consequently, hybrid electrical energy storage (HEES)
systems represent a viable solution [4], which might include a high-power, low-energy density technology for
handling the peaks in demand, along with a low-power, high-energy density technology for handling the
baseline load.
The simplest configuration of EES in a standalone PV system is illustrated in Figure 1 which
comprises lead-acid batteries. Such an EES has a poor reliability nature, which cannot confidently fulfill the
desired load profile in terms of power and charge/discharge rates [5]. Certain loads, such as motors,
refrigerators, and air conditioners, require an initial surge current, which can be several times greater than their
regular operating current [6]. However, these large current demands are only required for short periods, usually,
a few seconds to a minute, and then the current demand drops to a much lower level. One solution to address
this issue is to use an inverter with a surge rating to provide a burst of power that is capable of handling the
high starting current of the load. Another option is to use a capacitor bank in conjunction with a battery storage
system since sizing a battery storage unit capable of providing this high current demand is costly and bulky.
Moreover, some battery storage units may need to be replaced every three to five years, while others may last
much longer with proper maintenance and care.
Performance improvement of a standalone PV system using supercapacitors … (Mohamed Salah Hassan)
224  ISSN: 2088-8694

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors, are energy storage devices capable of storing much
more energy than traditional capacitors but less energy than batteries. They have a high power density, which
means they can deliver a high surge of power rapidly, and are also able to charge and discharge very quickly.
Additionally, because SCs have a very high cycle life (the number of times they can be charged and
discharged), they can provide a reliable and long-lasting solution for addressing high starting current demands.
In the context of addressing high starting current needs, a SC can be used to provide the initial surge of energy
needed by the load. When the load is switched on, the SC can discharge quickly to deliver the high current
required for starting. Once the load has started, the battery storage unit can take over to supply the continuous
power needed for running the load. Therefore, short-term power bursts and battery power supply stabilization
are significant contributors to the growth of SCs.
Many studies have shown that the battery-SC HEES systems can make the battery last longer by
reducing the stress caused by charging and discharging [7], [8]. However, the majority of these battery-SC
HEES systems require an entire remodeling of the ESS, which may not be financially viable particularly for
remote applications. In this context, [9] proposed a smart hybrid energy storage plug-in unit with the aim of
extending the operational lifespan of lead-acid batteries in standalone PV-battery power systems by reducing
the effects of current changes and surge currents that shorten the battery's life. Ma et al. [10] explored a
passively connected HEES system for renewable energy distribution in off-grid locations. However, the
unpredictability of the terminal voltage of SC banks and the lack of a clearly defined current share between the
battery and SC make the active connected HEES a necessity, in which the power converter is embedded.
Topology and complexity of existing HEES systems and associated EMSs vary widely and are
typically based on the specific application. When it comes to extending the life of Lead-acid batteries in rural
standalone PV home energy systems, Jing et al. [11] provided a thorough analysis of the current state of the
art. Parameter and state estimation, aging mechanism and lifespan prediction, and energy optimization control
have also been discussed in [12] has also delved into research area including the estimation of parameters and
states, the examination of aging mechanisms along with forecasting lifespans,, in which a thorough assessment
of critical concerns in the control and management of the HEES systems has been provided. Zhang et al. [13]
suggested an EMS for electric vehicles (EV) battery and SC HEES that operated in real time. The technique
incorporated a wavelet transform, neural network, and fuzzy logic controller (FLC) to address both the peak
and fluctuating power requirements of a battery. Therefore, a 44.22% increase in the amount of regenerative
braking energy recovered has been achieved compared to the standard filtration-based control technique, and
the battery life cost has been decreased by 18%.
The result in [14], a comparison has been carried out between a standalone PV system with a battery-
SC HEES facility and a traditional PV system with only batteries for a rural household. Two control techniques
have been suggested in this study: rule-based controller (RBC) and filtration-based controller (FBC). The words
in [15], a real-time EMS for a semi-active HEES system based on a combination of filtering and FLC has been
theoretically developed and experimentally verified. The primary benefit of this control method is its ability to
obviously lower the battery's peak current while guaranteeing the SC voltage stays within a predetermined range.
Unlike traditional control schemes, which only make use of FBC or FLC, Chong et al. [16] developed an optimal
control approach for a standalone PV system with HEES that uses both a low-pass filter and FLC. The particle
swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was utilized to tune membership function so that battery peak current
reduction could be optimized.
Due to non-monotonic energy consumption and rapid variations throughout the battery discharging
process which severely harmed the electrochemical process of the battery, present battery technologies do not
satisfy the energy demands of EV power consumption. Similar to systems in remote locations, couplings
between the batteries and SCs in the form of HEES appear to be the optimal method for extending the battery
life in EVs. Consistent, efficient, and secure operation of HEES systems requires the development and
application of a suitable realistic control technique. In this context, Kouchachvili et al. [17] proposed
combining batteries with SCs, which give higher rate capability and improved cyclability by rapidly supplying
more energy when the battery runs low. After that, the battery pack provides a constant supply of energy. The
HEES has received a lot of attention because of its potential use in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).
However, relatively few analyses of its architecture and EMSs have been conducted. Accordingly, an
interesting survey on the structures and the EMSs of HEES systems has been discussed in [18]. By regulating
the battery charge/discharge rate effectively, the battery service life can be extended, and the system lifespan
cycle cost can be decreased. In this review, the optimization algorithms applied for the HEES systems in terms
of energy management have been classified and emphasized. Furthermore, Lemian and Bode [19] presented a
comprehensive overview of recent advancements in energy storage, power converters, approaches for energy
management, and control algorithms employed in vehicles.
In summary, the gap in this study lies in the performance degradation of standalone PV systems when
supplying pulsating loads using only battery storage units. While HEES systems have been proposed as a

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solution, there is a lack of comprehensive investigation on the specific impact of integrating SCs into such
systems. This research aims to fill this gap by exploring the cooperative operation of SCs and battery storage
units to enhance the overall performance of the standalone PV system when subjected to pulsating loads.
Therefore, the salient contributions of this paper can be outlined as follows:
− A detailed model of a hybrid PV system including HEES is introduced.
− The theoretical analysis of the proposed EMS applied to the hybrid system is demonstrated.
− The performance analysis of the hybrid system under different operating conditions such as solar radiation
change, and different loads is investigated.
− The evaluation of the two hybrid systems under pulsating load conditions, where the drawn current is
supplied jointly by the battery and the supercapacitor, is a unique aspect of our research.
This paper comprises six main sections. Section 2 delves into the modeling aspects of the hybrid
energy storage system (EES), which encompass the modeling of the PV array, the battery storage unit, the
supercapacitor (SC), and the associated DC/DC converters. Moving on to section 3, the specifications for
system sizing have been discussed. In section 4, the proposed energy management system (EMS) control
strategy has been introduced. Section 5 is dedicated to showcasing the test results of the hybrid system under
two different scenarios: one without the supercapacitor and the other incorporating the supercapacitor. Finally,
Section 6 provides an overview of the key conclusions and findings derived from the present research.

Figure 1. A typical PV-battery standalone system

2. OVERALL SYSTEM MODILING

To achieve optimal performance in standalone PV systems using SCs, it is necessary to develop
accurate models and effective energy management strategies. This involves understanding the behavior of the
system under different operating conditions and controlling the flow of energy between the PV panels, SCs,
batteries, and load. In this context, the proposed hybrid PV system mainly comprises PV, battery, and SC as
illustrated in Figure 2. The EES system consists of a combination of SC and batteries. Both the SCs and
batteries are connected to the DC bus through bi-directional buck-boost converters. The models of system units
are introduced in the following subsections:

2.1. Photovoltaic model

The fundamental component of the energy conversion system under investigation is the solar cell,
which serves as its core element. Solar cells are essentially large semiconductor diodes characterized by an
interface between P- and N-doped silicon. Figure 3 illustrates the equivalent circuit for a solar cell, comprising
a current source carrying a photocurrent (𝐼𝑃ℎ ), a diode that symbolizes the P-N junction in the PV cycle, a shunt
resistor (𝑅𝑆ℎ ) responsible for managing the leakage current, and a series resistor (𝑅𝑆 ) accounting for internal
resistance to current flow. The photocurrent of the module can be mathematically expressed, as demonstrated
in [1], [20]:

𝜆
𝐼𝑝ℎ = (𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑟 + 𝐾𝑆𝐶 (𝑇 − 298)) (1)
1000

where 𝜆 is solar irradiance, 𝐼𝑆𝐶𝑟 is the PV cell short circuit current at 25 °C and 1000 W/m2, 𝐾𝑆𝐶 is the short
circuit current temperature coefficient and 𝑇 is the ambient temperature (K). The current-voltage characteristic
of a PV cell is given as (2),

𝑞(𝑉𝑃𝑉 +𝐼𝑃𝑉 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝑉𝑃𝑉 +𝐼𝑃𝑉𝑅𝑆

𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼0 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( − 1) − ] (2)
𝐴𝑃𝑉 𝐾𝑇 𝑅𝑆ℎ

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226  ISSN: 2088-8694

where 𝐼0 refers to the saturation current, 𝑞 represents the electron charge, 𝐴𝑃𝑉 is the ideality factor, and 𝐾 is
the Boltzman’s constant. In order to simplify the analysis, the expression of current-voltage characteristics can
be rewritten as (3).

𝑞(𝑉𝑃𝑉 +𝐼𝑃𝑉𝑅𝑆 )
𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝐼0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( − 1) (3)
𝐴𝐾𝑇

The saturation current can be expressed as (4),

3
𝑇 𝑞𝐸𝑔𝑜 1 1
𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑟𝑠 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ( − )] (4)
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐴𝐾 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑇

where 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference temperature (298 K), 𝐼𝑟𝑠 is reverse saturation current of module, and 𝐸go is the
silicon bandgap (~1.1𝑒𝑉). Several number of PV modules are connected in series and parallel to form a PV
array in order to generate the desired voltage, current, and hence the power rating. Accordingly, the PV array
output current can be determined from as (5).

𝑞(𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃𝑉+𝐼𝑃𝑉 𝑅𝑆 𝑁𝑆 )
𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑝ℎ − 𝑁𝑃 𝐼0 [𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − 1] (5)
𝑁𝑆 𝑁𝑃 𝐴𝐾𝑇

Figure 2. Block diagram of the proposed hybrid PV, battery, and SC system

Figure 3. The PV model equivalent circuit

2.2. Battery model

Lead acid batteries are widely employed as energy storage devices in photovoltaic (PV) systems.
A common model for the battery involves representing it as a straightforward controlled voltage source
connected in series with an internal resistance (denoted as 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) as depicted in Figure 4 [2], [21]. The voltage
at the battery terminals is characterized as (6),

𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑡 = 𝐸 − 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 × 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡 (6)

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where 𝐸 is the controlled voltage source which is given by (7) [22]:

𝑄
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − 𝐾 + 𝐴𝑒 −𝐵 ∫ 𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (7)
𝑄−∫ 𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where 𝐸0 is the battery constant voltage, 𝐾 is the polarization voltage (V), 𝑄 is the battery capacity (Ah), 𝐴 is
the exponential zone amplitude (V), and 𝐵 is the exponential zonetime constant inverse (Ah−1 ). The battery
state of charge (𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑡 ) is given by (8),
1
𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑏𝑎𝑡 = 𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑖𝑛𝑡 − ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (8)
𝑄

where 𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑖𝑛𝑡 is the initial state of charge.

2.3. Supercapacitor model

Numerous models have been developed to represent the behavior of a SCs in [23]. From which,
Figure 5 shows the stern model of SCs. This model is practical for simulation applications and for
demonstrating the nonlinear capacitance nature, which combines both Helmholtz’s capacitance (𝐶𝐻 ) and Gouy-
Chapman’s capacitance (𝐶𝐺𝐶 ). The total capacitance of a SC cell is described as (9) [24], [25],

𝑁𝑝 1 1 −1
𝐶𝑇 = [ + ] (9)
𝑁𝑠 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐺𝐶

where 𝑁𝑝 is the number of parallel SCs and 𝑁𝑠 is the number of series SC cells. The Helmholtz’s capacitance
(𝐶𝐻 ) and Gouy-Chapman’s capacitance (𝐶𝐺𝐶 ) are expressed as (10) and (11),
𝑁𝑒 𝜀𝜀0 𝐴𝑖
𝐶𝐻 = (10)
𝑑

𝐹𝑄𝑐 𝑄𝑐
𝐶𝐺𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( ) (11)
2𝑁𝑒 𝑅𝑇 𝑁𝑒 2 𝐴𝑖 √8𝑅𝑇𝜀𝜀0 𝑐

where 𝑁𝑒 representing the number of electrode layers; 𝜀 denoting the permittivity of the electrolyte material, 𝜀0
indicating the permittivity of free space, 𝐴𝑖 representing the interfacial area between electrodes and electrolyte, 𝑑
signifying the Helmholtz layer length (molecular radius), 𝑄𝑐 depicting the cell electric charge, 𝑐 denoting the
molar concentration (in mol·𝑚−3 ), 𝑇 representing the operating temperature (K), 𝑅 representing ideal gas constant
(in 𝐽⁄𝐾. 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ), and 𝐹 indicating the Faraday constant (in 𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 ). The output voltage of the SC is expressed as
shown in (12), while accounting for the internal resistance losses.

∫ 𝑖𝑆𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑆𝐶 = − 𝑅𝑆𝐶 𝑖𝑆𝐶 (12)
𝐶𝑇

where 𝑅𝑆𝐶 is the internal resistance (in Ω) and 𝑖𝑠𝑐 is current of the SC module.

Figure 4. The lead acid battery model Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the SC stern model

2.4. Modeling of DC/DC converters

The PV array, battery, and supercapacitor systems are linked to the DC bus using DC/DC converters,
providing comprehensive control over both the PV array and the energy storage systems (EES) components.
Performance improvement of a standalone PV system using supercapacitors … (Mohamed Salah Hassan)
228  ISSN: 2088-8694

The system incorporates two distinct types of DC/DC converters: the DC/DC boost converter and the bi-
directional buck-boost converter.

2.4.1. Boost converter model

The power stage of the boost converter is used to implement maximum power point (MPP) tracking
(MPPT). Its equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 6. It is composed of the single pole double throw switch
(transistor and diode combination), the smoothing inductance (𝐿𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑡 ), and the output smoothing capacitor (𝐶),
which is attached between the PV array and the DC bus.

2.4.2. Bidirectional buck boost converter model

The battery and SC storage units are connected to the DC load bus through the bi-directional buck-
boost. This allows voltage control of the DC bus load as well as control of the battery and SC currents
simultaneously [26]. The power stage of the converter is described in Figure 7. It consists of two switches 𝑄1
and 𝑄2 , smoothing inductance 𝐿 and output smoothing capacitance 𝐶. In case of buck converter mode, 𝑄2 is
always OFF and current flows from the DC bus to the battery and/or the SC. By controlling the duty ratio 𝐷1
of the switch 𝑄1 , the converter decreases the DC load bus voltage (𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) to charge the battery and/or
supercapacitor. The voltage across the storage element can be expressed as (13).

𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐶 = 𝐷1 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (13)

Switch 𝑄1 is always OFF in boost mode and current flows from the battery and/or the SC to the DC load bus.
By controlling the duty ratio 𝐷2 of the switch 𝑄2 , the converter can increase the battery and/or SC voltages to
the DC load bus voltage, which can be expressed as (14).

𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐶
𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (14)
1−𝐷2

Figure 6. Equivalent circuit of the DC-DC boost Figure 7. The bi-directional buck-boost converter
converter power stage

3. SYSTEM SIZING
It is paramount to accurately size the battery storage unit to ensure it is able to provide the continuous
power required by the load in normal conditions without surge current. On the other hand, the size and capacity
of the SC required depend on the specific load and the duration of the surge current. A representative short
time window of the utilized load profile is illustrated in Figure 8, which consists of a 1350 W continuous load
in addition to a 540 W pulsating load during the intervals (0.4 to 0.6 s) and (1.4 to 1.6 s). Such load demands
represent a residential load attached to a farm in a remote agricultural area; similar to those loads addressed in
reference [27], in which the pulsating load in this paper can be assumed as an automatic washing machine. In
order to supply this load, the PV array, storage battery, SC bank, and DC-DC converters are designed, and
accordingly sized as illustrated in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Table 1. The PV array sizing specifications

PV array PV module PV module MPP PV module MPP No. of series No. of parallel
power power voltage current modules branches
2.7 kW 270 W 31.4 V 8.76 A 2 5

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Table 2. The sizing specifications of battery storage units

Battery voltage Battery capacity Required battery capacity No. of series batteries No. of parallel branches
12 V 150 Ah 1200 Ah 2 4

Table 3. The SC bank sizing specifications

SC voltage SC capacitance Required SC capacitance No. of series SCs No. of parallel branches
2.7 V 3000 F 250 F 12 1

Table 4. The DC/DC converters parameters

Bi-directional battery converter Bi-directional SC converter MPPT boost converter
Inductance 0.3 mH 0.2 mH 0.35 mH
Switching frequency 16 kHz 16 kHz 16 kHz
Low voltage 24 V 32 V PV output voltage
High voltage 50 V 50 V 50 V
Low voltage side capacitor 16 µF 22 µF 470 µF
DC load bus capacitor 470 µF

Figure 8. A representative short time window of the utilized load profile

4. ENERGY MANAGMANT SYSTEM

Implementing an energy management system (EMS) is crucial to enhancing the performance of a
standalone PV system that utilizes a HEES system with batteries and SCs. The HEES system can store excess
energy generated by the PV system during peak sunlight hours and provide it during periods of low sunlight,
reducing reliance on non-renewable energy sources and improving energy efficiency. To optimize the
performance of HEES in standalone PV systems, an EMS is typically employed. Such a system involves
monitoring and controlling the energy flow between PV panels, batteries and SCs to maximize their efficiency
and lifespan while meeting the energy demands of the system. This involves developing algorithms that balance
the energy stored in each device, avoid battery deep discharge, minimize the battery dynamic stress level, and
preserve a constant DC load voltage. These factors can impact the efficiency and lifespan of the energy storage
components and must be considered in the design and operation of the system.
The main idea of the EMS is that the battery unit supplies low frequency power components while
the SC provides high frequency power components in short period of time. In this context, the load bus voltage
(𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) is measured and compared with the preset reference bus voltage (𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ). The result of comparison is
passed through the PI regulator in order to compensate the DC bus voltage by providing the reference total
∗
current (𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) that is required to be supplied by the hybrid energy sources. After that, this total current is
decoupled into two components, the average component and the pulsating component, using the low-pass filter
(LPF) as illustrated in Figure 9 where (𝑓𝐿𝑃𝐹 ) refers to the LPF functionality. The proposed EMS algorithm
∗
provides two current components: the reference battery current (𝐼𝐵𝑎𝑡 ) that is obtained from average component
∗
the total current, whereas the reference SC current (𝐼𝑆𝐶 ) that is estimated by the pulsating component of the
total current.
Accordingly, and based on the flowchart shown in Figure 10, the implementation and operation of the
proposed EMS strategy for DC bus voltage regulation can be described as follows. The SCs start to charge
when PV output power is higher than load demand power (𝑃𝑃𝑉 > 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ), and batteries cannot preserve such
excessive power in short periods of time. On the other hand, the SCs tend to discharge in cases of insufficient

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available PV power to fulfill the load demand (𝑃𝑃𝑉 < 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ), in which the batteries cannot deliver the extra
power required to the load. On the other hand, the SCs can respond directly to the required load demand by
providing or absorbing peaks currents.

Figure 9. Schematic block diagram of the EMS strategy implementation

Figure 10. The EMS control strategy of the DC bus control in terms of power

The following considerations are taken into account during the EMS design:
a) The main task of the battery and the associated bi-directional converter is to regulate the load DC bus
voltage and supply the load demand in case of PV power deficit.
b) The system is designed to increase the surplus PV power by charging both battery and SC until they reach
their maximum affordable SoC.
c) If the battery is out of service due to low SoC, the PV boost converter operates as voltage regulator to
compensate the absence of battery and achieve the job addressed in (I).
d) If the available PV power is higher than the load demand, the PV converter operates as a MPPT, and
accordingly, both of battery and SC are allowed to charge until the maximum permissible SoC is reached.
e) The SC converter control’s priority is to feed the pulsating component of the load demand to release the
dynamic stress burden on the battery, which increase its lifespan.
These considerations suggest that the EMS is designed to optimize the use of available resources,
regulate the system voltage and current, and protect the battery and SC from overcharging and over discharging.
By taking into account the load demand, PV power availability, and battery state of charge, the EMS can ensure
reliable and efficient operation of the system.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to investigate the overall system performance with the proposed EMS strategy, the system
model is simulated using the MATLAB/Simulink software packages. The parameters of the PV array, battery,
and SC are addressed in Tables 5, 6, and 7, respectively. The load profile, shown in Figure 8, is assumed to
have a base demand describing a residential resistive load in addition to a pulsating load representing an
automatic washing machine. Solar radiation is a vital parameter in the operation of PV systems, and its variation
over the course of a day is a key factor that affects the performance of a standalone PV system. In this paper,
the solar radiation, shown in Figure 11, is assumed to be changed instantly at the 1 s from 1000 W/m 2 (i.e.,

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sunny day) to 500 W/m2 (i.e., cloudy day), which can be considered as the worst case to figure out the impact
of the proposed control strategy. Therefore, the system is evaluated under variations of load profile illustrated
in Figure 8, as well as solar radiation shown in Figure 11. The following results are presented in such a way to
show the impact of using SC alongside the proposed EMS strategy on the described standalone PV system
(PV-battery system). These results can be discussed as follows:

Table 5. PV array parameters

Parameter Value Unit
PV Array PV array power 2.7 kW
No. of series modules 2
No. of parallel branches 5
PV module parameters Peak Power PMAX 275 W
Maximum Power Voltage 31.4 V
Maximum Power Current 8.76 A
Open Circuit Voltage 38.4 V
Short Circuit Current 9.24 A
𝑅𝑠 0.35 Ω
𝑅𝑠ℎ 1491.71 Ω
Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) 44 °C
Temperature coefficient of PMAX -0.39 %/K
Temperature coefficient of VOC -0.29 %/K
Temperature coefficient of ISC 0.05 %/K

Table 6. Battery parameters

Parameter Value Unit
Battery Array Required battery capacity 1200 Ah
No. of series Batteries 2
No. of parallel branches 4
Battery parameters Battery constant voltage (𝐸0 ) 12.6463 V
Battery polarization constant (𝐾) 0.33 V
Battery capacity (𝑄) 150 Ah
Battery exponential zone amplitude (𝐴) 0.66 V
Battery exponential zone time constant inverse (𝐵) 2884.61 (𝐴ℎ)−1
Internal resistance of the battery (𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) 0.1 Ω

Table 7. Supercapacitor parameters

Parameter Value Unit
Supercapacitor array Required supercapacitor capacitance 250 F
No. of series supercapacitor 12
No. of parallel branches 1
Supercapacitor parameters Capacitance (𝐶) 3000 F
Rated Voltage 2.7 V
𝑅𝑆𝐶 2.1 mΩ
𝑁𝑠 1
𝑁𝑝 1
𝑁𝑒 2
𝑑 1.0115 nm

Figure 11. Assumed variation of solar radiation

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The use of SCs with the proposed EMS control strategy led to an improved load voltage waveform,
described in Figure 12, and a load current waveform shown in Figure 13. This improvement is observed in fast
dynamic response and low ripple content in both high- and low-solar radiation levels. This can be confirmed
at the zoomed starting instants of Figures 12 and 13, in which load voltage and load current with the SCs
included reached the steady state value faster. Meanwhile, the voltage and current ripples are comparable with
and without incorporating the SCs in the first period of applying the pulsating load in high-solar radiation (from
0.4 s to 0.6 s) compared to their counter values in the second period of supplying the pulsating load in low-
solar radiation (from 1.4 s to 1.6 s). This is because during the period of 0.4 s to 0.6 s, the generated power
from the PV system is higher than the required load power, in which the battery is charging.
Conversely, during periods of limited solar radiation, the power generated by the PV system falls
short of the necessary load power. Consequently, this imbalance results in notable spikes in both load voltage
and current ripples, primarily caused by the discharge state of the battery. Noteworthy, such undesirable surges
for battery lifespan have obviously been filtered out during the period of pulsating load due to the presence of
SCs that feature a rapid response to compensate for the surplus energy in the load. The robustness of the
proposed EMS control strategy for the HEES is evaluated at the instant of changing the solar radiation at 1 s.
The overshoot load voltage and load current responses have been considerably reduced in case of utilizing SC
with a battery as a HEES system.

Figure 12. Simulated load bus voltage waveforms

Figure 13. Simulated load current waveforms

Figures 14, 15, and 16 demonstrate the impact of using SC alongside the EMS strategy on the MPPT
of the PV system. It has been observed that the use of SCs with the EMS strategy improved the MPPT response,
at both high- and low-solar radiation levels. Furthermore, both the PV voltage and current fluctuations have
been extensively reduced in case of pulsating loads, as illustrated in Figures 14 and 15. Moreover, the tracking

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behavior of the MPPT is increased under the pulsating load with low-solar radiation in case of including the
SC along with the proposed EMS compared to the system with battery storage only that has been affected by
the load voltage variation. The unacceptable voltage and current performance of the battery during the low-
solar radiation and pulsating load periods negatively affected the generated output power from the PV system,
as shown in Figure 16, in which the PV system with battery storage only exhibits a reduction in its generated
power compared to the SC case, as illustrated in Figure 16. The improved PV system performance is due to
the SC integration’s ability to absorb the high pulsating load demand.

Figure 14. Simulated PV voltage waveforms

Figure 15. Simulated PV current waveforms

Figure 16. Simulated PV power waveforms

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Figures 17 to 20 show the effect of using the HEES system, including the SC and the proposed EMS
control strategy, on the battery’s performance and operation. During startup, as can be seen from
Figures 17, 18 and 19, the battery storage unit exhibits a more stressed operation than the HEES system due to
the required load demand just before the MPPT system enters its operational state. Such a starting state requires
the battery to supply higher current, as observed in Figure 18, which leads to undervoltage of the battery, as
shown in Figure 17. This could be worsened in case of feeding a load with high starting current from the battery
storage unit. In addition, the short-term variation of battery current and voltage observed in the starting instant
could affect the battery’s operation and degrade its performance.
Moreover, the superiority of utilizing the SCs is obviously observed in battery performance during
the period of applying the pulsating load (from 0.4 s to 0.6 s and from 1.4 s to 1.6 s) either in high- or low-
solar radiation, as can be confirmed in Figures 17 and 18. In this case, both battery voltage and current
fluctuations have been significantly reduced, either in steady state or in the case of a pulsating load that has
been assigned to the SCs, which reveals that the battery dynamic stress level is reduced and hence battery
lifespan could be prolonged. Furthermore, as the MPPT is increased under the pulsating load
(from 1.4 s to 1.6 s) with low-solar radiation, as previously mentioned, the power supplied by the battery is
decreased accordingly, as shown in Figure 19. In addition, the battery state of charge is improved in case of
utilizing the SC with the battery storage unit, as shown in Figure 20, which dedicates a saved energy and could
increase the system efficiency. Figures 21 and 22 show the performance of the SC during the implementation
of the proposed EMS control technique. As expected, the SC voltage and current are highly pulsating to
compensate the fluctuations in different system buses: PV, load, and battery voltages and currents.

Figure 17. Simulated battery voltage waveforms

Figure 18. Simulated battery current waveforms

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Figure 19. Simulated battery power waveforms

Figure 20. Battery state of charge waveform

Figure 21. Supercapacitor terminal voltage waveform Figure 22. Supercapacitor current waveform

Figure 23 presents a comparative generated/absorbed power for the different system units: PV,
battery, load, and SC. From this figure, it becomes clear that the adoption of the SC with the suggested EMS
control technique improved the MPPT performance and increased the MPP mechanism, which is reflected as
saved energy in the battery at the low-solar radiation region. Moreover, at the starting instant, the PV power
with SC included tracks the MPP faster than the PV power without the SC storage unit. Additionally, in low-
solar radiation, the PV power with SC included (red-colored waveform) secures a constant MPPT value
compared to a reduced generated power in the absence of SC (cerulean-colored waveform). It is paramount to
mention that the average power of SC (black-colored waveform) is zero in steady-state condition, whereas its
value changed during the transient states of charging/discharging to compensate the battery power (violet-

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236  ISSN: 2088-8694

colored waveform), resulting in a smoothed battery power with SC storage unit (green-colored waveform) as
a HEES system.

Figure 23. Simulated power waveforms of different system units under variation in solar radiation and load

6. CONCLUSION
The effect of using SCs with a proposed EMS approach is investigated in this study to improve the
performance of a PV system and battery in a standalone hybrid system while feeding a pulsating load in
addition to a base load demand. System modeling and sizing have been introduced, and then an EMS control
strategy has been proposed. The merits achieved by utilizing the SC storage unit in conjunction with battery
with the proposed EMS approach include fast dynamic response, and reduced load terminal voltage and current
ripples, smoothed battery current and voltage, decreased PV voltage and current fluctuations, and finally
enhanced the MPPT mechanism either in high- or low-solar radiation. Consequently, several outcomes arise:
reduced battery dynamic stress level and hence increased battery lifetime, saved battery power and hence a
more efficient system, and improved overall system dynamic performance. As a future direction of the current
research study, the recent optimization techniques could be used to achieve further improvement in the dynamic
performance HEES system for the standalone PV system feeding pulsating loads.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported by scientists for next generation (SNG) program, Academy of
Scientific Research and Technology, Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research, Cairo, Egypt.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Mohamed Salah Hassan received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Electrical
Engineering from Minia University, Minia, Egypt, in 2010 and 2016, respectively, and the
Ph.D. degree with a focus on power electronics from Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan,
in 2020. Since 2011, he has been a member of the Faculty of Engineering, Minia University.
In 2017, he was awarded a full Ph.D. scholarship from the partnership on education: Egypt-
Japan Education Partnership (EJEP). Moreover, he received several travel grants from
different foundations such as Power Sources Manufacturers Association (PSMA), USA,
Telecommunications Advancement Foundation, and Kyudai Foundation, Japan, to support
attending international conferences. He was the recipient of the Annual Best Master’s thesis
from Minia University in 2016 and the 2019 Excellent Student Award of the IEEE Fukuoka
Section. He is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at Kyushu University. His research
interests include high-frequency DC/AC pulse width modulated inverters for renewable
energy sources, electromagnetic interference/compatibility (EMI/EMC), energy management
systems (EMS), and cryogenic power electronics. He can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

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238  ISSN: 2088-8694

Shimaa Hassan is a master student in the Electrical Engineering Department,

Minia University, Egypt. She received the B.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering from
Minia University, Egypt, in 2016. Her research interests include the field of renewable
energy, power electronics, industrial applications, photovoltaic power systems, and energy
management system. She can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Mohamed Reda Mahmoud Hassan is an assistant lecturer in Electrical and

Electronic Engineering Department, Mini University, Egypt since February 2023; and he
has been a demonstrator since January 2019. He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in
electrical and electronic engineering from Minia University, Egypt, in 2018 and 2023,
respectively. His research interests include the field of power electronics, motor drives,
industrial applications, industrial electronics, photovoltaic power systems, digital control,
electric vehicles, and energy management systems. He can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Abou-Hashema Mostafa El-Sayed received his B.Sc., and M.Sc. in Electrical

Engineering from Minia University, Minia, Egypt, in 1994 and 1998, respectively. He was
a Ph.D. student in the Institute of Electrical Power Systems and Protection, Faculty of
Electrical Engineering, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany from 2000
to 2002. He received his Ph.D. in Electrical Power from the Faculty of Engineering, Minia
University, Egypt in 2002, according to a channel system program, which means a
Scientific Co-operation between the Dresden University of Technology, Germany and
Minia University, Egypt. Since 1994, he has been with the Electrical Engineering
Department, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, as a Teaching Assistant, a Lecturer
Assistant, an Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and A full professor. He was a
Visiting Researcher at Kyushu University, Japan, from 2008 to 2009. He is the head of
Mechatronics and Industrial Robotics Program, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University
from 2011 till now. His research interests include Protection systems, renewable energy,
and power systems. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Masahito Shoyama received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering and the
Dr. Eng. from Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan, in 1981 and 1986, respectively. In 1986,
he joined as a Research Associate with the Department of Electronics, Kyushu University,
where he has been an Associate Professor since 1990, and a professor since 2010. Since
2009, he has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Information
Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University. His research interests include the
field of power electronics, especially in the areas of bidirectional converters for DC/AC
power systems, high frequency switching converters for renewable energy sources, power
factor correction (PFC) converters, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Prof.
Shoyama is a member of the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication
Engineers (IEICE), Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan (IEEJ), and Society of
Instrument and Control Engineers (SICE). He can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Gamal Mahmoud Dousoky received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical
and electronic engineering from Minia University, Egypt, in 2000 and 2004, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and electronic engineering from Kyushu University,
Japan, in 2010. Since 2000, he has been associated with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University. In March 2022, he was promoted
to the position of a professor position. He authored and coauthored more than 90
publications, in international journals and conference proceedings of Power Electronics and
Industrial Technologies. His research interests include power electronics, particularly
renewable energy applications, energy efficiency, switching power supplies,
electromagnetic interference/compatibility, and digital control. Prof. Dousoky received the
2009 Excellent Student Award of the IEEE Fukuoka Section. He is also a reviewer in many
international journals and conferences. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

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