“SELF CHARGING AND AUTOMATIC BRAKING

SYSTEM IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES”

A Minor Project Report submitted to the

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Submitted by
Mr. Ayush Thakur(0105EX191029) Mr. Prakash K. Singh(0105EX191058)
Mr. Aamir Khan(0105EX191002) Mr. Rahul Upadhyay(0105EX191066)
Mr. Abhishek Prajapati(0105EX191007) Mr. Yogiraj Singh(0105EX191099)
Ms. Vandana Prajapati(0105EX191093 Mr. Pritam Kumar(0105EX191063)
Mr. Arshad Husain(0105EX191020) Mr. Satish Kumar(0105EX191079)

Under the Guidance of

Prof. Mamta Sood

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

 ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
BHOPAL (M.P.)-462021, INDIA

Phone: 0755 – 2759026, 2529057,

2529258, 2529159
Fax: 0755 - 2529472
E-mail: [email protected] website: www.oriental.ac.in

ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Govt. of M.P. Affiliated to Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal
Oriental Campus, Thakral Nagar, Raisen Road, Bhopal-462021 (M.P.) INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “SELF CHARGING AND AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM” is a
bonafide work of “Ayush Thakur, Aamir Khan, Abhishek Prajapati, Vandana Prajapati,
Arshad Husain, Prakash Kumar Singh, Rahul Upadhyay, Yogiraj Singh, Pritam Kumar and
Satish Kumar ” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

Date: 25/04/22

Place: OIST,BHOPAL

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

PROF. NEETI DUGAYA PROF. MAMTA SOOD

(HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT) (SUPERVISOR)

DEAPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DEAPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

Oriental Campus, Thakral Nagar, Raisen Oriental Campus, Thakral Nagar, Raisen
Road, Bhopal-462021 (M.P.) INDIA Road, Bhopal-462021 (M.P.) INDIA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We feel Profound pleasure in bringing out this project report for which we have to go from
pillar to post to make it a reality. This project work reflects contribution of many people
with whom we had long discussions and without which it would not have been possible. We
must first of all express our heartiest gratitude to respected Prof. Mamta
Sood(Department Of EX) for providing us all guidance to complete project.
We sincerely thank Dr. Neeti Dugaya , Head of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Department, OIST Bhopal for her co-operation and guidance during the project work. We
wish to express our deep gratitude to Dr. Rajesh Shukla (Director), and OIST Bhopal for her
kind permission to carry out the work at OIST Bhopal. Finally we would like to thank all the
persons who directly or indirectly helped us in carrying out this project work.

Mr. Ayush Thakur(0105EX191029)

Mr. Aamir Khan(0105EX191002)
Mr. Abhishek Prajapati(0105EX191007)
Ms. Vandana Prajapati(0105EX191093)
Mr. Arshad Husain(0105EX191020)
Mr. Prakash K. Singh(0105EX191058)
Mr. Rahul Upadhyay(0105EX191066)
Mr. Yogiraj Singh(0105EX191099)
Mr. Pritam Kumar(0105EX191063)
Mr. Satish Kumar(0105EX191079)
 ABSTRACT:-

Automatic braking system:-

A system that includes sensors, semiconductor tools, programmable devices and hardware units. When
the mentioned tools get combined with human intelligence and appropriate efforts. This creates an
enhanced automatic braking system. This is Arduino UNO based and allows us to arrive at our destination
safely and in one piece.

Self-charging (A):-
By applying solar PV material on the surface of the car with appropriate cooling from the inside. Vehicles
can be charged while they are at rest in “Solar parking”.

Self-charging (B):-
Here, the kinetic energy of the vehicle is being utilized by introducing an alternator connected with the
axle of the EV. Vehicles can be charged while they are moving.

Applications :-
1.Lower risk of collisions resulting in less road accidents.
2.Enhanced stopping power.

3. Promotes clean energy. Preservation of Natural Resources.

4.Making use of the energy that is going in vain.
5. Military Spy Services.
6.Commercial Electro-solar Hybrid Car.
Problems addressed
• rising cost of fuel in vehicles.
• Road accidents nowadays are very common, which is devastating.
• Need for a reliable technology that can put up with the tech giants in the market.

Solutions offered
• An Arduino UNO-based automatic braking system for prevention of collisions.
• Self-charging modules installed in the vehicle make it self-reliant.
• Self-charging along with an Automatic braking system leads to a strong foundation for a production
line of EVs.
COMPONENTS USED:-

The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip

ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped
with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various
expansion boards (shields) and other circuits.

A servo motor is an electromechanical device that produces torque and velocity based
on the supplied current and voltage. A servo motor works as part of a closed loop
system providing torque and velocity as commanded from a servo controller utilizing a
feedback device to close the loop.

An infrared sensor (IR sensor) is a radiation-sensitive optoelectronic component with a spectral

sensitivity in the infrared wavelength range 780 nm … 50 µm. IR sensors are now widely used in
motion detectors, which are used in building services to switch on lamps or in alarm systems to
detect unwelcome guests.

A rechargeable battery is an energy storage device that can be charged again after
being discharged by applying DC current to its terminals.

The L298N is a dual H-Bridge motor driver which allows speed and direction control of
two DC motors at the same time. The module can drive DC motors that have voltages
between 5 and 35V, with a peak current up to 2A.

Toy Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily
facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in
machines.

A geared motor is a component whose mechanism adjusts the speed of the motor,
leading them to operate at a certain speed. geared motor have the ability to deliver
high torque at low speeds, as the gearhead functions as a torque multiplier and can
allow small motors to generate higher speeds.

Mini solar panels are miniature panels that conduct solar power, receiving energy from
the sun and using it to provide power to a product. Mini solar panels typically are
portable and usable when larger panels are unnecessary or impractical.
The Insulated copper wire which is made of copper, and it can insulate electric current
is said to be insulated copper wire. It is used in the construction of transformers,
inductors, motors, speakers, hard disk head actuators, electromagnets etc.

Cylindrical magnets are basically disc magnets whose heights are larger than or equal
to their diameters. The diameters of the small cylinder magnets in this category are
0.079" to 1 1/2".

An iron core, also called a magnetic core or magnetic core, is a component for
producing inductance, a property that has electrical circuits or components such as
coils.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Bonafide Certificate……………………………………………. (i)
Acknowledgement …………………………………………… . (ii)
Abstract ………………………………………………………..…… (iii)
Problem Addressed………………………………..…………… (iv)

Solutions offered………………………………………………… (v)

Components Used………………………………………………..(vi)
CHAPTER 1:- AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM:-
1. Introduction to Automatic braking system
2. Objective
3. Methodology
4. Principle components of Automatic Braking system
5. Advantages of Automatic braking system
6. Sensing and controlling unit
7. Result
8. Final overview of Automatic Braking System
9. Conclusion
10. Future scope

CHAPTER 2:- SELF CHARGING BY PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:-

1. Introduction to photovoltaic cell
2. Renewable energy
3. Solar Energy
4. History and development of solar cell technologies
5. Theory
6. Photovoltaic cell working
7. Equivalent circuit of solar cell
8. Characteristic equation of solar cell
9. Efficiency
10. Advantages
11. Conclusion
12. Future Scope
CHAPTER 3:- SELF CHARGING BY KINETIC ENERGY OF THE ELECTRIC VEHICLE:-
1. Introduction to kinetic Energy
2. Initiation of innovation
3. Energies that go in vain in a moving Vehicle
4. Sources to generate electricity
5. Working
6. Prototype
7. Advantages
8. Conclusion
9. Future Scope
CHAPTER 4:- COST ANALYSIS AND REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1:
AUTOMATIC BRAKING
SYSTEM
1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATIC BRKING SYSTEM:-
Driving is a common activity for most of the people. The number of vehicles is increasing day by day. Now a
days, the technology has got vast changes which leads increase in speed. The speed plays a vital role to
maintain time for longer distances. But, this speed also getting a major problem for causes of road
accidents as shown in pie chart below. The common braking is not sufficient for avoidance of accidents
when driver is not active. Further improvement has to done in braking system in order to brake a vehicle
when driver is not able to brake i.e., it may needs automatic braking system. This automatic braking system
allows the vehicle to brake without support of the driver.

Trends of road accidents, death and injuries

The main target of the ultrasonic braking system is that, vehicles should automatically brake when the
sensors sense the obstacle. This is a technology for automobiles to sense an imminent forward collision
with another vehicle or an obstacle, and to brake the vehicle accordingly, which is done by the braking
circuit. This system includes two ultrasonic sensors viz. ultrasonic wave emitter and ultrasonic wave
receiver. The ultrasonic wave emitter provided in front portion of an automatic braking system vehicle,
producing and emitting ultrasonic waves in a predetermined distance in front of the vehicle. Ultrasonic
wave receiver is also provided in front portion of the vehicle, receiving the reflected ultrasonic wave signal
from the obstacle. The reflected wave (detection pulse) is measured to get the distance between vehicle
and the obstacle. The DC gear motor is connected to the wheels of vehicle and power input is given to it
from Arduino board. Then PIC microcontroller is used to control the servo motor based on detection pulse
information and the servo motor in turn automatically controls the braking of the vehicle. Thus, this new
system is designed to solve the problem where drivers may not be able to brake manually exactly at the
required time, but the vehicle can stop automatically by sensing the obstacles to avoid an accident.

In order to reduce the emission levels, more work is going on for the modification of engine work
functions and all. There are several kinds of braking mechanism systems that would only can be applicable
mechanically, to move the ideology more deep and brief the automatic braking system will be more
sufficient and satisfactory in addition to mechanical braking system.

In present generation, number of vehicles are coming into existence with newer technologies for
implementation of human comfort and other conditioning. To extend the ideology in more brief manner
and to take the step in different way, may automatic braking system would fulfill the methods of extension
of technical existences.
2. OBJECTIVE OF AUOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM:-
The objective of this project is to design the automatic braking system in order to avoid the accident. To
develop a safety vehicle braking system using ultrasonic sensor and to design a vehicle with less human
attention to the driving. This project is necessary to be attached to every vehicle. Mainly it is used when
drive the vehicles in night time. Mostly the accident occurred in the night time due to long travel the driver
may get tired. So the driver may hit the front side vehicle or road side trees. By using this project the
vehicle is stopped by automatic braking system. So we can avoid the accident.

3. METHODOLOGY:-

Block Diagram of the Automatic Braking system

 Automatic Braking System

4. PRINCIPLE COMPONENTS OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM:-

• SENSOR
• TRANSDUCER
• ULTRASONIC SENSOR
• OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND ADC
• BRAKING CIRCUIT
• DC GEAR MOTOR
• SERVOMOTOR

4.1 SENSOR:-
A sensor is an electrical device that maps an environmental attribute to a quantitative measurement. Each
sensor is based on transduction principle which is conversion of energy from one form to another form.
There are two important terms related to any sensor –
• Target Angle – This term refers to the ‘tilt response’ limitations of a given sensor. Since the ultrasonic
waves reflect off the target object, target angles indicate acceptable amounts of tilt for a given sensor.

• Beam Spread – This term refers to the maximum angular spread of the ultrasonic waves as they leave the
transducer.
4.2 TRANSDUCER:-
A transducer is an energy conversion device which converts one form of energy into another. In the
ultrasonic sensors they are used to convert electrical energy into ultrasonic energy and vice-versa. In this
system piezoelectric transducers are used, which create ultrasonic vibration through use of piezoelectric
materials such as certain forms of crystals or ceramic polymers. Their working is based on the piezoelectric
effect. This effect refers to the voltage produced between surfaces of a solid, (non-conducting substance)
when a mechanical stress is applied to it. Conversely, when a voltage is applied across surfaces of a solid
that exhibits piezoelectric effect, the solid undergoes mechanical distortion.
4.3 ULTRASONIC SENSOR :-
Ultrasonic ranging and detecting devices use high frequency sound waves called ultrasonic waves to detect
presence of an object and its range. Normal frequency range of human ear is roughly 20Hz to 20,000Hz.
Ultrasonic sound waves are sound waves that are above the range of human ear, and thus have frequency
above 20,000Hz. An ultrasonic sensor necessarily consists of a transducer for conversion of one form of
energy to another, a housing enclosing the ultrasonic transducer and an electrical connection. These
sensors are of two types:
• Ultrasonic Transmitter – Before transmitting the ultrasonic wave, there is a part which is ultrasonic
wave generator that functions to generate ultrasonic wave. In that part, there is timing instruction means
for generating an instruction signal for intermittently providing ultrasonic waves. This signal will send to an
ultrasonic wave generator for generating ultrasonic waves based on the instruction signal from said timing
instruction means (transform electrical energy into sound wave). After ultrasonic wave was produced,
ultrasonic transmitter transmits the ultrasonic waves toward a road surface to find out the obstacle. The
range that obstacle detected is depends on the range of ultrasonic sensors that used. Fig 1.3 Ultrasonic
Transmitter

• Ultrasonic Receiver – If the ultrasonic wave detects the obstacle, it will produce a reflected wave. An
ultrasonic receiver is used for receiving the ultrasonic waves reflected from the road surface to generate a
reception signal. There is ultrasonic transducer that will transform back the sound wave to electrical
energy. This signal amplified by an amplifier. The amplified signal is compared with reference signal to
detect components in the amplified signal due to obstacles on the road surface. The magnitude of the
reference signal or the amplification factor of the amplifier is controlled to maintain a constant ratio
between the average of the reference signal and the average of the amplified signal. Fig 1.4 Ultrasonic
Receiver

4.4 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND ADC:-

An operational amplifier, usually referred to as op-amp, is a high gain voltage amplifier with differential
inputs and a single output. The amplifier’s differential inputs consist of an inverting input and a non-
inverting input. The op-amp amplifies only the difference in the voltage between the two inputs called the
‘differential input voltage’. The output voltage of the op-amp is controlled by feeding a fraction of output
signal back to the inverting input. This is known as negative feedback. Due to the amplifier’s high gain, the
output voltage for any given input is only controlled by the negative feedback.
The amplified signal is a square pulse which is given to the ADC. ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) converts
input analog signal to corresponding digital signal. The digital signal is given to the microcontroller.

4.5 BRAKING CIRCUIT:-

The processed i.e. the amplified digital signal is sent to the braking circuit. PIC (Peripheral Interface
Controller (or) Programmable Interface Controller) – The microcontroller used is PIC 16F84 which is 8-bit
microcontroller. PIC microcontrollers are made by microchip technology. PICs are used in this system due
to their low cost and wide availability. The numbers of instructions to perform a variety of operations vary
from 35 instructions in low-end PICs to about 70 instructions in high-end PICs. It is programmed by using C
language.
The signal from the ADC is processed by the PIC microcontroller, and it gives an instruction as an output,
based on the condition of the signal, to the servo motor. The signal received from the ADC can also be
displayed on the LCD display (which gives an audio-visual warning on the windshield in the driver’s field of
view), and it gives the distance between the front of the vehicle and the obstacle. The distance value at
which automatic braking should start is already stored in the microcontroller. When the measured distance
reaches this value, the PIC automatically sends the signal to the servo motor which in turn controls braking
through mechanical arrangements.
4.6 DC GEAR MOTOR:-
A DC gear motor is a fairly simple electric gear motor that uses electricity, gear box and magnetic field to
produce torque, which turns the motor. At its most simple, DC gear motor requires two magnets of
opposite polarity and an electric coil, which acts as an electric magnet. The repellent and attractive
electromagnetic forces of the magnets provide the torque and causes the DC gear motor to turn. A gear
box is present just after the DC motor and a rotary shaft is connected to it, with the help of this DC gear
motor setup the vehicle wheels can be rotated in this project.

4.7 SERVO MOTOR:-

The output of the PIC is the input of the servo motor. The servo motor allows for precise control of angular
position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. Thus, it
is a closed loop mechanism that uses position feedback to control its motion and final position. The input is
a signal, either analog or digital, representing the position commanded for the output shaft. The measured
position of the output shaft is compared to the command position (the external input to the motor). If the
output position differs from that required, an error signal is generated which then causes the motor to
rotate in either direction as needed, to bring the output shaft to the appropriate position. As the required
position approaches, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops.

The output shaft of servo motor is capable of travelling somewhere around 180 degrees. A normal servo
motor is used to control an angular motion between 0 and 180 degrees, and it is mechanically not capable
of turning any farther due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The angle through which
the output shaft of the servo motor need to travel is determined according to the nature of the signal
given to the motor as input from the PIC.
The servo motor controls the braking through mechanical arrangements. This is done by using a pair of
crossed helical gears and a grooved cylindrical component. The larger gear is mounted on the output shaft
of the servo motor and the smaller is mounted on the master cylinder piston rod. Thus, when the output
shaft of the servomotor gets signals and hence the larger gear rotates in say anticlockwise direction, the
smaller gear and hence the master cylinder piston rod rotates in clockwise direction. Due to the groove on
the cylindrical component translatory motion is also produced. This is due to a pin, one end of which is
inserted in the groove and the other end is fixed rigidly to a support. Thus, a combination of translatory as
well as rotary motion is produced.

Hence, the fluid pressure is applied due to stretching out of the master cylinder piston thus resulting in
braking of the vehicle. The piston returns to the original position when the servo motor output shaft
rotates in clockwise direction.
Thus, the speed of the vehicle reduces for clockwise rotation of the smaller gear (i.e. anticlockwise rotation
of larger gear and hence the servo motor output shaft). Thus, the servo motor is used to control the
brakes, when the PIC gives the signal to the servo motor, based upon the distance measured by means of
sensors. This constitutes the braking circuit.
5. ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM:-
• Discrete distances to moving objects can be detected and measured.
• Resistance to external disturbances such as vibration, infrared radiation, ambient noise, and EMI
(Electro Magnetic Interference) radiation.
• Measures and detects distances to moving objects.
• Impervious to target materials, surface and colour.
• Solid-state units have virtually unlimited, maintenance free lifespan.
• Detects small objects over long operating distance.
• Ultrasonic sensors are not affected by dust, dirt or high moisture environments.

6. SENSING AND CONTROLLING UNIT:-

The Sensing and Controlling unit, is that part of this system which senses the object or obstruction in front
of the car, measures the distance and the approaching velocity and then sends necessary signals to the
servo motor and hence to the Automatic Braking Unit. Its components consist of Arduino as a
microcontroller, Servo motor, Ultrasonic Transducer and a power source to keep the system running. The
Arduino is coded by a software called Arduino 1.6, a language promoted by the company of the same
name, which acts as a free source coding, just like Android.
6.1 COMPONENTS OF SENSING AND CONTROLLING UNIT:-
6.1.1 Arduino Uno R3:-
The Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which
6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 Analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack,
an ICSP header and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply
connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
You can tinker with your UNO without worrying too much about doing something wrong, worst case
scenario you can replace the chip for a few dollars and start over again.
"Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release of Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0. The Uno
board and version 1.0 of Arduino Software (IDE) were the reference versions of Arduino, now evolved to
newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for
the Arduino platform.

The structure of Arduino is its disadvantage as well. During building a project you have to make its size as
small as possible. But with the big structures of Arduino we have to stick with big sized PCB’s. If you are
working on a small micro-controller like ATmega8 you can easily make your PCB as small as possible.
 Arduino Uno Layout

Technical Specification of Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The power
source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter
(wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm centre-positive plug into the
board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the GND and VIN pin headers of the POWER
connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V,
the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The
power pins are as follows:

• VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as opposed
to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage
through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
• 5V: The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other components on the
board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator, or be supplied by USB or another
regulated 5V supply.
• 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
• GND: Ground pins.

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output. They operate at 5 volts.
Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 k-Ohms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

• Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are
connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
• External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a
rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt( ) function for details.
• PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite( ) function.
• SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication, which,
although provided by the underlying hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino language.
 • LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is
on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
6.1.2 Ultrasonic Transducer:-
Ultrasonic transducers are transducers that convert ultrasound waves to electrical signals or vice versa.
Those that both transmit and receive may also be called ultrasound transceivers; many ultrasound sensors
besides being sensors are indeed transceivers because they can both sense and transmit. These devices
work on a principle similar to that of transducers used in radar and sonar systems, which evaluate
attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves, respectively. Active ultrasonic
sensors generate high-frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor,
measuring the time interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance
to an object. Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is
present under certain conditions, convert it to an electrical signal, and report it to a computer.
Ultrasonic probes and ultrasonic baths are used to apply sound energy to agitate particles in a wide range
of laboratory applications. An ultrasonic transducer is a device that converts AC into ultrasound, as well as
the reverse, sound into AC. In ultrasonic, the term typically refers to piezoelectric transducers or capacitive
transducers. Piezoelectric crystals change size and shape when a voltage is applied; AC voltage makes them
oscillate at the same frequency and produce ultrasonic sound. Capacitive transducers use electrostatic
fields between a conductive diaphragm and a backing plate.
The beam pattern of a transducer can be determined by the active transducer area and shape, the
ultrasound wavelength, and the sound velocity of the propagation medium. The diagrams show the sound
fields of an unfocused and a focusing ultrasonic transducer in water, plainly at differing energy levels.
Since piezoelectric materials generate a voltage when force is applied to them, they can also work as
ultrasonic detectors. Some systems use separate transmitters and receivers, while others combine both
functions into a single piezoelectric transceiver.
Ultrasound transmitters can also use non-piezoelectric principles such as magneto-striction. Materials with
this property change size slightly when exposed to a magnetic field, and make practical transducers.

A capacitor ("condenser") microphone has a thin diaphragm that responds to ultrasound waves. Changes
in the electric field between the diaphragm and a closely spaced backing plate convert sound signals to
electric currents, which can be amplified.
Ultrasonic sensors are widely used in cars as parking sensors to aid the driver in reversing into parking
spaces. They are being tested for a number of other automotive uses including ultrasonic people detection
and assisting in autonomous UAV navigation.
 a) and (b) Ultrasonic Transducer HC-SR04 (Front and Back view)

Ultrasonic ranging module HC - SR04 provides 2cm - 400cm non-contact measurement function, the
ranging accuracy can reach to 3mm. The modules includes ultrasonic transmitters, receiver and control
circuit. The basic principle of work:

• Using IO trigger for at least 10us high level signal,

• The Module automatically sends eight 40 kHz and detect whether there is a pulse signal back.
• IF the signal back, through high level , time of high output IO duration is the time from sending
ultrasonic to returning. Test distance = (high level time * velocity of sound (340M/S) / 2.
Wire connecting direct as following:

• 5V Supply
• Trigger Pulse Input
• Echo Pulse Output
• 0V Ground
 Specification of Ultrasonic Transducer

Timing Diagram:-
The Timing diagram is shown below. You only need to supply a short 10uS pulse to the trigger input to
start the ranging, and then the module will send out an 8 cycle burst of ultrasound at 40 kHz and raise its
echo. The Echo is a distance object that is pulse width and the range in proportion .You can calculate the
range through the time interval between sending trigger signal and receiving echo signal.
Formula:
µS / 58 = centimetres or µS / 148 =inch;
Or

The range = high level time * velocity (340M/S) / 2

It is always suggested to use over 60ms measurement cycle, in order to prevent trigger signal to the echo
signal.

Timing diagram for the Ultrasonic Transducer HC-SR04

6.1.3 DC gear motor:-

DC geared motors are essentially a DC shunt motor which has been specially designed for low inertia,
symmetrical rotation and smooth low-speed characteristics. Geared motor is a motor with a closed
feedback system in which the position of the motor will be communicated back to the control circuit in the
motors. Geared motors are formed from four different elements: a DC motor, a position-sensing device (a
potentiometer), a gear reducing part and a control unit. All of these components work together to make
the motor to accept control signals that represent the desired output of the motor shaft and power the DC
motor until its shaft is turned to the right position. The shaft in geared motors doesn’t rotate as freely as
those in regular DC motors; it is only able to rotate around 200 degrees in both directions. The
positionsensing device in a geared motor determines the rotation of the shaft and thus the way the motor
needs to turn in order to arrive at the desired position. The sliding mode control is robust to plant
uncertainties and insensitive to external disturbances. It is commonly used to get good dynamic
performance of controllable systems. Even then, the chattering phenomena due to the finite speed of the
switching devices can affect the system behaviour significantly. Besides, the sliding control needs the
knowledge of mathematical model of the system with bounded uncertainties. Reduced chattering may be
achieved without sacrificing robust performance by combining the attractive features of fuzzy control with
SMC.

DC gear motor

Specifications of DC gear motor

6.1.4 Servo Motor:-
A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a controlled device, a output sensor, a
feedback system. This is an automatic closed loop control system. Here instead of controlling a device by
applying the variable input signal, the device is controlled by a feedback signal generated by comparing
output signal and reference input signal. When reference input signal or command signal is applied to the
system, it is compared with output reference signal of the system produced by output sensor, and a third
signal produced by a feedback system.
This third signal acts as an input signal of controlled device. This input signal to the device presents as long
as there is a logical difference between reference input signal and the output signal of the system. After
the device achieves its desired output, there will be no longer the logical difference between reference
input signal and reference output signal of the system. Then, the third signal produced by comparing
theses above said signals will not remain enough to operate the device further and to produce a further
output of the system until the next reference input signal or command signal is applied to the system.
Hence, the primary task of a servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value in
the presence of disturbances.
A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor) along with some other special
purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In a servo unit, you will find a small DC motor, a
potentiometer, gear arrangement and an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent circuitry along with the
potentiometer makes the servo to rotate according to our wishes. As we know, a small DC motor will
rotate with high speed but the torque generated by its rotation will not be enough to move even a light
load. This is where the gear system inside a servomechanism comes into the picture. The gear mechanism
will take high input speed of the motor (fast) and at the output, we will get an output speed which is
slower than original input speed but more practical and widely applicable.
The output shaft of servomotor SG 90 is capable of travelling somewhere around 180 degrees. A normal
servomotor is used to control an angular motion between 0 and 180 degrees, and it is mechanically not
capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The angle
through which the output shaft of the servomotor need to travel is determined according to the nature of
the signal given to the motor as input from the PIC microcontroller. Due to rotation of servomotor in 180
degrees, the brakes can be applied and released through given brakes mechanism.

Servomotor

Specifications of servomotor
 TOP VIEW SIDE VIEW

FINAL PROJECT FRONT VIEW

6.1.5 Arduino software:-

The open-source Arduino Software (IDE) makes it easy to write code and upload it to the board. It runs on
Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. The environment is written in Java and based on Processing and other
open-source software. This software can be used with any Arduino board.
The developed program for success of our project as follows:-

Code:-
#include <Servo.h> //Servo motor library. This is standard library
#include <NewPing.h> //Ultrasonic sensor function library. You must install this library
//our L298N control pins
const int LeftMotorForward = 5;
const int LeftMotorBackward = 4;
const int RightMotorForward = 3;
const int RightMotorBackward = 2;
//sensor pins
#define trig_pin A3 //analog input 1
#define echo_pin A2 //analog input 2
#define maximum_distance 200
boolean goesForward = false;
int distance = 100;
NewPing sonar(trig_pin, echo_pin, maximum_distance); //sensor function
Servo servo_motor; //our servo name
void setup(){
pinMode(RightMotorForward, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LeftMotorForward, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LeftMotorBackward, OUTPUT);
pinMode(RightMotorBackward, OUTPUT);
servo_motor.attach(11); //our servo pin
servo_motor.write(90);
delay(2000);
distance = readPing();
delay(100);
distance = readPing();
delay(100);
distance = readPing();
delay(100);
distance = readPing();
delay(100);}

void loop(){
int distanceRight = 0;
int distanceLeft = 0;
delay(50);
if (distance <= 20){
moveStop();
 delay(300);
moveBackward();
delay(400);
moveStop();
delay(300);
distanceRight = lookRight();
delay(300);
distanceLeft = lookLeft();
delay(300);
if (distance >= distanceLeft){
turnRight();
moveStop();
}
else{
turnLeft();
moveStop();
}
}
else{
moveForward();
}
distance = readPing();
}
int lookRight(){
servo_motor.write(10);
delay(500);
int distance = readPing();
delay(100);
servo_motor.write(90);
return distance;
}
int lookLeft(){
servo_motor.write(170);
delay(500);
 int distance = readPing();
delay(100);
servo_motor.write(90);
return distance;
delay(100);
}
int readPing(){
delay(70);
int cm = sonar.ping_cm();
if (cm==0){
cm=250;
}
return cm;
}
void moveStop(){
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, LOW);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, LOW);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, LOW);
}
void moveForward(){
if(!goesForward){
goesForward=true;

digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, LOW);
}
}
void moveBackward(){
goesForward=false;
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, HIGH);
 digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, LOW);}
void turnRight(){
digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, LOW);
delay(500);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, LOW);
}
void turnLeft(){
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, LOW);
delay(500);

digitalWrite(LeftMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(RightMotorForward, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LeftMotorBackward, LOW);
digitalWrite(RightMotorBackward, LOW);
}

7. RESULT:-
As a result of this automatic braking system, the function of each part is working well and the whole
system is successfully accomplished. The safety distance is determined then the vehicle system is braked
when the obstacle is detected. The ranging accuracy of ultrasonic sensor in this prototype is about 2cm to
1m and works effectively within the prescribed limit.
8. FINAL OVERVIEW OF THE AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM:-.
In this project, we have checked the working of our project, we connected it with a batteries and whose
braking system is controlled by a DC gear motor and servomotor. This technique is eco-friendly and this
work is an attempt to reduce accidents while in critical driving conditions. We have tested the working of
the system by placing various objects ahead as obstacles. The system responded by reducing the speed of
the vehicle when the obstacle is placed at various distances from it. Also the system stopped automatically
in restricted areas. It gave very accurate measurement according to limit of values interpreted.

9. CONCLUSION:-
We have successfully completed the fabrication of automatic braking system model prototype and this
project presents the implementation of an Automatic Braking System for Forward Collision Avoidance,
intended to use in vehicles where the drivers may not brake manually, but the speed of the vehicle can be
reduced automatically due to the sensing of the obstacles. It reduces the accident levels and tends to save
the lives of so many people. By doing this project practically we gained the knowledge about working of
automatic braking system and with this future study and research, we hope to develop the system into an
even more advanced speed control system for automobile safety, while realizing that this certainly
requires tons of work and learning, like the programming and operation of microcontrollers and the
automobile structure. Hence we believe that the incorporation of all components in Automatic Braking
System will maximize safety and also give such system a bigger market space and a competitive edge in the
market.

10. FUTURE SCOPE:-

The future scope is to design and develop a control system based on an automotive braking system is
called “Automatic Braking System”. The Automatic Braking System with ultrasonic sensor would alert the
driver when the distance between vehicle and obstacle is in within the sensing range zone then the brakes
are applied. This is the new function in this prototype design that could be possibly used for all the
vehicles. By making it safer, this system will provide better guarantee for vehicle’s safety and avoid losses.
Therefore, the safety system of vehicles will be developed and may have more market demands.
It can be further used for large type of heavy vehicles like buses, trucks, cranes, tractors, etc. We can surely
get the information about the obstacle detection sense zone according to vehicle condition. It is verily
useful to public sector and users. It is also avoids the accidents in large or metropolitan cities. So we feel it
is a better idea for automatically braking of vehicle with moderate cost.
CHAPTER 2:
SELF CHARGING BY
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
1. INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL:-
A solar cell (photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. The energy of light is transmitted by photons-
small packets or quantum of light. Electrical energy is stored in electromagnetic fields, which in turn can
make a current of electrons flow. Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules which are used
to capture energy from sunlight. When multiple modules are assembled together (such as prior to
installation on a pole-mounted tracker system), the resulting integrated group of modules all oriented in
one plane is referred as a solar panel. The electrical energy generated from solar modules, is an example of
solar energy. Photovoltaic is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of
photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the
generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells are described as photovoltaic cells when the light source is not
necessarily sunlight. These are used for detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible
range, for example Infrared detectors, or measurement of light intensity.

Solar cell
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of
photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or
resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices can be combined to form modules,
otherwise known as solar panels. In basic terms a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum
open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic,
irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They are used as a photo detector (for
example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or
measuring light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

• The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excisions.

• The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

• The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

 In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct
heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photo electrolytic cell" (photo-electro-
chemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by
Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water directly into
hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.

2. RENEWABLE ENERGY:-
Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be
generated again and again as and when required. They are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest
sources of energy available on this planet. For e.g.: Energy that we receive from the sun can be used to
generate electricity. Similarly, energy from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants, tides can be used this
form of energy to another form.
Worldwide, oil prices will then rise considerably favouring the introduction of various renewable energy
sources such as the direct conversion of solar energy (solar cells), but also others like for example,
hydroelectric- and wind-power systems. Renewable energy sources neither run out nor have any
significant harmful effects on our environment.
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished
on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy
often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating & cooling,
transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services. Renewable energy resources exist over wide
geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of
countries.
Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security,
climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature
concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG
emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful
incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.

In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as
solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have
renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy
markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.

3. SOLAR ENERGY:-
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies
such as solar heating, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaic (CPV), solar architecture
and artificial photosynthesis. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favourable
thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar
technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power,
converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated
solar power (CSP).
A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the
photoelectric effect. Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion, fast-growing industry, continues to improve
its cost-effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable technologies together with CSP.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
sunlight into a small beam. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s.
CSP-Stirling has by far the highest efficiency among all solar energy technologies.

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean
solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security
through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance
sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices
lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early
deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared".[48] Italy has the largest proportion of solar electricity in the world, in 2015 solar supplied 7.8% of
electricity demand in Italy. In 2016, after another year of rapid growth, solar generated 1.3% of global
power.

4. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR CELL TECHNOLOGIES:-

The development of solar cell technology began with the 1839 research of French physicist Antoine-César
Becquerel. Becquerel observed the photovoltaic effect while experimenting with a solid electrode in an
electrolyte solution when he saw a voltage develop when light fell upon the electrode. The major events
are discussed briefly below, and other milestones can be accessed by clicking on the image shown below.
Charles Fritts - First Solar Cell: The first genuine solar cell was built around 1883 by Charles Fritts, who used
junctions formed by coating selenium (a semiconductor) with an extremely thin layer of gold. The device
was only about 1 percent efficient.
Albert Einstein - Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in 1905 for which
he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

Russell Ohl - Silicon Solar Cell: Early solar cells, however, had energy conversion efficiencies of under one
percent. In 1941, the silicon solar cell was invented by Russell Ohl.
Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin - Efficient Solar Cells: In 1954, three American researchers,
Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin, designed a silicon solar cell capable of a six percent energy
conversion efficiency with direct sunlight. They created the first solar panels. The photovoltaic effect was
experimentally demonstrated first by French physicist Edmond Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, he built the
world's first photovoltaic cell in his father's laboratory. Willoughby Smith first described the "Effect of Light
on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current" in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nature. In 1883
Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating the semiconductor selenium with a thin
layer of gold to form the junctions; the device was only around 1% efficient.
In 1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first cell based on the outer photoelectric effect
discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
In 1905 Albert Einstein proposed a new quantum theory of light and explained the photoelectric effect in a
landmark paper, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
Russell Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in 1946[8] while working on the series
of advances that would lead to the transistor
5. THEORY:-
The solar cell work in several steps:-

• Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting material such as silicon.

• An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

• Electrons are excited from their current molecular/atomic orbital. Once excited an electron can either
dissipate the energy as heat and return to its orbital or travel through the cell until it reaches an electrode.
Current flows through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. The chemical
bonds of the material are vital for this process to work, and usually silicon is used in two layers, one layer
being doped with boron, the other phosphorus. These layers have different chemical electric charges and
subsequently both drive and direct the current of electrons.

• An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC). The most commonly known solar cell is
configured as a large-area p–n junction made from silicon. Other possible solar cell types are organic solar
cells, dye sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, quantum dot solar cells etc. The illuminated side of a
solar cell generally have a transparent conducting film for allowing light to enter into active material and to
collect the generated charge carriers. Typically, films with high transmittance and high electrical
conductance such as indium tin oxide, conducting polymers or conducting nanowire networks are used for
the purpose.

Working Mechanism of Solar cell

6. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL WORKING:-

First we will place the sollar cell on the roof of the Electric Vehicle which is directly connected to the 12V
rechargeable battery along with diode which will allow the current to flow from one direction only i.e. from
Photovolataic cells to rechargeable battery.

Photovoltaic cell on roof of the car

The solar cell works in following steps:
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.
Photons with energy equal to the band gap energy are absorbed to create free electrons. Photons with less
energy than the band gap energy pass through the material.
2. Formation of electron-hole pair (exciton).
3. Exciton diffusion to Junction.
4. Charge separation- Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an
electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and this
electricity is captured i.e. Electrons that are created on the n-type side may travel through the wire, power
the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type semiconductor-metal contact. Here,
they recombine with a hole that was either created as an electron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar
cell. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single
direction.
5. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.
6. And this DC current will charge the 12 V battery which is on the rooftop of the Electric Vehicle.

7. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL:-

Circuit diagram of Solar cell

Symbol of Solar Cell

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is electrically
equivalent, and is based on discrete ideal electrical components whose behavior is well defined. An ideal
solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a
shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the model. The resulting equivalent
circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. Also shown, on the right, is the schematic representation of a
solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.
8. CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION OF SOLAR CELL:-
From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell is equal to that
produced by the current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus that which flows
through the shunt resistor.

where

• I = output current (ampere)

• IL = photogenerated current (ampere)

• ID = diode current (ampere)

• ISH = shunt current (ampere). The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across
them: where

• Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volt)

• V = voltage across the output terminals (volt)

• I = output current (ampere)

• RS = series resistance (Ω). By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is:
where

• I0 = reverse saturation current (ampere)

• n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)

• q = elementary charge

• k = Boltzmann's constant An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in appearance, but with
V on the lefthand side. The two alternatives are identities; that is, they yield precisely the same results.
Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly

9.EFFICIENCY:-
Electrical efficiency (also called conversion efficiency) is a contributing factor in the selection of a
photovoltaic system. However, the most efficient solar panels are typically the most expensive, and may
not be commercially available. Therefore, selection is also driven by cost efficiency and other factors.
The electrical efficiency of a PV cell is a physical property which represents how much electrical power a
cell can produce for a given insolation. The basic expression for maximum efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is
given by the ratio of output power to the incident solar power (radiation flux times area).
10. ADVANTAGES:-
• No Emission Of Gases To The Atmosphere.
• Preservation Of Natural Resources.
• There Are No Fuel Costs.
• Modest Available Power.
• There Are No Energy Costs.
• Low Maintenance Costs.
11. CONCLUSION:-
After the extensive investigation, we found that the performance of the solar cell is not only affected by
the nature of the solvent and the electrolyte, but also the particle size of the semiconductor and the
nature of the dye. In the past year the price of fossil fuels has increased more than any time in recent
memory. Because of this fact, the race for alternate energy sources to replace or lessen the use of fossil
fuels has risen. This activity of creating electricity through the use of organic solar cells is an example of
one way scientists are trying to alleviate some of the dependence on non-renewable resources.

It is the purpose of our research proposal to explore that with a little human ingenuity, other ways to
create energy can be attained. It is therefore plan to develop a simulator for Organic Solar Cell which can
reproduce the behaviour of a real device as close as possible At present, solar cells comprising an inorganic
semi-conductor such as mono- and multi-crystalline silicon have found markets for small scale devices such
as solar panels on roofs, pocket calculators and water pumps.

9.FUTURE SCOPES:-
• Production line of smart EVs based on this technology.

• At state of war, self-reliant vehicles will give us an edge over the enemy.
CHAPTER 3:
SELF CHARGING BY
KINETIC ENERGY OF THE
ELECTRIC VEHICLE
1. INTRODUCTION TO KINETIC ENERGY:-
In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion.[1] It is defined
as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this
energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same
amount of work is done by the body when decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest. Formally,
a kinetic energy is any term in a system's Lagrangian which includes a derivative with respect to time.
In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v is

The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms. For example, the
cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at
the top. The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be
released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill. Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to
friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling. The energy is not destroyed; it has
only been converted to another form by friction. Alternatively, the cyclist could connect a dynamo to one
of the wheels and generate some electrical energy on the descent. The bicycle would be traveling slower at
the bottom of the hill than without the generator because some of the energy has been diverted into
electrical energy. Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic
energy would be dissipated through friction as heat.

Same principle can be applied to the moving Electric Vehicle in such a way that Kinetic of the EV will be
converted to the electrical energy which will used to charge the battery of the vehicle.

2. INITIATION OF INNOVATION:-
The kinetic energy is witnessed in all the above mentioned modes of transportation when they’re in
motion. Thus, depending upon the convenience and type of transportation, the user installs a suitable
dynamo kit in his vehicle to generate, store and utilize energy.

This Concept Of Illumination In Our Earlier Bicycles, Now Paved A Path For Me To Generate Power From
The Kinetic Energy Of Any Running VEHICLE... It need not be just a car, it can be any running vehicle.

On a better transformation and provided changes, this phenomenon can be applicable to train also …
3. ENERGIES THAT GO VAIN IN A MOVING VEHICLE:-
• The Rotatory Motion Of Wheels Of The Vehicle

• Wind Energy Which Is Opposing A Moving Vehicle

4. SOURCES TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY:-

Our main aim is to convert kinetic energy of the vehicle to electrical energy using an iron core surrounded
by copper coil and is placed very close to the moving magnet which will create an emf i.e electric current to
charge the battery of the EVs.
There are two ways by which we can convert kinetic energy of the vehicle to electrical energy and they
are:-

• By The Utilization Of Rotatory Motion Of Wheels Of The Vehicle

• By The Utilization Of Wind Energy Which Is Opposing A Moving Vehicle

In this project, we will be utilising the Rotatory Motion Of Wheels Of The Vehicle i.e. Kinetic energy of the
vehicle.

5. WORKING:-
The conversion of kinetic energy into electrical energy is based on the principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.

According to this law, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field, it cuts magnetic lines of force, due
to which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of
change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause an current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.

Hence the most basic essential parts of this module are:-

• Cylindrical Magnet
• Copper coil
• Rectifier
• Iron core

The working procedure is as follows:-

• firstly, The generator will be connected with the axle of wheel of motor or we can we can say that
the alternator is coupled with axle of the wheel.
• we can provide mechanical energy to Generator by utilizing the rotatory motion of the wheel of the
vehicle.
• Then, the generator produce electricity which is based on the fundamental principle of Faraday Law
of electromagnetic induction.

• this emf will give a sinusoidal voltage (AC voltage)at the end of terminal of coil.
• this AC voltage will be converted into DC voltage by the help of rectifier then this DC power will be
used to charged the battery of EV.
6. PROTOTYPE:-

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

INNER VIEW

7. ADVANTAGES:-
1. Promotes clean energy.
2. Energy Availability.
3. Technology of future.
4. Preservation of Natural Resources.
5. less Energy Cost. User friendly and anyone can understand it.
6. Making use of the energy that’s going in vain is the highlighted scenario witnessed here.

8. CONCLUSION:-
Well, India has incorporated hybrid vehicles in their automobile resumé.
And had made significant progression towards the application of Electric vehicles .
This model of ours demonstrates an approach of Self charging that will ultimately enhance the
performance of our electric vehicle.
With the above modifications we can make the vehicle to become self reliant which ultimately solve the
problem of fuel being expensive.

9.FUTURE SCOPES:-
• Production line of smart EVs based on this technology.
• At state of war, self-reliant vehicles will give us an edge over the enemy.
CHAPTER 4:
COST ANALYSIS AND
REFERENCES
COST ANALYSIS:-

Components Quantity Price(in Input Output

Rupees) voltage voltage
rating rating
Arduino Uno 1 580 7V-12V 3.3V-5V
Servo motor 1 120 4.8V-6.0V -
L298N motor driver 2 320 12V 5V
Gear motor 2 320 9V-12V -
IR sensor 1 110 5V -
On/off switch 2 20 - -
LED 7 10 2V -
12V Solar Panel 1 300 - 12V
Glue gun stick 5 50 - -
12V DC Battery 1 450 - 12V-
1.3AMP
Battery Clip 4 10 - -
12V charging Adapter 1 150 - 12V-
1.5AMP
Wheels 4 220 - -
Chasis 1 100 - -
Male-female Jumper wire 40 100 - -
Insulated copper wire. 2 50 - -
(10 meter)
Cylindrical magnet 2 50 - -
Big cylindrical magnet 5 200 - -
Total Cost 3160 Rs

REFERENCES:-
1. http://members.rennlist.com/pbanders/ecu.htm. This link refers to technical document that contains
information about electronic control unit.
2. http://www.aa1car.com/ this website contains technical articles, books and manuals that help us find
what’s wrong with our vehicle and what needed to fix it.
3. David Epsilon, An embedded software premier, Pearson education, 1999.
4. Joshua Pérez, Fernando Saco, Vicente MI lanes, Antonio Jiménez, Julio C. Diaz and Teresa de Pedro, an
RFID based Intelligent Vehicle speed controller using active traffic signals, SENSORS 2010, 15872 5888; doi:
10.3390/s100605872.

5. Van NE’s. N; Houtenbos. M; van SC Hagen. I: Improving Speed behavior: The Potential of In-Car Speed
Assistance and Speed Limit Credibility. IET Intel. Transp. Syst. 2008, 2, 323-330.
6. MI lanes, V. Onieva, E. Perez, J. De Pedro, T. Gonzalez, C. Control of Velocidad Adaptativo para Entornos
Urbanos Congestionados. Rev. Iberoam, automat. Informat. Ind.2009, 66-73.
7. ULTRASONIC, "Ultrasonic automatic braking RC car project," Mechatrofice.
8. M. S. B. SAHRI, "ULTRASONIC CAR BRAKING SYSTEM " UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG, pp. 1-24.
9. s. s. works, "Seeed ultrasonic sensor," Robotshop, pp. 1-2, 2010.
10. T. tech engineer, "Introduction to HC-SR04 (Ultrasonic Sensor)," theengineeringprojects.com
11. K. M. S. V. M. J.V.Sai Ram, G.Pavanth, B.Jagadeep ,Dr. B.Raghu Kumar, "Automatic Braking System
Using Ultrasonic Sensor," International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology vol. 2, pp.
398-404, 2017.
12. Mechatrofice, "L293D Motor Driver Module Arduino," Arduino.
13. “GENERATION OF POWER TO A VEHICLE USING ITS OWN KINETIC ENERGY” by Srikar Dasari ,
researchgate.net .
14. https://www.cartrade.com