Introduction to wireless

communications | Elementary
Knowledge on Wireless
Transmission
1. Applications
Vehicles
Many wireless communication systems and mobility aware applications are used for
following purpose:

Transmission of music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and

other broadcast information are received via digital audio
broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s.

For personal communication, a universal mobile

telecommunications system (UMTS) phone might be available offering
voice and data connectivity with 384 kbit/s.

For remote areas, satellite communication can be used, while the

current position of the car is determined via the GPS (Global
Positioning System).

A local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of

information (information such as distance between two vehicles,
traffic information, road conditions) in emergency situations or to
help each other keep a safe distance. Local ad-hoc network with
vehicles close by to prevent guidance system, accidents, redundancy.

Vehicle data from buses, trucks, trains and high speed train can be
transmitted in advance for maintenance.

In ad-hoc network, car can comprise personal digital assistants

(PDA), laptops, or mobile phones connected with each other using
the Bluetooth technology.
Emergency
Following services can be provided during emergencies:

Video communication: Responders often need to share vital

information. The transmission of real time situations of video could be
necessary. A typical scenario includes the transmission of live video
footage from a disaster area to the nearest fire department, to the
police station or to the near NGOs etc.

Push To Talk (PTT): PTT is a technology which allows half duplex

communication between two users where switching from voice
reception mode to the transmit mode takes place with the use of a
dedicated momentary button. It is similar to walkie-talkie.

Audio/Voice Communication: This communication service provides

full duplex audio channels unlike PTT. Public safety communication
requires novel full duplex speech transmission services for emergency
response.

Real Time Text Messaging (RTT): Text messaging (RTT) is an

effective and quick solution for sending alerts in case of emergencies.
Types of text messaging can be email, SMS and instant message.

Business
Travelling Salesman
Directly access to customer files stored in a central location.

Consistent databases for all agents

Mobile office

To enable the company to keep track of all the activities of their

travelling employees.

In Office
Wi-Fi wireless technology saves businesses or companies a
considerable amount of money on installations costs.
 There is no need to physically setup wires throughout an office
building, warehouse or store.

Bluetooth is also a wireless technology especially used for short

range that acts as a complement to Wi-Fi. It is used to transfer data
between computers or cellphones.

Transportation Industries
In transportation industries, GPS technology is used to find efficient
routes and tracking vehicles.

Replacement of Wired Network

Wireless network can also be used to replace wired network. Due to
economic reasons it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for
weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental
information, wireless connections via satellite, can help in this
situation.

Tradeshows need a highly dynamic infrastructure, since cabling takes

a long time and frequently proves to be too inflexible.

Many computers fairs use WLANs as a replacement for cabling.

Other cases for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or

information displays in historical buildings, where excess cabling may
destroy valuable walls or floors.

Location dependent service

It is important for an application to know something about the location because the
user might need location information for further activities. Several services that might
depend on the actual location can be described below:

Follow-on Services:

Location aware services: To know about what services (e.g. fax,

printer, server, phone, printer etc.) exist in the local environment.

Privacy: We can set the privacy like who should get knowledge about
the location.

Information Services: We can know about the special offers in the

supermarket. Nearest hotel, rooms, cabs etc.

Infotainment: (Entertainment and Education)

Wireless networks can provide information at any appropriate
location.

Outdoor internet access.

You may choose a seat for movie, pay via electronic cash, and send
this information to a service provider.

Ad-hoc network is used for multiuser games and entertainment.

Mobile and Wireless devices

Even though many mobile and wireless devices are available, there will be many more
devices in the future. There is no precise classification of such devices, by sizes,
shape, weight, or computing power. The following list of given examples of mobile and
wireless devices graded by increasing performance (CPU, memory, display, input
devices, etc.)
Sensor: Wireless device is represented by a sensor transmitting state information. 1
example could be a switch, sensing the office door. If the door is closed, the switch
transmits this information to the mobile phone inside the office which will not accept
incoming calls without user interaction; the semantics of a closed door is applied to
phone calls.
Embedded Controller: Many applications already contain a simple or sometimes
more complex controller. Keyboards, mouse, headsets, washing machines, coffee
machines, hair dryers and TV sets are just some examples.
Pager: As a very simple receiver, a pager can only display short text messages, has a
tiny display, and cannot send any messages.
Personal Digital Assistant: PDAs typically accompany a user and offer simple
versions of office software (calendar, notepad, mail). The typically input device is a
pen, with built-in character recognition translating handwriting into characters. Web
browsers and many other packages are available for these devices.
Pocket computer: The next steps towards full computers are pocket computers
offering tiny keyboards, color displays, and simple versions of programs found on
desktop computers (text processing, spreadsheets etc.)
Notebook/laptop: Laptops offer more or less the same performance as standard
desktop computers; they use the same software - the only technical difference being
size, weight, and the ability to run on a battery. If operated mainly via a sensitive
display (touch sensitive or electromagnetic), the device are also known as notepads or
tablet PCs.

2. Short History of Wireless

Communications
The history of the wireless communications started with the understanding of
magnetic and electric properties observed during the early days by the Chinese,
Roman and Greek cultures and experiments carried out in the 17th and 18th centuries.
A short history of wireless communication is presented in the tabular form:

Y Description
e
a
r

188 Hertz-Radio Communication

0

189 Marconi- Radio Transmission

7

193 FCC (Federal Communication Commission)

3

193 FCC rules for regular services

8

194 Bell telephone laboratories 52 MHz

6

195 FCC - 450MHz (Simplex)

6

196 Bell telephone active research 800 MHz

4

196 FCC - 450 MHz (Full Duplex)

4

196 FCC - 40 MHz bandwidth

9

198 FCC ? release of cellular land phone in the 40 MHz

1

198 At & T divested and Server RBOC (Regional Bell Operation Companies)
2 formed to manage the cellular operation.

198 Most RBOC market in operations

4

198 FCC allocates 5MHz extended band.

6

198 TDMA voted as digital cellular standard in North America.

8

199 GSM (Group Special Mobile) operable Germany D2 system.

2

199 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

3

199 PDCC (Personal Digital Cellular Operable) in Tokyo, Japan

4

199 CDMA operable in Hong Kong

5

199 Six Broad Band PCS (Personal Communication Services) licensed bands (120
6 MHz) almost reader 20 billion US dollar

199 Broad band CDMA constructed and of the 3rd generation mobile.
7

199 Powerful WLAN systems were evolved, such as Bluetooth. This uses 2.4 MHz
9 spectrum.
3. Market of Mobile
Communications
What is Mobile
Marketing?
Mobile marketing is a multi-channel, digital marketing
strategy aimed at reaching a target audience on their
smartphones, tablets, and/or other mobile devices, via
websites, email, SMS and MMS, social media, and apps.
Mobile is disrupting the way people engage with brands.
Everything that can be done on a desktop computer is now
available on a mobile device. From opening an email to visiting
your website to reading your content, it's all accessible
through a small mobile screen. Consider:
80% of internet users own a smartphone.

Mobile platforms, such as smartphones and tablets, host

up to 60% of digital media time for users in the U.S.

Google anticipates search queries on mobile devices

to surpass desktop searches by the end of 2015.

Effective mobile advertising means understanding your

mobile audience, designing content with mobile platforms in
mind, and making strategic use of SMS/MMS marketing and
mobile apps.

How to Create a Mobile

Marketing Strategy
As with any marketing effort, every brand and organization
will develop a unique mobile strategy based on the industry
and target audience. Mobile technology is all about
customization and personalization, which means mobile
marketing is, too.
Step 1 - Create Mobile Buyer
Personas
Understanding your audience is the first step to any
marketing strategy, and buyer personas are a valuable tool to
aid in that understanding. Buyer personas are simply fictional
representations of your various types of customers. Create a
profile that describes each one’s background, job description,
main sources of information, goals, challenges, preferred type
of content, objections, and/or role in the purchase process. It
is easier to determine a channel and voice for your marketing
messages when you have a clear picture of your target
audience.
Make a specific point to detail your target audience’s mobile
habits as well. How much of their web usage happens on
mobile devices? Are they comfortable completing a purchase
on a smartphone? A simple way to start is to research big
data reports on mobile usage. Some interesting observations
include:
65% of all email is first opened on a mobile device.

48% of users start their mobile internet sessions on a

search engine.

56% of B2B buyers frequently use smartphones to access

vendors’ content.

95% of adults primarily use their smartphones to access

content/information.

To better understand your specific target market, monitor

Google Analytics for your site’s mobile traffic numbers. You
can also ask or survey clients and prospects about their
mobile web usage.
A/B testing—which compares two versions of the same
campaign on a certain channel—can also be informative for
developing any aspect of buyer personas. When all other
factors are the same, do your email campaign landing pages
get more views when you send a related email on weekends
or on weekdays? In the mornings or in the evenings? Which
title or email subject gets more click-throughs?
Both the general and specific data will help develop audience
personas that include mobile usage.

Step 2 - Set Goals

The key to defining any effective strategy is to first decide
what success looks like. Get the key stakeholders together to
map your mobile marketing strategy. Identify goals by asking
your team some of these questions:
What are we currently doing for mobile? This will define
your starting point, and make sure everyone is on the same
page as you begin.

If you are already doing mobile marketing, how are those

initiatives performing? This conversation will identify what is
already working, what is not, and what’s not even being
measured.

What are your main objectives for including mobile

marketing in your overall strategy? Discuss why you’re
considering mobile now, what conversations have led up to
this point, and what you expect from mobile marketing.

Who are your key audiences for mobile marketing? Talk

about your customer personas in light of mobile usage
updates. How similar or different is each persona’s mobile
usage?

How are you engaging your mobile audience cross-

channel? This discussion will help analyze how the
channels you’re currently using can be included in your
mobile marketing strategy.

Step 3 - Establish KPIs

Just like your other marketing efforts, mobile marketing needs
to be tested and optimized. Determine which realistic,
measurable KPIs define your mobile campaign’s success. For
example:
Engagement—Provide mobile-friendly content for potential
customers who are searching for information about your
industry or product. Make sure your website is mobile-
responsive to improve mobile SEO.

Acquisition—Make sure lead nurturing emails are mobile-

friendly with clear calls-to-action. Buttons in emails should
be near the top of the message and be big enough to easily
tap in order to facilitate click-throughs. Then make it as
easy as possible for someone to fill out a form on your
mobile-optimized landing page.
 Customer Service—In a connected, social marketplace,
customer service is very much a marketing opportunity.
Allow your customers to easily reach you through any
platform they want, including simple click-to-call buttons for
smartphone users.

In order to identify the right KPIs for your mobile marketing

campaign, ask yourself:
Do I want to increase conversions from email messages?

Am I trying to improve traffic to sales pages?

How important is it that I generate more qualified

prospects?

Does our brand need to improve sales by converting more

traffic on certain pages?

Step 4 - Monitor Mobile Metrics

Google Analytics can help monitor mobile usage of your site:
Mobile behavior data reveals how well your mobile content
engages your audience.

Mobile conversion data will indicate whether or not some of

your key landing pages still need to be optimized for mobile
browsing.

Adding the Device Category field to the Site Content

dashboard will display the quantity and quality of much
mobile traffic to each individual page on your site.
The table on the Site Content dashboard includes metrics like
pageviews and bounce rate. Add the Device Category by
clicking the “Secondary dimension” menu above the first
column and selecting “Device Category” from the “Users”
submenu. The table will then display the most-viewed pages
on your site, per device, so you can see how mobile actually
affects your web traffic.
That information can hint at which search queries may be
leading mobile traffic to your site, what content your mobile
audience is most interested in, and which pages to optimize
for mobile browsing first.
 Mobile-Friendly
Website
A mobile-friendly website is no longer an option—it’s a must.
The rise in mobile traffic coupled with Google’s mobile-
friendliness ranking factor means a brand’s site must adapt to
mobile devices in order to stay competitive.
For search engines, “mobile-friendliness” means that:
Content fits on the screen without side-to-side scrolling or
zooming.

Content loads quickly.

Site returns no mobile-specific errors.

Google has even provided a free mobile-friendliness tool to

help marketers determine how to best improve their sites.
The most important reason to maintain a mobile-friendly site
is to create a consistent and engaging user experience.
Mobile UX has a dramatic effect on every stage of the buying
cycle:
64% of mobile web users abandon pages if they don’t
load within 10 seconds.

35% of executives could not make an intended

purchase because the website they visited wasn’t mobile-
friendly.

90% of the C-suite uses mobile devices to research

business purchases.

Making sure your mobile user experience is as easy and

seamless as possible should be a primary marketing goal.

Mobile Advertising for

Email
With 57% of email opened on mobile platforms and 69% of
mobile users deleting email that isn’t optimized for mobile, it’s
clear that your audience is engaging with email campaigns on
mobile devices.
Most email marketing providers will use responsive design—a
strategy that automatically formats web page content for
optimal viewing on any device—but there are still some key
considerations for designing email CTAs with mobile users in
mind:
Place the CTA early in the message (above the fold
whenever possible).

Make buttons at least 44x44 pixels, so they are easily “tap-

able.”

Email sends should optimize what is displayed in the mobile

inbox—“From” fields max out at 23 characters, and subject
lines at 38 characters.
Finally, don’t forget about those landing pages. If your email is
mobile friendly, but the click-through goes to a landing page
that isn’t optimized for mobile, that visitor will likely become
frustrated and bounce from the page.
Creating a unique landing page for an email campaign is a
great way to optimize for the mobile user. A unique landing
page also allows you to create a range of metrics that will help
monitor the mobile success of the campaign. Here are a few
things to keep in mind as you design this unique, mobile-
friendly landing page:
Remember that readers are using their fingers to select
items. Use pronounced image buttons and keep the layout
simple.

Keep forms minimal. The fewer fields, the better.

Make sure your images are re-sizable for different devices.

Verify that the page looks as good vertically as it does

horizontally.
 SMS and MMS
Marketing Is Personal
SMS, also known as “short messaging service,” really puts into
context how personal mobile marketing can be because you
are sending a message directly to a customer or potential
customer’s personal device.
SMS and MMS are very powerful channels for mobile
marketing. Over 3.6 billion people are able to receive SMS
messages, and 90% of those messages are opened within
three minutes (compared to 90 minutes for the average
email). Consider:
The open rate of SMS is 98% compared to 22% for emails.

Text messages can be 8x more effective at engaging

customers.

Almost 50% of consumers in the U.S. make direct

purchases after receiving an SMS-branded text.

It’s important to remember that marketing directly to mobile

devices is more personal than targeting an audience through
other channels. When reaching someone on a mobile device
either through email, SMS, or MMS, you are reaching that
person in his/her pocket or purse. Be personal, respectful, and
clear:
Keep the text under 160 characters.

Don’t use slang or abbreviations.

Offer the recipient something of value.

Make it clear who is sending the message.

Craft a clear call-to-action.

A similar way to reach your audience on mobile devices is

MMS, or multimedia message service. The difference is that
MMS is a multimedia message that can be sent peer-to-peer,
from a mobile messaging service provider or from a website
to a mobile phone. MMS messages can include text, photos,
videos, audios, or GIFs. Expanded media options allow for a
more branded message and create a better tie-in to other
marketing campaigns.
Why should you use MMS marketing to reach your mobile
audience?
MMS texts have a higher customer engagement with a
15% average CTR (click-through-rate).

MMS increases campaign opt-ins by 20% over SMS.

Subscribers are eight times more likely to share MMS

content on social networks.

Because MMS offers a richer media experience than simple

SMS messaging, you should make the most of those extra
media options:
Include engaging visuals.

Tie the MMS send to a multi-channel marketing campaign.

Make the message easily shareable via social media

buttons.

It’s important to take privacy regulations into consideration

with SMS and MMS marketing. Because these messages are
considered automated calls, they fall under the Telephone
Consumer Protection Act (TCPA) of 1991. That means there
are three privacy principles that should govern how you
implement SMS and MMS into your marketing:
1. Adequate notice—You should inform consumers that they
will be receiving SMS messages from a concrete
shortcode-based program.

2. Opt-in consent—You must get opt-in confirmation before

sending marketing SMS and MMS messages. Online
forms to enter your SMS or MMS program requires a
double opt-in.

3. Opting out—It should be very clear how someone can opt

out of your program.

SMS and MMS are very personal, and thus very powerful,
mobile marketing options. Make sure to handle them with tact
and detailed strategy.

Adding Mobile Apps to

the Mix
Mobile apps can support many business goals, including
extending your product, driving engagement, and even
supporting e-commerce. To maximize an app’s impact on
your marketing, you will want to be involved in the entire
process, from app development through implementation.
Just like any other marketing channel, it’s important to
consider how the app can be used for acquisition. You may
offer extra features or more mobile content in exchange for a
user’s contact information, similar to how you would gate
content on your website for the same purpose. You will also
want to make sure the app encourages user engagement in
order to build relationships and loyalty, and—of course—drive
conversions.
Those conversations are driven by two types of messages:
push notifications and in-app notifications. Both
communicate directly to your audience, so both should be
considered strategic marketing channels.

Push Notifications
Push notifications are messages or alerts delivered by your
app to the user. These messages appear on the home screen
of a user’s mobile device regardless of whether the user is
engaged with the app or even has it open. For a push
notification to work, the user needs to have already
downloaded your app and agreed to allow push notifications.
Luckily, 70% of mobile users allow push notifications.
Examples of push notifications include:
Reminders

Promotional messages

Calls-to-action for specific events or goals

Messages that are highly personalized based on user

profiles

In-App Notifications
In-app communications direct your user’s attention to specific
actions, messages, and features within the app, and are
opportunities for you to engage your users. These messages
give you the chance to be more personal and creative than
with SMS or push notifications, because the user is already in
your app and you aren’t limited by space constraints or
message volume issues.
Here are three ways you can take advantage of in-app
notifications:
Introduce new app features to your users.

Send messages to promote engagement with specific

content pieces.

Drive conversions by delivering targeted CTAs at specific

levels of engagement.

Both push and in-app notifications can be powerful ways to

reach your audience, particularly because they’ve already
taken the time to engage with your brand by downloading
your app.

Putting It All Together

A mobile marketing strategy is not a stand-alone effort, but it
is a large chunk of any long-term or short-term marketing
campaign—and its importance is only growing. From email, to
PPC, to SEO, to content, to social media marketing, there is a
mobile marketing channel to reach every part of your
audience where they are most comfortable.
Optimizing your website and email sends for mobile devices,
taking advantage of the SMS and MMS channels, and building
a native app for your most highly engaged audience are all big
projects. So, start by updating your buyer personas to get a
better idea of where the majority of your target audience
spends its mobile time. That will give you your start line, and
the rest will fall into a logical order.
Mobile technology is not a fad that’s going away any time
soon. Optimizing your marketing strategy for mobile will give
your brand an edge over the competition.

4. Elementary Knowledge on
Wireless Transmission
History of Wireless Communication
The history of Wireless Communications started with the understanding of
magnetic and electric properties observed during the early days by the
Chinese, Greek, and Roman cultures and experiments carried out in the
17th and 18th centuries. Here are some selected events in the development
of Wireless Communications (material taken from the book History of
Wireless, Tapan Sarkar, et al., Wiley, 2006).

1807 – French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier discovered

Fourier’s theorem

1820 – Danish physicist Hans Christian Orsted discovered the

electromagnetic field caused by electric current. The French physicist
Dominique Francois Jean Arago showed that a wire became a magnet
when current flowed through it. French mathematician and physicist
Andre-Marie Ampere discovered electrodynamics and proposed an
Electromagnetic Telegraph.

1831 – British scientist Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic

induction and predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves.

1834 – American inventor Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the code
for telegraphy named after him.

1847 – German physiologist and physicist Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von

Helmholtz suggested electrical oscillation

1853 – William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) calculated the period, damping and
intensity as a function of the capacity, self-inductance and resistance of an
oscillatory circuit.

1857 – Feddersen verified experimentally the resonant frequency of a

tuned circuit as suggested by Helmholtz in 1847.

4.1. Frequency of Radio Transmission

Almost all networks use radio waves for data transmission, e.g., GSM
at 900, 1800, and 1900 MHz, DECT at 1880 MHz etc. Radio
transmission technologies can be used to set up ad-hoc connections
for work groups, to connect, e.g., a desktop with a printer without a
wire, or to support mobility within a small area.

The two main types of radio transmission are AM (Amplitude

Modulation) and (FM) Frequency Modulation.

FM minimizes noise and provides greater reliability. Both AM and FM

process sounds in patterns that are always varying of electrical
signals.

In an AM transmission the carrier wave has a constant frequency, but

the strength of the wave varies. The FM transmission is just the
 opposite; the wave has constant amplitude but a varying frequency.

Usually the radio transmission is used in the transmission of sounds

and pictures. Such as, voice, music and television.

The images and sounds are converted into electrical signals by a

microphone or video camera. The signals are amplified, and
transmitted. If the carrier is amplified it can be applied to an
antenna.

The antenna converts the electrical signals into electromagnetic

waves and sends them out or they can be received. The antenna
consists commonly of a wire or set of wires.

Advantages of Radio Transmission

Advantages of radio transmission include the long-term
experiences made with radio transmission for wide area
networks (e.g. microwave links) and mobile cellular phones.

Radio transmission can cover larger areas and can penetrate

(thinner) walls, plants, furniture etc.

Additional coverage is gained by reflection.

Radio typically does not need a LOS (Line of Site) if the

frequencies are not too high.

Higher transmission rates (e.g. 54 Mbit/s) than infrared

(directed laser links, which offer data rates well above 100
Mbit/s).

Disadvantages of Radio Transmission

Radio transmission can be interfered with other senders, or
electrical devices can destroy data transmitted via radio.

Bluetooth is simple than infrared.

Radio is only permitted in certain frequency bands.

Shielding is not so simple.

Very limited ranges of license free bands are available

worldwide and those that are available are not the same in all
countries.

A lot harmonization is going on due to market pressure.

4.2. Signals
A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used for
carrying data from one device or network to another.
It is the key component behind virtually all:
Communication
Computing
Networking
Electronic devices

A signal can be either analog or digital.

Typically, a signal is created when a command or data is sent to a
device. It has implementation in electrical and electronic components
as well, but it mainly refers to analog and digital communication
technologies and devices. Each signal carries data in some form. The
data is fed into the signal using analog or digital modulation
techniques, depending upon the source and destination device
and/or medium.
Besides communication devices that broadcast a signal externally to
the host system, signals are also used to communicate and send
instructions by:
Processors
Memory
Storage
Numerous other components

4.3. Antennas
An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency (RF) fields
into alternating current or vice versa. There are both receiving and
transmission antennas for sending or receiving radio transmissions.
Antennas play an important role in the operation of all radio equipment.
They are used in wireless local area networks, mobile telephony and
satellite communication.

Antennas have an arrangement of metallic conductors with an

electrical connection to receivers or transmitters. Current is forced
through these conductors by radio transmitters to create alternating
magnetic fields. These fields induce voltage at the antenna terminals,
which are connected to the receiver input. In the far field, the
oscillating magnetic field is coupled with a similar oscillating electric
field, which defines electromagnetic waves capable of propagating
the signal for long distances.
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that carry signals through air
at the speed of light without any transmission loss. Antennas can be
omni-directional, directional or arbitrary.

4.3. Antennas
Antenna
An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radio-frequency

(RF) fields into alternating current (AC) or vice-versa. There are two

basic types: the receiving antenna, which intercepts RF energy and

delivers AC to electronic equipment, and the transmitting antenna,

which is fed with AC from electronic equipment and generates an RF

field.

In computer and Internet wireless applications, the most common type

of antenna is the dish antenna, used for satellite communications. Dish

antennas are generally practical only at microwave frequencies (above

approximately 3 GHz). The dish consists of a paraboloidal or spherical

reflector with an active element at its focus. When used for receiving,

the dish collects RF from a distant source and focuses it at the active

element. When used for transmitting, the active element radiates RF

that is collimated by the reflector for delivery in a specific direction.

At frequencies below 3 GHz, many different types of antennas are

used. The simplest is a length of wire, connected at one end to a

transmitter or receiver. More often, the radiating/receiving element is

placed at a distance from the transmitter or receiver, and AC is

delivered to or from the antenna by means of an RF transmission line,

also called a feed line or feeder.

5. Signal Propagation
In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are
reflection, scattering, and diffraction. Reflection occurs when
the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose size is much larger
than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.

5.1. Path Loss of Radio Signals

signal propagation path loss of radio signals
The radio signal path loss will determine many elements of the radio communications
system, in particular, the transmitter power, and the antennas, especially their gain,
height, and general location. This is true for whatever frequency is used.

To be able to plan the system, it is necessary to understand the reasons for radio path loss,
and to be able to determine the levels of the signal loss for a given radio path.

The radio path loss can often be determined mathematically and these calculations are
often undertaken when preparing coverage or system design activities. These depend on
the knowledge of the signal propagation properties.

Accordingly, radio path loss calculations are used in many radio and wireless survey tools
for determining signal strength at various locations. These wireless survey tools are being
increasingly used to help determine what radio signal strengths will be, before installing
the equipment. For cellular operators radio coverage surveys are important because the
investment in a macrocell base station is high. Also, wireless survey tools provide a very
valuable service for applications such as installing wireless LAN systems in large offices
and other centers because they enable problems to be solved before installation, enabling
costs to be considerably reduced. Accordingly, there is an increasing importance being
placed onto wireless survey tools and software.

5.2. Additional Signal Propagation

Effect
Additional signal propagation method

Antenna and Wave propagation plays a vital role in wireless

communication networks. An antenna is an electrical conductor or a
system of conductors that radiates/collects (transmits or receives)
electromagnetic energy into/from space. An idealized isotropic
antenna radiates equally in all directions.

Propagation Mechanisms
Wireless transmissions propagate in three modes. They are −

Ground-wave propagation

Sky-wave propagation

Line-of-sight propagation

Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth,

while skywave propagation uses reflection by both earth and
ionosphere.
Line of sight propagation requires the transmitting and receiving
antennas to be within the line of sight of each other. Depending
upon the frequency of the underlying signal, the particular mode of
propagation is followed.

Examples of ground wave and sky wave communication are AM

radio and international broadcasts such as BBC. Above 30 MHz,
neither ground wave nor skywave propagation operates and the
communication is through the line of sight.

Transmission Limitations
In this section, we will discuss the various limitations that affect
electromagnetic wave transmissions. Let us start with attenuation.

Attenuation
The strength of the signal falls with distance over the transmission
medium. The extent of attenuation is a function of distance,
transmission medium, as well as the frequency of the underlying
transmission.

Distortion
Since signals at different frequencies attenuate to different extents,
a signal comprising of components over a range of frequencies gets
distorted, i.e., the shape of the received signal changes.

A standard method of resolving this problem (and recovering the

original shape) is to amplify higher frequencies and thus equalize
attenuation over a band of frequencies.

Dispersion
Dispersion is the phenomenon of spreading of a burst of
electromagnetic energy during propagation. Bursts of data sent in
rapid succession tend to merge due to dispersion.

Noise
The most pervasive form of noise is thermal noise, which is often
modeled using an additive Gaussian model. Thermal noise is due to
thermal agitation of electrons and is uniformly distributed across the
frequency spectrum.

Other forms of noise include −

 · Inter modulation noise (caused by signals produced at frequencies that
are sums or differences of carrier frequencies)

· Crosstalk (interference between two signals)

· Impulse noise (irregular pulses of high energy caused by external

electromagnetic disturbances).

5.3. Multipath Propagation

In an ideal world for wireless communication there would be no object
in-between or around the transmitting and receiving antennas. With
no objects between the antennas, an ideal line of sight can be
achieved with a proper setup. However, in the real world there are
trees, buildings, and even the Earth that make a perfect line of sight
just about impossible. Wireless signals reflect off these objects on
their way from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna,
creating multiple paths for the signal to travel. This phenomenon is
known as multipath Propagation.
The receiving antenna receives the transmitted waves via multiple
signals due to reflecting off of objects; therefore the signal is picked
up multiple times. In the figure below there are two “signals” being
transmitted, one has a direct line of sight and the other is reflected off
an object.
The reflected signal has a longer distance to travel than the direct line
of sight, which could cause the signals to arrive at different phases
and cause deconstructive interference. When this occurs the radio
will see a weaker signal from the receiving antenna or could even
cause the signal to drop out completely.
When your cell phone loses all of its available bars or your car radio
cuts out completely, your issue may be multipath Propagation. Mostly
everyone knows that by moving to a different location the signal will
usually improve. With the idea of multipath Propagation, you are
moving to a spot where the reflected signals off of everyday objects
are coming to a point where the magnitude of the interference
between them is lower. Stay tuned for next week’s #TechTuesday
where we will discuss how multi-polarized antenna designs mitigate
multipath propagation in wireless deployments!
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In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which
are reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid
surface, whose size is much larger than the wavelength of the
signal, e.g., a solid wall.

Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a

corner, whose size is larger than the wavelength of the signal,
e.g., an edge of a wall.

Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of

size smaller than the wavelength of the signal.

One consequence of multipath propagation is that multiple copies

of a signal propagation along multiple different paths, arrive at any
point at different times. So the signal received at a point is not only
affected by the inherent noise, distortion, attenuation,
and dispersion in the channel but also the interaction of
signals propagated along multiple paths.

Delay spread
Suppose we transmit a probing pulse from a location and measure
the received signal at the recipient location as a function of time.
The signal power of the received signal spreads over time due to
multipath propagation.
The delay spread is determined by the density function of the
resulting spread of the delay over time. Average delay
spread and root mean square delay spread are the two
parameters that can be calculated.

Doppler spread
This is a measure of spectral broadening caused by the rate of
change of the mobile radio channel. It is caused by either relative
motion between the mobile and base station or by the movement
of objects in the channel.
When the velocity of the mobile is high, the Doppler spread is high,
and the resulting channel variations are faster than that of the
baseband signal, this is referred to as fast fading. When channel
variations are slower than the baseband signal variations, then the
resulting fading is referred to as slow fading.

6. Multiplexing
Multiplexing (or muxing) is a way of sending multiple signals or
streams of information over a communications link at the same time in
the form of a single, complex signal; the receiver recovers the separate
signals, a process called demultiplexing (or demuxing).

6.1. Space Division Multiplexing

Space Division can be called as the combination of concepts

of Frequency Division Multiplexing and Time Division
Multiplexing.
In SDM, the goal is to pass messages or data parallelly with the
use of specific frequency at certain interval of time.
It means, a particular channel for some amount of time will be
used against a certain frequency band.

Advantages of SDM
High Data transmission rate.
Optimal Use of Time and Frequency bands.

Disadvantages of SDM
Inference Problems.
High inference losses.

For Example : GSM(Global Service For Mobile) Technology.

6.2. Frequency Division Multiplexing

frequency division multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) –

In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and each
source transfers its signals in the allotted frequency range. There is a
suitable frequency gap between the 2 adjacent signals to avoid over-
lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in the allotted time so this
decreases the probability of collision. The frequency spectrum is divided
into several logical channels, in which every user feels that they possess a
particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent simultaneously at the
same time allocating separate frequency bands or channels to each signal.
It is used in radio and TV transmission. Therefore to avoid interference
between two successive channels Guard bands are used.
6.2. Frequency Division Multiplexing
In this a number of signals are transmitted at the same time, and
each source transfers its signals in the allotted frequency range.
There is a suitable frequency gap between the 2 adjacent signals to
avoid over-lapping. Since the signals are transmitted in allotted time
so this decreases the probability of collision. The frequency spectrum
is divided into several logical channels, in which every user feels that
they posses a particular bandwidth. A number of signals are sent
simultaneously on the same time allocating separate frequency band
or channel to each signal. It is used in radio and TV transmission.
Therefore to avoid interference between two successive
channels Guard bands are used.

6.3. Time Division Multiplexing

Time division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing,
where the users are allowed the total available bandwidth on time
sharing basis. Here the time domain is divided into several recurrent
slots of fixed length, and each signal is allotted a time slot on a
round-robin basis.
Concept and Process
In TDM, the data flow of each input stream is divided into units. One
unit may be 1 bit, 1 byte, or a block of few bytes. Each input unit is
allotted an input time slot. One input unit corresponds to one
output unit and is allotted an output time slot. During transmission,
one unit of each of the input streams is allotted one-time slot,
periodically, in a sequence, on a rotational basis. This system is
popularly called round-robin system.
Example
Consider a system having four input streams, A, B, C and D. Each of
the data streams is divided into units which are allocated time slots
in the round – robin manner. Hence, the time slot 1 is allotted to A,
slot 2 is allotted to B, slot 3 is allotted to C, slot 4 is allotted to D, slot
5 is allocated to A again, and this goes on till the data in all the
streams are transmitted.

Uses and Applications

It is widely used in telephone and cellular networks.
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
In STDM, the time slots are dynamically allocated to the slots
according to demand. The multiplexer checks each input stream in
a round – robin manner and allocates a slot to an input line only if
data is present there, otherwise, it skips to the next stream and
checks it.

6.4. Code Division Multiplexing

Code division multiplexing

CDMA uses spread spectrum, a technology that was developed in

World War II to prevent enemies from intercepting and jamming
transmissions. In the spread spectrum, a data signal is sent over a
range of frequencies in an assigned frequency spectrum.

A pseudo-random spreading code is used to multiplex the base

signal. Multiplexing with a spreading code increases the bandwidth
required for the signal, spreading it out over the available spectrum.
The receiving device is aware of the spreading code and uses it to
demultiplex the signal.

CDMA provides a certain amount of built-in security, as the

transmissions of multiple users are mixed together within the
frequency spectrum. The spreading code is required to decode a
specific transmission.

Different variations of CDM and CDMA are used in 2G and

subsequent generations of cellphone technology.
6.4. Code Division Multiplexing
Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a multiplexing technique that
uses spread spectrum communication. In spread spectrum
communications, a narrowband signal is spread over a larger band
of frequency or across multiple channels via division. It does not
constrict bandwidth’s digital signals or frequencies. It is less
susceptible to interference, thus providing better data
communication capability and a more secure private line.
Code Division Multiple Access
When CDM is used to allow multiple signals from multiple users to
share a common communication channel, the technology is called
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). Each group of users is given
a shared code and individual conversations are encoded in a digital
sequence. Data is available on the shared channel, but only those
users associated with a particular code can access the data.
Concept
Each communicating station is assigned a unique code. The codes
stations have the following properties −
If code of one station is multiplied by code of another station,
it yields 0.

If code of one station is multiplied by itself, it yields a positive

number equal to the number of stations.

The communication technique can be explained by the following

example −
Consider that there are four stations w, x, y and z that have been
assigned the codes cw , cx, cy and cz and need to transmit data dw ,
dx, dy and dz respectively. Each station multiplies its code with its
data and the sum of all the terms is transmitted in the
communication channel.
Thus, the data in the communication channel is dw . cw+ dx . cx+ dy .
cy+ dz . cz
Suppose that at the receiving end, station z wants to receive data
sent by station y. In order to retrieve the data, it will multiply the
received data by the code of station y which is dy.
data = (dw . cw+ dx . cx+ dy . cy+ dz . cz ) . cy = dw . cw

Thus, it can be seen that station z has received data from only
station y while neglecting the other codes.
Orthogonal Sequences
The codes assigned to the stations are carefully generated codes
called chip sequences or more popularly orthogonal sequences.
The sequences are comprised of +1 or –1. They hold certain
properties so as to enable communication.
The properties are −
A sequence has m elements, where m is the number of
stations.

If a sequence is multiplied by a number, all elements are

multiplied by that number.

For multiplying two sequences, the corresponding positional

elements are multiplied and summed to give the result.

If a sequence is multiplied by itself, the result is m, i.e. the

number of stations.

If a sequence is multiplied by another sequence, the result is

0.

For adding two sequences, we add the corresponding

positional elements.

Let us ascertain the above properties through an example.

Consider the following chip sequences for the four stations w, x, y
and z −
[+1 -1 -1 +1], [+1 +1 -1 -1], [+1 -1 +1 -1] and [+1 +1 +1 +1]
Each sequence has four elements.

If [+1 -1 -1 +1] is multiplied by 6, we get [+6 -6 -6 +6].

If [+1 -1 -1 +1] is multiplied by itself, i.e. [+1 -1 -1 +1]. [+1 -1

-1 +1], we get +1+1+1+1 = 4, which is equal to the number of
stations.

If [+1 -1 -1 +1] is multiplied by [+1 +1 -1 -1], we get +1-1+1-1

=0

If [+1 -1 -1 +1] is added to [+1 +1 -1 -1], we get [+2 0 -2 0].

The commonly used orthogonal codes are Walsh codes.

7. Modulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one
or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a
modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted

7.1. Amplitude Shift Keying

Amplitude Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying ASKASK is a type of Amplitude
Modulation which represents the binary data in the form of
variations in the amplitude of a signal.

Any modulated signal has a high-frequency carrier. The binary

signal when ASK modulated gives a zero value for Low input while
it gives the carrier output for High input.

The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along

with its input.

To find the process of obtaining this ASK modulated wave, let us

learn about the working of the ASK modulator.

ASK Modulator
The ASK modulator block diagram comprises of the carrier signal
generator, the binary sequence from the message signal and the
band-limited filter. Following is the block diagram of the ASK
Modulator.
The carrier generator sends a continuous high-frequency carrier.
The binary sequence from the message signal makes the unipolar
input to be either High or Low. The high signal closes the switch,
allowing a carrier wave. Hence, the output will be the carrier signal
at high input. When there is low input, the switch opens, allowing no
voltage to appear. Hence, the output will be low.

The band-limiting filter shapes the pulse depending upon the

amplitude and phase characteristics of the band-limiting filter or the
pulse-shaping filter.

7.2. Frequency Shift Keying

frequency shift keying

Frequency Shift Keying FSKFSK is the digital modulation

technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal varies
according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of
frequency modulation.

The output of an FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for

binary High input and is low in frequency for binary Low input. The
binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.

The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK

modulated waveform along with its input.
To find the process of obtaining this FSK modulated wave, let us
know about the working of an FSK modulator.

FSK Modulator
The FSK modulator block diagram comprises of two oscillators with
a clock and the input binary sequence. Following is its block
diagram.
The two oscillators, producing higher and lower frequency signals,
are connected to a switch along with an internal clock. To avoid the
abrupt phase discontinuities of the output waveform during the
transmission of the message, a clock is applied to both the
oscillators, internally. The binary input sequence is applied to the
transmitter so as to choose the frequencies according to the binary
input.

FSK Demodulator
There are different methods for demodulating an FSK wave. The
main methods of FSK detection are asynchronous
detector and synchronous detector. The synchronous detector is
a coherent one, while the asynchronous detector is a non-coherent
one.

Asynchronous FSK Detector

The block diagram of the Asynchronous FSK detector consists of
two bandpass filters, two envelope detectors, and a decision circuit.
The following is the diagrammatic representation.

The FSK signal is passed through the two Band Pass

Filters BPFsBPFs, tuned to Space and Mark frequencies. The
output from these two BPFs looks like the ASK signal, which is
given to the envelope detector. The signal in each envelope
detector is modulated asynchronously.

The decision circuit chooses which output is more likely and selects
it from any one of the envelope detectors. It also re-shapes the
waveform to a rectangular one.

Synchronous FSK Detector

The block diagram of Synchronous FSK detector consists of two
mixers with local oscillator circuits, two bandpass filters, and a
decision circuit. The following is the diagrammatic representation.

The FSK signal input is given to the two mixers with local oscillator
circuits. These two are connected to two bandpass filters. These
combinations act as demodulators and the decision circuit chooses
which output is more likely and selects it from any one of the
detectors. The two signals have a minimum frequency separation.

For both of the demodulators, the bandwidth of each of them

depends on their bit rate. This synchronous demodulator is a bit
complex than asynchronous type demodulators.

7.3. Phase Shift Keying

phase shift keying

Phase Shift Keying PSK is the digital modulation technique in

which the phase of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine
and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used
for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with
RFID and Bluetooth communications.

PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets
shifted. They are −

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK

This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In
this technique, the sine wave carrier takes two-phase reversals
such as 0° and 180°.

BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed

Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, for a message being the digital
information.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK

This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave
carrier takes four-phase reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.

If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by

eight or sixteen values also, depending upon the requirement.

BPSK Modulator
The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the
balance modulator which has the carrier sine wave as one input and
the binary sequence as the other input. The following is the
diagrammatic representation.

The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator, which

multiplies the two signals applied at the input. For a zero binary
input, the phase will be 0° and for a high input, the phase reversal
is 180°.

Following is the diagrammatic representation of BPSK Modulated

output wave along with its given input.

The output sine wave of the modulator will be the direct input carrier
or the inverted 180°phaseshifted input carrier, which is a function of
the data signal.

BPSK Demodulator
The block diagram of BPSK demodulator consists of a mixer with
local oscillator circuit, a bandpass filter, a two-input detector circuit.
The diagram is as follows.
By recovering the band-limited message signal, with the help of the
mixer circuit and the bandpass filter, the first stage of demodulation
gets completed. The baseband signal which is band-limited is
obtained and this signal is used to regenerate the binary message
bitstream.

In the next stage of demodulation, the bit clock rate is needed at the
detector circuit to produce the original binary message signal. If the
bit rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency, then the bit clock
regeneration is simplified. To make the circuit easily
understandable, a decision-making circuit may also be inserted at
the 2nd stage of detection.

7.4. Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

Advanced frequency shift keying
A famous scheme used in many wireless systems is minimum shift
keying (MSK).MSK is basically BFSK without abrupt phase changes
i.e it belongs to CPM schemes. In this data, bits are first separated
into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit being doubled. This
scheme also uses two frequencies:f1- lower frequency and f2--
higher frequency, the higher frequency is twice that of higher
frequency,f2= 2 f1.

According to this scheme, the lower or higher frequency is chosen

to generate the MSK signal:

1. If the even and the odd bit are both 0, then higher frequencies f2
is inverted. (i.e f2 is used with a phase shift of 180 deg).

2. If the even bit is 1 , the odd bit is 0 then the lower frequency f1 is
inverted. This is the case, eg, in the fifth to seventh columns.

3. If the even bit is 0 and the odd bit is 1, f1 is taken without

changing the phase.

4. If both bits are 1 then original f2 is taken.

A high frequency is always chosen if even and odd bits are equal.
The signal is inverted if the odd bit equals 0. This scheme avoids all
phase shift in the resulting MSK signal.

7.5. Advanced Phase Shift Keying

The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it
is also a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
DSBSC

modulation scheme, which sends two bits of digital information at a

time, called as bigits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital
stream, it converts them into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit
rate to half, which allows space for the other users.

QPSK Modulator
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local
oscillator, a 2-bit serial to parallel converter, and a summer circuit.
Following is the block diagram for the same.

At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e.,

2nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.) and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit,
etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the
same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK
(called as PSKQ). The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90°
before being modulated.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows
the modulated result for different instances of binary inputs.
QPSK Demodulator
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits
with local oscillator, two band pass filters, two integrator circuits,
and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter. Following is the diagram for
the same.

The two product detectors at the input of demodulator

simultaneously demodulate the two BPSK signals. The pair of bits
are recovered here from the original data. These signals after
processing, are passed to the parallel to serial converter.

7.6. Multicarrier Modulation

multicarrier modulation
Multicarrier modulation, MCM is a technique for transmitting data by sending the data
over multiple carriers that are normally close-spaced.

Multicarrier modulation has several advantages including resilience to interference,

resilience to narrowband fading and multipath effects.

As a result, multicarrier modulation techniques are widely used for data transmission as it
is able to provide an effective signal waveform which is spectrally efficient and resilient
to the real-world environment.

One form of multicarrier modulation is OFDM

Multicarrier modulation basics

Multicarrier modulation operates by dividing the data stream to be transmitted into a
number of lower data rate data streams. Each of the lower data rate streams is then used
to modulate an individual carrier.

When the overall transmission is received, the receiver has to then re-assembles the
overall data stream from those received on the individual carriers.

It is possible to use a variety of different techniques for multicarrier transmissions. Each

form of MCM has its own advantages and can be sued in different applications.

Development of MCM
The history of multicarrier modulation can be said to have been started by military users.
The first MCM were military HF radio links in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Here
several channels were sued to overcome the effects of fading.

Originally the concept of MCM required the use of several channels that were separated
from each other by the use of steep-sided filters of they were close-spaced. In this way,
interference from the different channels could be eliminated.

However, multicarrier modulation systems first became widely used with the introduction
of broadcasting systems such as DAB digital radio and DVB, Digital Video Broadcasting
which used OFDM, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing. OFDM used processing
power within the receiver and orthogonality between the carriers to ensure no interference
was present.

Later OFDM was used for systems such as wireless / cellular telecommunications and
networking standards including WiMAX, Wi-Fi 802.11, and also LTE, the Long Term
Evolution for cellular systems.

Also other cellular systems have used multicarrier techniques to achieve high data rates
by using two or more carriers from a standard cellular system. Dual Carrier HSPA is one
example.
With new networking and cellular systems on the horizon, other multicarrier techniques
have been investigated and their use seems likely in the near future.

8. Spread Spectrum
In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are
methods by which a signal generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately
spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth

8.1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

direct sequence spread spectrum

Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique,

each and every bit of the user data is multiplied by a secret code,
called a chipping code. This chipping code is nothing but the
spreading code which is multiplied with the original message and
transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original
message.

8.1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

DSSS, direct sequence spread spectrum is a form of spread spectrum
transmission which uses spreading codes to spread the signal out over a wider
bandwidth then would normally be required.
The technique behind direct sequence spread spectrum, DSSS is at first sight
counter-intuitive, but DSSS is used in a number of areas where it enables
considerable benefits to be gained.

Direct sequence spread spectrum

basics
Direct sequence spread spectrum is a form of transmission that looks very
similar to white noise over the bandwidth of the transmission. However once
received and processed with the correct descrambling codes, it is possible to
extract the required data.
When transmitting a DSSS spread spectrum signal, the required data signal is
multiplied with what is known as a spreading or chip code data stream. The
resulting data stream has a higher data rate than the data itself. Often the data
is multiplied using the XOR (exclusive OR) function.
Each bit in the spreading sequence is called a chip, and this is much shorter
than each information bit. The spreading sequence or chip sequence has the
same data rate as the final output from the spreading multiplier. The rate is
called the chip rate, and this is often measured in terms of a number of M chips
/ sec.
The baseband data stream is then modulated onto a carrier and in this way the
overall the overall signal is spread over a much wider bandwidth than if the data
had been simply modulated onto the carrier. This is because, signals with high
data rates occupy wider signal bandwidths than those with low data rates.
To decode the signal and receive the original data, the CDMA signal is first
demodulated from the carrier to reconstitute the high speed data stream. This
is multiplied with the spreading code to regenerate the original data. When this
is done, then only the data with that was generated with the same spreading
code is regenerated, all the other data that is generated from different
spreading code streams is ignored.
The use of direct sequence spread spectrum is a powerful principle and has
many advantages.

DSSS direct sequence spread

spectrum encode / decode process
In order to visualise how the direct sequence spread spectrum process
operates, the easiest method is to show an example of how the system actually
operates in terms of data bits, and how the data is recovered from the DSSS,
direct sequence spread spectrum signal.
The first part of the process is to generate the DSSS signal. Take as an example
that the data to be transmitted is 1001, and the chip or spreading code is 0010.
For each data bit, the complete spreading code is used to multiple the data, and
in this way, for each data bits, the spread or expanded signal consists of four
bits.
1 0 0 1 Data to be transmitted
0010 0010 0010 0010 Chip or spreading code
1101 0010 0010 1101 Resultant spread data output

With the signal obtained and transmitted, it needs to be decoded within the
remote receiver:
1101 0010 0010 1101 Incoming CDMA signal
0010 0010 0010 0010 Chip or spreading code
1111 0000 0000 1111 Result of de-spreading
1 0 0 1 Integrated output

NB: 1 x 1 = 0 1 x 0 = 1
In this way it can be seen that the original data is recovered exactly by using
the same spreading or chip code. Had another code been used to regenerate
the CDMA spread spectrum signal, then it would have resulted in a random
sequence after de-spreading. This would have appeared as noise in the system.
The spreading code used in this example was only four bits long. This enabled
the process to be visualised more easily. Commonly spreading codes may be 64
bits, or even 128 bits long to provide the required performance.

DSSS spreading gain

The bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal will be much wider than the
original data stream. To quantify the increase in bandwidth, a term known as
the spreading gain is used. If the bandwidth of the DSSS, direct sequence
spread spectrum signal is W and the input data bit length or period 1/R then
the DSSS spreading gain can be defined:

It is found that the larger the spreading gain of the direct sequence spread
spectrum signal, the more effective the performance of the system is. This is
because the wanted signal becomes larger. In the example shown above, the
spreading gain is four, as seen by the fact that four "1"s are generated for each
required data bit. Data produced by other dispreading codes would appear as
noise and can be discarded as it would be lower in value.

Direct sequence spread spectrum

applications
DSSS is used in a number of areas where its properties have enabled it to
provide some unique advantages over other techniques.
Covert communications: DSSS was first used to provide secure and covert
communications. The signals were initially difficult to detect as they sounded
like broadband noise and often would have been mistaken for that. Also to
access the data it is necessary to know the code used to generate the signal

CDMA cellphone technology: The DSSS technique was used to provide a

multiple access scheme that was used for 3G cellophane technology. Each
mobile used a different access code or spreading code and this enabled
multiple users to access the base station on the same frequency.

8.2. Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum
frequency hopping spread spectrum

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of

transmitting radio signals by shifting carriers across numerous
channels with a pseudorandom sequence that is already known to
the sender and receiver.

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum is defined in the 2.4 GHz band

and operates in around 79 frequencies ranging from 2.402 GHz to
2.480 GHz. Every frequency is GFSK modulated with a channel
width of 1MHz and rates defined as 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps respectively.

8.2. Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum
Frequency hopping spread spectrum is a robust technology with only
very little influence from reflections, noise and other environmental
factors. The active system numbers in same geographical areas is
higher than an equivalent number for direct sequence spread spectrum
systems. Thus it is suited well for installations designed to cover large
areas where numerous co-located systems are needed. They are also
used in cellular deployments for fixed broadband wireless access
where direct sequence spread spectrum cannot be used. A variation of
frequency hopping spread spectrum is adaptive frequency hopping
spread spectrum that improves resistance to radio frequency
interference by avoiding crowded frequency in hopping sequence.

Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of

transmitting radio signals by shifting carriers across numerous
channels with pseudorandom sequence which is already known to the
sender and receiver.

Frequency hopping spread spectrum is defined in the 2.4 GHz band

and operates in around 79 frequencies ranging from 2.402 GHz to
2.480 GHz. Every frequency is GFSK modulated with channel width of
1MHz and rates defined as 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps respectively.

8.3. Cellular Systems

Cellular Systems
.

Mobile network providers install several thousands of base stations each with a
smaller cell instead of using powerful transmitters with large cells because, when the
cell size is small we can have the following advantages:

1. Higher capacity

Smaller the size of the cell more the number of concurrent users i.e. huge cells do not
allow for more concurrent users.

2. Less transmission power

Huge cells require a greater transmission power than small cells.

3. Local interference only

For huge cells there are a number of interfering signals, while for small cells there is
limited interference only.

4. Robustness

As cellular systems are decentralized, they are more robust against the failure of
single components.