1 1

COLD WATER SUPPLY

The water pipe feeding into homes comes from a supply
pipe in the road, at a point just outside your property. There
is usually a water authority valve at this point, and it is here
that your responsibility for the water and pipework begins.
The pipe travels below ground at a minimum depth of 750
mm to ensure that it is protected from damage and that the
water will not freeze if the temperature drops below
freezing point (0°C). The pipe then passes into a pipe duct
through the foundations and ground floor into your home,
terminating with a stopcock (tap). See Figure 1.1.
In newer buildings a water meter will be incorporated
within this supply pipe. This may be contained within a
chamber outside, keeping the meter below ground level, or
within the building itself, thereby allowing easier access for
reading and maintenance. There may also be a stopcock
situated under the ground at the boundary to your property,
in addition to the one inside.
The pipe in the road from which this drinking water supply
is taken is usually referred to as th
e ‘mains’.

THE WATER SUPPLY PIPE

Figure 1.1 The cold water supply into a home

drain-off cock

Cold supply inside the dwelling

Once you have identified the incoming supply, it may be
distributed to:
CC direct cold water supply

CC indirect cold water supply

CC modified cold water supply.

 a) DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY

Figure 1.3 A direct cold water supply system

If you have this system, all your cold water outlet points are
fed directly from the mains supply. These include all
appliances such as the sink, bath, basin and WC, plus any
other outlets to washing machines, dishwashers, or outside
taps used for watering the garden (see Figure 1.3). The cold
supply may also feed a hot water system such as an
unvented domestic hot water supply or combination boiler
(see Chapter 2).

b) INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY

In this system the only appliance fed directly from the
mains supply is the kitchen sink, plus a water softener if one
is incorporated within the property. Instead of feeding
directly to the other appliances, the supply feeds a water
storage cistern, usually found within the roof space (loft).
All other outlet points in the building are then fed from this
storage cistern (Figure 1.4).

c) ` MODIFIED COLD WATER SUPPLY

This type of system is a combination of both the direct and
indirect supply systems. In other words, there may be
several outlets from the mains supply and several fed via a
storage cistern.
Figure 1.4 An indirect cold water supply system
guaranteed availability of drinking water, more and more
systems rely on direct mains supply pipework. Also, with
the direct system supplying both cold and hot supplies, there
is no need to have a cistern in the roof space or to
extensively insulate the pipework and cistern from freezing
up in the winter.
It is important to note that, where all outlets are supplied via
the mains supply, the supply pipe must be of a sufficient
size (minimum 22 mm), otherwise, as mentioned earlier,
some outlets will be starved of water when several outlets
are open at the same time.

WHAT OUTLETS ARE FED DIRECTLY FROM THE

SUPPLY MAIN?
Finding out which outlets are fed directly from the cold
mains supply pipe in your home is a simple process. First,
turn off the incoming stopcock (as explained above) and
then go around to all outlet points (taps) on the system to
see which do not have any water flow available when the
tap is turned on. Likewise, to find out if the toilet cistern is
fed from the mains supply, flush the toilet to see if it refills.

DRINKING WATER (POTABLE WATER)

It may surprise you to learn that, if designed and installed
correctly, all outlet points in modern systems, both hot and
cold, should be supplied with water fit for human
consumption, even where they are supplied via a cistern in
the roof space. When we look at the installation of the
pipework and appliances, you will learn that the water must
be protected from contamination at all costs. For example,
Figure 1.5 shows that a filter has been incorporated within
the overflow and that the cistern itself has a tight-fitting lid
with all connections designed to prevent anything getting in
and contaminating it, such as insects. Water that has been
stored in a cistern is therefore also regarded as safe to drink,
and you must ensure, under all circumstances, that it
remains this way.
The storage cistern
Figures 1.3 and 1.4 show a cistern that contains a large
volume of water for the purpose of supplying hot or cold
water pipework not fed directly from the mains. Buildings
in which
overflow to discharge at a
sleeved ventconspicuous position outside

dhw = domestic hot water

Figure 1.5 A cold water feed and storage cistern

everything is fed directly from the cold mains water supply

do not have a storage cistern.
The water level inside the cistern is regulated by the use of a
float-operated valve, designed to close off the water supply
when the desired water level is reached. Should this valve
fail to operate, the water will continue to rise until the
overflow pipe is reached, at which point it will overflow,
warning the occupants of the building that something is
wrong.
The condition of the storage cistern needs to be inspected
occasionally to check that it is sound and protected. Ideally,
once a year, remember to check:
CC the filters in the overflow and lid, to ensure that they are
not blocked, for example with flies
CC the operation of the float-operated valve, to ensure that it
is closing properly.

THE FLOAT-OPERATED VALVE (BALLVALVE)

The float-operated valve found within the storage cistern is
generally of the same type as that found within a toilet
cistern, although many of the newer toilet cistern float-
operated valves are of a different design. The float-operated
valve is often simply called a ballvalve, taking its name
from the large ball attached to the lever arm, which floats on
the surface of the water. As the water inside the cistern rises
and falls, so does the float.
These valves work on the principle of leverage, in that, as
the water rises, the long arm lifts and forces a washer up
against the water supply inlet. Figure 1.6 shows the two
main designs of float-operated valve, the diaphragm valve
and the Portsmouth valve. The older type, the Portsmouth,
can no longer be installed as it contravenes current water
supply regulations. There are two main reasons for this:
1 Its inlet will be submerged at times when the valve is
overflowing. If you look closely at the two valve
designs, you will notice that the Portsmouth valve lets
water into the cistern from below the valve body,
whereas the diaphragm valve lets water into the cistern
 from above the valve body. The advantage of
discharging at the higher position is that it alleviates the
problem of the valve outlet becoming submerged when
the water level has risen in the cistern due to a faulty
valve, which can lead to it overflowing. When the outlet
is submerged in this way, it is possible that, under
certain conditions where a negative force is acting within
the mains supply pipe, water could by sucked back into
the supply, causing water contamination.
2 With the Portsmouth valve, in order to adjust the water
level in the cistern you must bend the lever arm as
necessary. The modern valve has an adjusting screw to
make the appropriate adjustment to the water level in the
cistern.
If you need to replace the float-operated valve for any
reason, it is essential to replace it with the modern
diaphragm type. Repair work on these valves is discussed
in Chapter 2.

HEAD PRESSURE AND FLOW

Finally, we also need to consider the water pressure and
volume of water flow that can be expected from the pipe
supplying the water to the storage cistern.
Pressure is the force of the water. Water pressure can be
created by:
CC a pump
CC a storage cistern positioned high above the water outlets.
Figure 1.6 Float-operated valves (ballvalves)

Flow is the volume or amount of water passing through a

pipe. Water flow is dependent on the pipe size. A pipe 22
mm in diameter will clearly allow a greater flow of water
than one of 5 mm in diameter and consequently will fill up a
container, such as a bath, much more quickly.
The cold water supply feeding your home will be supplied
typically via a pump located at the water treatment works.
This creates a pressure within your supply pipe of up to
around 3 bar (300 kN/m2). However, when water has been
stored in a cistern in your home, possibly located in the loft
or roof space, its pressure is no longer influenced by the
cold water mains supply but is now dependent on the
position of the cistern relative to the taps. The pressure is
considerably lower than that in the water mains supply pipe.
For example, where a shower takes its water from a storage
cistern, there might be only a 2-metre head of water, in
which case the water pressure will be so low that taking a
shower is not practicable. The term ‘head’ refers to the
position of the free water level in the system above the point
where it is being drawn off. In the following example, the
water in the cistern is 2 metres above the shower.
There is a simple calculation that can be completed to find
out the pressure created by an elevated cistern. This is: the
head of water in metres × 10
So, where the head is only 2 metres, the pressure will be:
2 × 10 = 20 kN/m2
This is about one-fifth of a bar in pressure (100 kN/m 2 = 1
bar), and therefore far less than that expected from the
mains supply pipe.

The toilet-flushing cistern

FLUSHING CISTERN OPERATED BY SIPHONIC
ACTION
Siphonic action occurs where water is removed from a
container, without mechanical aid, up and over a tube in the
form of an upside-down letter J. The long leg joins to the
flush pipe and the short leg is open to the water inside the
cistern. If the air is removed from the tube, a partial vacuum
is created. This action, in the case of the flushing cistern, is
triggered by the large diaphragm washer being lifted, which
discharges a quantity of water over the top of the J-shaped
siphon bend. As the water drops down through the flush
pipe to the outlet, it takes with it some of the air contained
within it, thus creating a partial vacuum. With the partial
vacuum formed, gravity acts upon the surface of the water,
pushing down and forcing the water up into the J-shaped
siphon tube. As it reaches the top of the upturned bend it
simply drops down to the outlet to be discharged into the
pan, via the flush pipe. This action continues until the air
can get back into the tube to break the vacuum and restore
normal pressure. Water will continue to discharge until the
water level has dropped inside the cistern to that of the base
of the siphon. The initial action of lifting the diaphragm
washer is instigated by the operation of the lever arm on the
side of the cistern. See Figure 1.7.

VALVE-TYPE FLUSHING CISTERN

Several designs of valved flushing cistern have been
developed within the past few years. The one shown in
Figure 1.8 works by allowing for a dual flush. A dual flush
offers:
CC a reduced flush for the purpose of removing urine from
the toilet pan
CC a full 6-litre flush where there are solids to be removed.
Two buttons are housed within the cistern lid, one button
with a shorter rod attached to it than the other. When the
larger button, with the longer rod, is pressed, it lifts the
valve sufficiently to engage into a latch and is held up by a
small float. Water now flows from the cistern and the latch
only releases as the water level drops, taking the float with
it. When the smaller button is pressed, the smaller rod does
not lift the valve sufficiently to engage with the latch, so the
valve is only raised for a short period while the button is
held down. A linking cable operates a lever to lift the valve
from its seating initially.
Note that a separate overflow pipe is not run from valved
flushing cisterns because, if the water level rose due to the
water inlet failing to close, it would overflow down through
a central core within the valve, from the cistern and into the
toilet pan.

Hard and soft water

Water is generally classified as being either hard or soft.
This classification relates to the impurities that the water
contains and is indicated as a measure of the number of
hydrogen ions (acidic) or hydroxyl ions (alkaline) present in
a sample of
2

1
3

8
4

5 float which holds valve up

2 push-button control to provide full 6-litre flush

3 cable to operate valve 6 flush pipe

4 float-operated valve 7 flushing valve
8 central overflow
1 lid
Figure 1.8 Flushing cistern operated by flushing valve
water. This is known as the ‘potential of hydrogen’ value
(pH value):
pH value of water
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 soft (acidic)
(alkaline) hard
neutral

Hard water contains calcium carbonate and/or calcium and

magnesium sulfate – which basically means limestone in
one form or another – whereas soft water does not. This
limestone has dissolved in the water because water is a
natural solvent. The hardness of water can be further
classified as:
CC permanently hard (contains dissolved rock such as
calcium or magnesium sulfate)
CC temporarily hard (contains dissolved rock such as
calcium carbonate).
The limestone in permanently hard water cannot be
removed without water-softening treatment. Temporary
hardness, however, occurs where the rainwater has fallen
onto calcium carbonate. This is a different form of
limestone and will only dissolve if the water also contains
carbon dioxide, acquired as the water fell as rain. Boiling
the water can remove the temporary hardness because the
carbon dioxide escapes from the water, but boiling will
have no effect on permanently hard water.
Soft water, on the other hand, does not contain any
dissolved limestone. It is more acidic or aggressive as a
solvent, and will soon destroy metals, in particular any
lead used in a plumbing system. Soft water feels different
from hard water and is more pleasant to wash in; it is also
much easier to obtain a lather when using soap in soft
water, and it takes longer to rinse the soap away. Hard
water is also distinguishable by the scum that forms on the
surface of the water and around sanitary appliances, and by
the limescale that forms around taps and in the toilet bowl.

Water softeners and water

conditioners
WATER SOFTENERS
A water softener is a device designed to remove all the
calcium and magnesium ions from the water. Basically, the
water is passed through a bed of a special chemical called
zeolite, or through very small plastic beads covered with
sodium ions, and as a result, the calcium and magnesium are
given up. However, the zeolite bed eventually becomes
exhausted to the point where it stops softening the water. It
is then time to regenerate the bed material with sodium ions.
This is achieved by passing a salt solution (sodium chloride)
through the softener to displace all the calcium and
magnesium and recharge it with sodium ions. The
regeneration process flushes out all the unwanted products
into a drain. The process of regeneration is completed
automatically, timed to take place during the early hours of
the morning; during this period no softening takes place and
hard water will be supplied if a tap is turned on. A water
softener is the only device that removes the calcium and
magnesium from the water (see Figure 8.2).

WATER CONDITIONERS
A water conditioner is not a water softener but a device that
reconditions the small dissolved particles of limestone,
referred to as calcium salts, held in suspension in the water
so that they do not readily stick together to form noticeable
limescale. If you viewed untreated hard water under a
microscope, the calcium salts would appear star-shaped,
with jagged edges. It is in this form that they stick together.
The water conditioner aims to take off these jagged edges so
that they cannot easily bind together, and instead they
simply flow through the system (Figure 1.11). There are
two basic types of water conditioner. First there are
chemical water conditioners, which use crystals that
dissolve in water and bind to the star-shaped salts, sticking
in the crevices and jagged edges and having the effect of
rounding off the sharp points. The other type of water
conditioner passes a small electric current of a few
milliamps across the flow of water. This current alters the
shape of the calcium salts, changing them to a smoother and
more rounded shape. This current is often produced by a
magnet, although other methods can be used.

calcium salts of untreated water

cold to services

bind together toform noticeablelimestone cold feedto hot

watersupply

chemical rising main water

magnetic

conditioner water (base unscrews conditioner

to replace
chemicals when necessary)

calcium saltsafter treatmentwith electric current calcium salts

aftertreatment withchemicals
Figure 1.11 Water conditioners

The above-ground drainage

system
The first thing water does as it goes down the plughole is to
pass around a series of bends that form a small trap of
water. There are different types of trap (Figure 1.12). You
can see the trap by looking into your toilet pan or beneath
the kitchen sink. Why is the trap there? It is not there to
catch your wedding ring should it come off your finger –
although it could prove useful in such a circumstance. Its
purpose is to provide a pocket of water between the outside
air and the foul air of the drain and sewer. This air is not
only foul-smelling but may also contain methane gas, which
could prove hazardous. Another purpose of the trap is to
prevent any vermin that may be in the drain from entering
the building. This trap is the start of the house waste-water
system.

Gravity causes the water to flow from the trap along pipes
that run down to adjoin the vertical discharge stack, referred
to as the soil and vent pipe, and from here all the various
waste pipes converge to take the fluid to the drainage
system below ground. Obviously, the pipe must always be
laid to fall in the direction of the water flow and the pipe
must never, under any circumstances, be run uphill as water
simply will not drain from the pipe.
 depth of
water seal
‘p’ trap

running trap bottle trap ‘s’ trap

Figure 1.12 Types of trap

basin
32 mm
bidet
32 mm

bath
40 mm

shower 50 mm parallel junction

40 mm to avoid crossflow
sink washing machine
40 mm and dishwasher
40 mm

WC typically 450 mm long radius bend

100 mm min

Figure 1.13 A typical primary ventilated stack (single-stack)

system

The system illustrated in Figure 1.13 is generally referred

to as the single-stack system, although it is also given the
fancy title of ‘primary ventilated stack system’. This
system has been installed in homes now for more than 60
years.
Since many houses are much more than 60 years old, there
are systems in existence, such as that shown in Figure
1.14, that have a separate waste-water discharge stack and
foul-water stack. It is not until the pipes reach the ground-
level drain that they join together. When major
refurbishment to these antiquated systems is undertaken,
the plumber will update the system and install a single-
stack system.
Plastic pipework is used for modern systems. This will be
either of a type that can simply be pushed together or of a
type where the joints are made using special solvent weld
cement, which bonds the pipe to the fitting. The pipe
diameters are shown in Figure 1.13. The lengths of the pipes
from the mains stack should not exceed the distances listed
in Table 1.1, otherwise you may experience problems with
self-siphonage, explained below. It

objectionable
smells
soil stack
hopper head

waste stack

trapped gully

inspection chamber

Figure 1.14 The older system of separate waste stack and soil
stack

should also be noted that the flow of water passing

horizontally to the vertical stack has been run to a minimal
fall usually not exceeding a drop of between 18 mm and 90
mm per metre run of pipe. Exceeding this gradient could
also create self-siphonage problems and can increase the
problems of leaving any solid contents behind as the water
rushes rapidly down the pipe.
Pipe size (mm) Maximum length (m)
32 1.7
40 3.0
50 4.0
100 6.0

Table 1.1 Maximum lengths for discharge pipes

WATER SIPHONAGE FROM THE TRAP

Water being siphoned from a trap is recognized by a
gurgling sound coming from the appliance as air tries to
enter the waste system in order to maintain the equilibrium
of air pressure from inside the pipe to that of the
surrounding atmosphere. Figure 1.15 shows the two types of
siphonage:
CC Self-siphonage is caused as the water flows through the
pipe, forming a plug of water, causing a vacuum to be
formed, sucking with it the water from the trap.
atmospheric
negative pressure (–) pressure
+
plug of water

hydraulic
jump
negative self-siphonage
pressure (–)
plug of water

induced siphonage

Figure 1.15 Water siphonage from the trap

CC Induced siphonage occurs when no water has been

discharged. It is caused by the installer joining two waste
pipes together so that, as the water of one appliance flows
past the branch connection of the other, the air is drawn
from the pipe.
Where continued problems are encountered with siphonage,
it is possible to fit alternative types of device (Figure 1.16):
CC a resealing trap, which incorporates a non-return valve
CC a special trapless (self-sealing) waste valve (sold under
the manufacturer’s trade name of HepvO®), which
contains a special synthetic seal (instead of the traditional
water seal) that closes in the absence of water to seal off
the pipe.

valve lifts should there be a

(–)

the valve

negative pressure within the pipe

synthetic seal opens as water flows

through

self-sealing resealing
waste valve bottle trap
Figure 1.16 Alternative trap designs
ACCESS POINTS
All good drainage systems should have a means of access
for internal inspection of the pipe, which is particularly
useful when there is a blockage. Sometimes a large access
point is positioned to the end of a small vertical section of
100 mm diameter discharge pipe, used as an alternative to
the air admittance valve for an additional ground-floor toilet
within the property. This method is acceptable provided that
the pipe lengths are not excessive and, in all cases, no
further than 6 m from a ventilated drain, otherwise
additional pressure fluctuation problems will be created
within this section of pipe (Figure 1.18).
As with the air admittance valve, this access point must be
installed above the spill-over level of the appliance. If it is
not and there is a blockage to deal with, when it is opened
the foul water will discharge all over the floor.

PUMPED SANITATION AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

For many years now, there has been the opportunity to
locate a drainage point for the purpose of removing water
from basins, shower units and even from WC pan
connections, from more
access point

100 mm
discharge
stack

6.0 m maximum
to ventilated
drain

Figure 1.18 An access point

or less anywhere within a typical house. These systems use

what is called a macerator pump. This is basically a small
holding tank, with the additional facility to macerate (chop
up) any solid matter within, which, when full of water,
operates a pump to lift the water contents up or along a
small pipe (typically no bigger than 22 mm) to discharge
into a drainage stack (Figure 1.19).
The manufacturer’s data sheets should be sought for the
various designs but typically the water could be elevated
vertically by 4 metres, and horizontally the water could be
discharged up to 50 metres.
If one of these units is installed, it is a requirement that the
property also has a conventional gravity system of drainage
from a WC, otherwise, if the power to the building is off
due to a power cut, you would be without a toilet.

THE WATER CLOSET (WC)

The term water closet technically refers to the room in
which a toilet pan is found. But when talking of the WC,
one is generally referring to the complete package of toilet
cistern and attached pan.

unswitched fused
electrical supply

22 mm
discharge
pipe
any vertical
rise must
precede a
horizontal run
drain valve
drain valve
300 mm macerator
maximum
waste connection
from bath or basin

Figure 1.19 A pumped sanitation system

The WC suite has undergone several design changes over
the past few years. Today, the Water Regulations limit the
volume of water flushed down a newly installed toilet pan
to a maximum of 6 litres, yet not many years ago this
volume was 9 litres. Most toilets installed these days are
of the wash-down type, which basically means that they
rely on the discharging water flow to remove the contents
from the pan (Figure 1.20).
Occasionally, siphonic WC pans will be found. These were
installed quite extensively during the 1970s but are
becoming quite rare these days as people update their
homes. The siphonic pan, however, had one advantage over
the wash-down pan in that it had the additional siphonic
action to assist the removal of the pan’s contents. It
basically worked by lowering the air pressure from the
pocket of air trapped between the two traps. This was
achieved by allowing the flushing water to pass over a
pressure-reducing fitting, which created a negative pressure
and sucked out the air between the two traps of water. With
the partial vacuum created, the water and its contents in the
supply pipe overflow
ballfloat

cistern

siphon

pressure-
flush pipe reducing
fitting

wash-down pan double-trap close-coupled

siphonic WC suite
Figure 1.20 WC installations
upper bowl of the pan were sucked out by siphonic action.
The high cost of their manufacture is possibly the reason for
their disappearance.

The below-ground drainage

system
Once the foul and waste water has reached ground level, it
is conveyed to the house drain, which removes it from the
property to meet up with the public sewer; or the water
may be collected in a septic tank or cesspit.

THE SEPTIC TANK

This is a private sewage disposal system used in some rural
areas (Figure 1.21). Basically, all the foul and waste water
is collected within a large double-compartment chamber,
traditionally made of brickwork or concrete, although
nowadays generally made from plastic. From here the water
overflows through an irrigation trench to filter slowly into
the ground away from the property.
These systems rely on a scum forming on top of the liquid,
which in so doing allows anaerobic bacteria to decompose
most of the solids. Because not all the solids are broken
down,
Figure 1.21 A septic tank

it is necessary to have the vessel emptied annually to

remove the accumulation of the excess sludge that will not
decompose. Failure to do so may lead to a blockage in the
system.

THE CESSPOOL (CESSPIT)

This is simply a watertight container that is used to collect
and store waste and foul water from the property (see Figure
1.22). Cesspools are used where no mains drainage has been
connected to the property and there is insufficient provision
for a septic tank. The tank will need to be emptied, ideally
before it is full, by a contractor, for proper disposal.

SURFACE WATER
In addition to the water that flows into the drains from the
various sanitary appliances in the home, water is also
collected
 100 m vent

fresh air inlet

3m
min.
inspection
cover
ground level

inlet

Figure 1.22 Cesspool design

from the gutters, rainwater pipes and large paved areas; this
is generally referred to as surface water. If the drain is
serviced by a septic tank or cesspool, it will require an
additional, separately run drain for the purpose of collecting
the surface water because, if this water is allowed to flow
into these holding tanks, it will cause them to fill too
rapidly. In these cases, the surface water might be collected
and run into a drainage ditch, river or soakaway.
The soakaway is simply a large hole filled with rubble, into
which the drainpipe runs. The water collects here and
gradually drains into the surrounding ground (Figure 1.23).
CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
If the foul-water drain is connected to a public sewer, the
surface water may be collected within the same pipe and
they run off from the property together. This is referred to
as a combined system of drainage. Whether a combined
system of drainage is used will depend very much upon the
local authority that treats all the water. As a consequence,
some areas have separate systems of drainage, in which the
surface water is run into its own specific pipe.
large broken impervious membrane
hardcore to prevent soil dropping or clinker
from above

surface-
water drain

water draining
into ground

Figure 1.23 Soakaway design

When making any new connection to a drainage system,

it is essential to confirm the type of drainage system you
have. Failure to do so could result in contamination of
the local watercourse if you inadvertently discharge foul
water into a surface-water drain.
In addition to the systems identified in Figure 1.24, there is
a slight variation that can be found where an occasional
surfacewater connection is a long way from the surface-
water drain, or there is some difficulty in getting past the
drainage pipe of a foul-water drain. In such a situation it is
possible that this one-off connection can be discharged into
the foul-water drain. If this is done, the system is referred to
as partially separate; however, it must be understood that no
cross-connection can be made the other way around, i.e. the
foul water must never be allowed to connect to the surface-
water drain.
Where a separate system of drainage is employed, the
connections of the pipes to the surface-water drain do not
have to include a trap. However, all connections made to the
foulwater drain, be it surface water or waste water, must be
trapped.
RWP – rain water pipe
SVP – soil and vent pipe
FWG – foul-water gully

foul- and surface-water sew

boundary

FWG SVP RWP

FWG
RWP

a) combined system

inspection chambers

FWG SVP RWP to public sewer,

septic tank or
cesspool

FWG
RWP

RWP

to public
drain,
 drainage
ditch or
soakaway
b) separate system
Figure 1.24 Connections to public drainage systems

If you look carefully at Figure 1.24, you will see foul-water

gullies (fwg). These are traps at ground level, 100 mm in
diameter, i.e. the same size as the house drain, into which
smaller pipes have been run. Prior to the 1970s these traps
were left open, with a small brick course around the
opening and a grate above the water level; nowadays the
pipes entering these gullies are discharged below the ground
surface into a side inlet pipe, and an access cover is secured
at ground level (Figure 1.25).
GUTTERS AND RAINWATER PIPES
This is the last part of the plumbing system – the ‘outside
plumbing’ – and the only part that, if it were to leak, would
make little difference. The guttering consists of a simple
channel at the base of a roof to catch the run-off of water.
From here the water runs to the outlet and falls down the
rainwater pipe to the surface drainage system below (Figure
1.26). Forty years ago metal was used to make this last part
of the plumbing system but, like so many things today,
plastic has long since replaced these older traditional
materials.

The equipotential earth bond

Look at your gas meter or incoming water supply, and you
may see a green-and-yellow wire connected to the pipe.
This is called a protective equipotential earth bond
connection.
Wherever a water, a gas or an oil pipeline comes into or
passes out from a building, there is the potential for stray
electrical currents, resulting from faulty electrical
equipment, to pass through as they flow down to earth. This
can be dangerous for anyone touching the metal pipework
itself. To ensure that these stray currents can flow safely to
earth via a specifically designed electrical route, an
equipotential bonding wire of 10 mm2 minimum size is
attached to the pipe at the point of entry/exit of the building
and this in turn is connected to the main earth terminal at
the consumer unit (Figure 1.27).

soil pipe taking foul

and waste water from
the first floor

ground level

long radius bend

manhole cover kitchen

sink
waste
pipes

manhole trapped gully

Figure 1.25 Connection of the above-ground drainage into the

below-ground drainage system
Figure 1.26 Gutters and rainwater pipes

Figure 1.27 Equipotential bonding to all services entering the

building

In addition to the bonding wires making a connection to the

incoming services, there should be additional
supplementary equipotential bonding wires linking together
all the metalwork within wet areas, such as the bathroom.
This will ensure that everything within that zone is at the
same electrical potential, which is designed to prevent users
receiving an electric shock.
On a point of safety, you should never disconnect these
bonding wires without making sure that it is safe to do so.
This may require the services of a qualified electrician for
advice. See more about bonding in Chapter 6.
The hot water supply
The design of your hot water supply will depend on the
location and age of your building. There are many
variations in system design (Figure 2.4). The most common
of these are:
CC a gas or electric single-point water heater found above
the sink or basin
CC a gas multipoint water heater that serves all the hot water
outlets
CC a boiler used to store hot water within a cylinder; this
system may also serve the central heating
CC a combination boiler to provide both central heating and
hot water instantaneously
CC a thermal storage system (by far the least common).
These systems are classified as being either:
CC storage (vented or unvented)
CC instantaneous (combination boiler, multipoint, single-
point or thermal storage).

Hot water supply

Instantaneous Storage

Single Multi Combination Thermal Vented Unvented

point point point storage

direct indirect direct indirect

Figure 2.4 Types of domestic hot water system

3
4
Hot water storage systems
Domestic hot water is stored in an enclosed vessel, which is
most likely to be a cylinder, suitably insulated to keep the
heated water warm. This vessel is found typically in an
airing cupboard. The water is heated either directly or
indirectly.
The installation of modern domestic hot water systems is
controlled by legislation, which is particularly rigorous
with regard to energy efficiency. If you want a new gas or
oil boiler to use with a hot water cylinder, you cannot just
install any old appliance. It must conform to the standards
laid down in the Building Regulations, which are
administered by the local authority. Consequently, when a
boiler or cylinder is replaced, the local authority may wish
to be notified in order to ensure that it complies with
current standards.
Storage cylinders have developed and become more
efficient over the years. Older cylinders:
CC required a cylinder jacket to be tied around them in order
to keep as much heat as possible from being lost to the
surrounding space. They were usually installed in a
cupboard, which stayed warm and dry and thus provided
an ideal storage area for airing clothes. However, in this
modern age of energy efficiency, they have been
identified as using fuel inefficiently
CC had 1½–2 turns in the internal pipe coil that made up the
heat exchanger. This led to a very slow heat transference
rate and increased the time taken to heat the water in the
cylinder as it passed from the primary heating circuit.
Modern cylinders:
CC are foam-lagged at the manufacturing stage
CC have at least 5–6 turns in the heat exchanger, increasing
heat transference times.
It is also possible to purchase high-performance cylinders
that have a bank of many coils passing through the
cylinder, allowing for even faster heat-up times (Figure
2.5).
If you have an old style of boiler, it may be worth
considering replacing it with a new one next time it needs
any repair or maintenance work. This will reduce the time it
takes to warm up the water and will in turn save money and
provide better fuel efficiency.
a b

Figure 2.5 (a) A normal cylinder heat exchanger coil; (b) a high-
performance cylinder heat exchanger coil

WATER TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the hot water is set by the installer and
should be adjusted to meet the needs of the end user. The
temperature within a stored hot water cylinder should be
adjusted to no higher than 60°C at the top of the cylinder. If
it is set higher than this, the water may scald the user and
limescale deposits may also form in hard-water areas.
Equally, the water should not be stored at a temperature
much below this as the growth of Legionella bacteria may
occur.

PREVENTING LEGIONELLA
Legionella – the bacterium that causes legionnaires’
disease – is rarely a problem in domestic homes. The
bacteria are killed off above 60°C and will not survive
long at this temperature. However, they can survive within
the temperature range of 20–45°C. Legionella can be
dangerous to humans and is transmitted when water is in a
misty or vapour form, so areas around boosted shower
outlet sprays could be vulnerable if the water is maintained
at too low a temperature. The best alternative, where
cooler water temperatures are required, is to store the
water at 60°C and then use a blending/mixing valve, which
mixes the hot water with a quantity of cold water to reduce
the temperature to the desired level.

Direct systems of hot water

supply
As the name suggests, direct systems include those in which
the water is heated directly, such as by an immersion heater
or by a boiler located some distance from the hot water
storage cylinder. The heated water is transferred to the
cylinder by gravity circulation (see Figure 2.6) via two
pipes referred to as the primary flow and primary return.
Where the water is heated in a boiler, it is invariably quite
hot and limescale build-up will occur inside the primary
pipework in hard-water areas. Most direct systems are now
quite antiquated and only the oldest houses will still have
such a system. The immersion heater, however, is still quite
commonplace and makes an ideal backup when
incorporated within the cylinder of an indirect system of hot
water supply.

THE IMMERSION HEATER

This is effectively a large heating element, like those found
inside a kettle (Figure 2.7). When the immersion heater is
switched on, the element heats up and remains on until the
thermostat senses that the water temperature has reached its
desired level or until the power is switched off. As
mentioned earlier, the water should be stored no higher than
60°C; this level is set by adjusting the dial on the head of
the thermostat. Where the immersion heater is fitted within
an unvented hot water cylinder, it will also require a high-
limit cut-out thermostat set to operate (cut out) at 90°C. All
new and replacement immersion heaters will include, as
standard, this independent non-self-resetting over-
temperature safety cut-out device to prevent the water in the
cylinder from overheating.
 storage cistern vented system shown in which the
water is heated via either a boiler or
an electric immersion heater
switched
fused outlet

20 amp
heatproof
flex

wash
bath basin

drain-off
cock immersion
heater
element
boiler
sink

drain-off cock

drain-off cock

Figure 2.6 A direct system of hot water supply

 terminals

top view

3 kW heater element domestic hot water storage cylinder

drain-off cock

Figure 2.7 An immersion heater

Key idea
The immersion heater is generally found in a hot water cylinder as a
backup to the boiler – as a means of heating water to be drawn off at
the taps.

GRAVITY CIRCULATION
The hot water from the boiler (see Figure 2.8) is transferred
to the cylinder by natural gravity circulation. That is, hot
water rises up the primary flow and is displaced by the
column of descending cooler water within the primary
return. This system is found in a large number of older
properties, but it is slow: the water in the cylinder can take
up to two hours to heat up. Modern systems use a
circulating pump to push this water around the circuit
rapidly, allowing heat-up times of around 30 minutes or
sometimes even less (see Chapter 3 for examples of fully
pumped central heating systems).

Indirect systems of hot water

supply
If you have a hot water cylinder in your home, there is a
good chance that it is part of an indirect system. With this
type of system there are no problems with hard water
scaling up the pipes, and central heating water can also be
taken from the water heated within the boiler.
Indirect systems of hot water supply have a heat-exchanger
coil inside the hot water cylinder. This is, in effect, a pipe
run in a series of loops inside the cylinder of water. Hot
water from a boiler passes through this pipe and the hot
water flowing through the pipe coil in turn heats up the
water in the cylinder. Thus the water is heated directly
within the boiler, as in the direct system – referred to as the
primary hot water – and indirectly via the pipe coil within
the cylinder – referred to as the secondary hot water or
domestic hot water (dhw).
Indirect systems may be either vented or unvented. Vented
systems are those in which the cold water is taken from a
cold water feed cistern, usually found in the roof space;
unvented systems are fed with cold water directly from the
cold supply
Figure 2.8 An indirect system of hot water supply

mains pipe. As can be seen in the vented system in Figure

2.8, there are two separate cisterns within the roof space or
loft. One is the cold water feed cistern, designed to supply
water to the cylinder, and the other is a feed and expansion
(f & e) cistern. (Figure 2.10 shows examples of unvented
systems.)

VENTED SYSTEMS
In a vented system the f & e cistern ensures that the water in
the boiler and heating system, where applicable, does not
mix with the water used for the domestic hot water. There
are two specific reasons for this separation, which are:
CC to combat the problem of limescale build-up
CC to reduce the amount of atmospheric corrosion.
In domestic hot water pipework, water is constantly passing
through the system and this constant flow of oxygenated
water contains a quantity of dissolved limescale. However,
Figure 2.8 shows that the water entering the boiler and
heating system via the f & e cistern – which is heated to far
above 60°C – is never emptied unless it is drained out for
maintenance purposes. Limescale build-up is eliminated
because, once the water has been heated, no more limescale
will be generated.
Also, after a short period of heating the water and moving it
around the system with a circulating pump, all the air will
have been expelled from the system. It is this air, in
particular the oxygen in it, that causes the corrosion of iron,
from which the boiler and radiators are invariably made, so
losing this air prevents them from rusting. (Corrosion is
looked at in more depth in Chapter 6.)

CCThe water level within the f & e cistern

The water level within the f & e cistern is adjusted low
down inside this cistern, just above the outlet. As the water
within the system heats up, it expands, rises back up the
cold-feed pipe and is taken up into this cistern. If, during
the installation of these cisterns, the water level is adjusted
too high, the water, when heated, will expand and rise to a
point where it will drip from the overflow pipe. Upon
cooling, more water will reenter the cistern via the float-
operated valve and the process of overflowing will be
repeated continually. This will result in fresh oxygenated
and calcium-laden (limescale-forming) water continually
being added to the system.
CCThe open vent
You may be wondering why a pipe with an open end
terminates above the water level within the cistern. Why is
the vent pipe needed? First, it allows air in and out of the
system during filling or draining down. You will notice that
in Figure 2.8 the water enters low down in the cylinder, near
the bottom, and the hot water is drawn off from the top. If
there were no vent pipe, there would be a very large air
pocket above the water, which would prevent the water
from filling the system. Also, when draining out the water
from the system, the vent pipe allows air to enter, which
makes it easier to remove the water.
The second purpose of the vent pipe is as a safety measure,
ensuring that the system always remains at a pressure
compatible with that of the atmosphere and allowing any
pressure generated within the system to escape. A build-up
of pressure could result from the cold feed to the system
being blocked, as might happen if it freezes in winter or if
debris accumulates inside the base of the storage vessel.

CCHot water distribution

If you look again at the example of stored hot water supply
(see Figure 2.8), you will notice that the hot water is drawn
off from the top of the cylinder. The reason for designing
the pipework in this way and taking the water from the top
of the cylinder is that this is where the hottest water is
found, because hot water naturally rises to the highest point.
The cold water flows in at the base of the cylinder and
pushes the hot water out when a tap is opened. If the cold
water were supplied at the top of the cylinder, it would mix
with the hot water and cool it down.
Some cylinders are designed with the cold pipe connected at
the top, which would appear to contradict this argument but,
in fact, if you could see inside the cylinder, you would
notice that the pipe extends inside the vessel right down to
the base. (Figure 2.16 shows an example of this ‘dipped
cold feed’, as it is called.)
CCWater expansion
When water is heated, it expands by approximately 4 per
cent from cold to 100°C. (Above 100°C, at atmospheric
pressure, it changes to steam and its volume immediately
expands 1,600 times.) For safety reasons, the expansion of
the water must be allowed for in the design of the storage
cistern.
If you have an open-vented system, it will be under the
influence of atmospheric pressure and as the water slowly
heats up it will expand and be pushed back up through the
coldfeed pipe into the cold-feed cistern that supplies the
system. As mentioned above, if the cold feed becomes
blocked, the expanding water will be forced to travel up the
open vent pipe and discharge into the cistern, thereby
preventing a pressure build-up within the system.
Imagine the possible danger if both the cold feed and the
vent pipe became frozen up and blocked. If the water were
to heat up and expand, this expansion could not be
accommodated and, as a result, the cylinder might split at
the seams or even explode, hence the need to ensure that
pipework is suitably insulated.

CCSingle-feed system of indirect hot water supply

This type of hot water supply system is no longer installed
today, but many such systems were installed during the
1960s. This system uses a special indirect cylinder, which
can fill the domestic hot water system as well as the boiler
circuit with water, the latter of which also serves a limited
number of radiators (Figure 2.9). The design of this system
falls outside the scope of this book, but it is mentioned here
because, as there is no separate f & e cistern in the roof
space, without this information you might think, when
faced with such a system, that it is a direct hot water
system. The primary water and secondary domestic hot
water are separated by a trapped air pocket within the
specially designed hot water heat exchanger.
The clue to knowing if you have this system in your home is
to look on the side of the cylinder for the ‘Primatic’ brand
name. Also, the single cold water storage cistern found in a
loft with this system will serve several steel panel radiators,
which it will not do if a direct system of domestic hot water
is being used.

stop
valve

‘primatic’ cylinder
stop
valve

cold feed heat exchanger with air

pocket separating the
central heating water from
wash the domestic hot water
bath basin
primary
flow

pipework
to central
heating
sink

boiler
primary
return
drain-off cock
Figure 2.9 A single-feed system of indirect hot water supply

UNVENTED SYSTEMS
Many homes built today incorporate an unvented system of
hot water supply. It has the advantage of:
CC having a stored supply of potable hot water
CC maintaining a good flow rate to the various outlet points
CC being at water supply mains pressure
CC freeing up roof space, which aids the design of modern
roof structures.
This type of system has only been permitted since 1985 and,
as a result, is generally only found in newer developments
or houses that have been refurbished. It is essential to note
that the minimum size of the supply pipe to these systems is
22 mm – if it is any smaller, you will not get the flow rate
expected compared to that of a vented system with its larger
pipe sizes. New homes are constructed with this larger
mains supply pipe, thereby generally posing no problems;
existing properties, however, may only have a 15 mm inlet
cold water mains supply, which will be inadequate to serve
all the hot and cold outlets within the property.
The installation of these systems falls within the
requirements of the Building Regulations, as administered
by the local authority, so the installation and maintenance of
the systems must be undertaken only by approved
operatives. This means that the installer will have taken and
passed an assessment course aimed specifically at the
design and safety of these systems.
Looking at the two systems shown in Figure 2.10, you will
see that there are several controls in addition to those found
on the more traditional systems (Figures 2.6 and 2.8). Two
systems have been illustrated because one design uses a
sealed expansion vessel to take up the expanding water,
whereas the other uses an air pocket, located inside the
cylinder with a floating baffle.
The following notes provide a brief outline of the controls
found on an unvented system, purely for interest and
identification but, as stated above, remember that these
systems must be installed and serviced only by qualified
personnel. Should you have such a system and require
work to be done on these controls, remember to ask the
operatives to show you an approval certificate or card,
otherwise your house insurance may not be valid should
something go wrong, as these systems can explode if not
looked after properly.

CCComponents of the unvented system

Unvented systems of hot water supply have the following
components, illustrated in Figures 2.11, 2.12 and 2.13.
CC Strainer

This is designed to ensure that no grit or dirt within the

pipeline can travel along the pipe and cause a control
installed further downstream to become ineffective.
 a) system using a sealed expansion vessel
(showing the water heated within a boiler)

b) system incorporating an air pocket

(showing the water heated by an immersion heater)
Figure 2.10 Unvented systems of domestic hot water supply
CC Pressure-reducing valve

This is a special control that prevents excess mains

pressures from entering the hot water storage vessel. The
hot water storage vessels themselves are quite robust but
will not withstand the highest water pressures sometimes
experienced within the mains supply. This control usually
restricts the pressure to a maximum of 3 bar. In order to
ensure equal pressures in both hot and cold supplies, such as
when mixer taps are incorporated, the cold water is
sometimes branched off after this control valve, (see Figure
2.10). Alternatively, a second pressure-reducing valve will
be required on the cold-supply pipework.
CC Check valve

This valve is basically a non-return valve that has been

incorporated to prevent the heated water expanding back
along the pipework. (It is a Water Regulations requirement
that no water is allowed to flow in a direction opposite to
that intended.)

spring
spring

gauze

strainer pressure-reducing check valve

valve

Figure 2.11 The components of an unvented system

CC Sealed expansion vessel

This unit is designed to take up the expanding water into a

large rubber bag contained within an airtight vessel. As
water is heated it expands and flows into the bag. This
causes the air surrounding the bag to become pressurized;
when the water cools, the air pressure forces the water back
out into the system. Some systems do not use a sealed
expansion vessel but take up the expanding water within an
air pocket inside the top of the cylinder.
point to check
and charge up rubber bag
 the

pressure containing
the expanding water

air compressed due to bag filling up with expanded

water

As the water cools, the air

pressure forces the water out (system heated
of the bag back into the system.
therefore bag
shown full)
Figure 2.12 A sealed expansion vessel

CC High-temperature cut-out thermostat

This is basically a second thermostat in addition to the

normal thermostat. This control will turn off the supply
when the temperature within the system rises to 90°C.
Should this control be activated, you will need to reset the
device manually.
CC Pressure-relief valve

This is a special control valve designed to open, allowing

water to discharge from the system into a drain, should the
pressure rise to such a point that damage to the storage
vessel might result.
CC Temperature-relief valve

This is another special control valve that is designed to open

if the high-temperature cut-out device fails to work. It
allows the water to discharge from the system safely into a
drain if the temperature rises to around 95°C, at which point
it would become dangerous. With the high pressures that
might be generated within the system due to heating water,
the boiling point is increased and, if the temperature were to
get any hotter than this, uncontrollable steam could
discharge from this control rather than controllable water.
Sometimes the pressure-relief and temperature-relief valves
are incorporated within the same control valve. In both
cases any water discharging from them is conveyed to the
drain via an air gap and a funnelled tundish (a container
with holes in the bottom). The air gap is maintained to
ensure that the drain pipework cannot make contact with
the potable hot water supply pipework.

Figure 2.13 Pressure- and temperature-relief valves

Instantaneous systems
of hot water supply
The storage systems discussed above work well, and a good
flow rate of water from the taps can be expected from a
correctly sized system. However, in the case of unvented
systems for homes with many occupants or older properties
with a small inlet supply pipe – which might be just 15 mm
in diameter – an instantaneous system may be the only
choice where a connection to the cold mains supply pipe is
made. This has very much been the traditional system of
domestic hot water supply.
Older properties without heating systems often have an
instantaneous system of hot water supply. They may have a
centrally installed multipoint water heater or several
singlepoint water heaters found at the appliances where the
water is required (see Figure 2.14). These heaters may be
electrically operated or gas fuelled.
Many homes have upgraded from the multipoint system by
installing a combination boiler (often called a combi boiler
for short) to supply hot water and central heating. These
units heat water as it is required, rather than storing it at
high temperatures, and also provide hot water for heating
purposes.
The biggest drawback with the instantaneous water heater is
the fact that the water can be heated at only a limited rate
and, as a result, the flow rate from the outlet tap is
invariably slower than that expected from a storage system.
The layout of the pipework to the various appliances is,
however, the same (see Figure 2.15).
water heater

cold tap

cold
supply
Figure 2.14 Localized single-point instantaneous hot water
heater at the point of use
wash
bath basin
combination boiler
or multipoint

sink
additional central
heating flow and
return if a
combination
boiler is used
drain-off cock
cold mains supply

Figure 2.15 A centralized system of instantaneous domestic hot

water using a combination boiler or multipoint

Thermal storage systems

These hot water supply systems were introduced in about
1985 as an alternative to the unvented storage system,
having a supply of hot water at mains pressure without all
the necessary safety controls required for an unvented
system. They are, in effect, a system of instantaneous hot
water supply, taking their water directly from the mains.
The difference between this and the unvented system is that
this does not store hot water for domestic draw-off
purposes. Unvented systems are classified as such because
they contain a stored volume of water in excess of 15 litres.
Figure 2.16 shows the storage cylinder full of hot water, but
this water is not used to supply the taps, unlike all the other
storage systems previously described; it is used only to
supply the heating circuit and warm the radiators.
In the hot water cylinder there is a pipe coil heat exchanger
with many loops. If a hot water tap is turned on, water will
flow directly from the water mains through this coil, which
causes the water to heat up rapidly, taking its heat from the
cylinder full of hot water. This water then passes through a
blending/mixing valve which allows a percentage of cold
water to mix with it if necessary, thereby cooling it to the
desired temperature, as it may have become too hot when
passing through the cylinder heat exchanger.
This system is by far the least common, but it is found in
some homes. As with all systems that take their supply

Figure 2.16 Thermal storage system of domestic hot water

supply
directly from the mains, it is essential that a sufficiently
large water mains supply pipe is available to prevent water
flow problems. A similar system, which is essentially a
variation on this design, has the hot storage cylinder
contained within the boiler case as one big unit, referred to
as a combined primary storage unit (CPSU).

HOT DISTRIBUTION PIPEWORK

Whether the centralized domestic hot water system is of the
storage or instantaneous type, the water must flow around
the building in pipes of appropriate size, reducing down in
size to the smaller pipes that serve the various outlet points.
A pipe of minimum diameter 22 mm needs to be used to
supply a bath. As with the cold water pipework, a drain-off
cock is located at the lowest point of the hot water pipework
in order to facilitate draining down if necessary.

Choosing a new hot water

supply
What is better, a combination boiler or a regular boiler with
a storage cylinder? This is a question you will ask yourself
when considering a new hot water supply. Each system has
its own merits, and when designing a system you should
weigh up the pros and cons in order to choose what is best
for you. Some of the merits and pitfalls of each system are
discussed below.

COMBINATION (COMBI) BOILER

A combination boiler heats up water for domestic use,
providing hot water for the taps and for the central heating
system. The installation of combination boilers currently
makes up 60 per cent of market sales and therefore deserves
the first consideration. However, it will not always be the
best choice. It has the following advantages:
CC It is easily installed and is the cheaper option.
CC It only heats the water as and when it is required.
CC It does not require a storage cylinder or cistern in the
roof space.
CC It uses water fresh from the mains for the hot supply to
the taps.
CC The water will be at a good pressure for showers.
CC It provides water for central heating.
These are all good points, but this system also has
disadvantages that are often overlooked. These include:
CC a poor flow rate from the taps where the pipe size to the
house is inadequate
CC no boiler operation for the central heating when it is
being used to heat the hot water
CC no backup supply of hot water if either the power or the
water supply is turned off.
Let’s look more closely at these disadvantages. First, if the
pipe entering your property is only 15 mm in diameter, you
just might be expecting too much from the pipe. Homes
today often have dishwashers, washing machines, outside
taps, numerous toilets and bathrooms. You cannot possibly
expect this one pipe to feed all of these outlet points at once.
It is unlikely that they would all be in operation at the same
time, but several may well be, and therefore something will
be starved of water and the flow rate will drop dramatically.
For two people living together this size may just be
adequate, but where there are more people living in the
same home, this system is unsuitable unless you are
prepared to put up with the problems of poor flow, bearing
in mind that the boiler may not even operate if the flow rate
drops below a certain level, as many require a minimum
flow of water passing through the boiler.
Second, a combination boiler is a priority system, which
means that, when it is providing the hot water to the hot taps
and other outlets, it does not supply the heating system. In
other words, the boiler gives priority to the domestic hot
water when in operation; it does not do both heating and hot
water at the same time. So, for example, in a home with,
say, six people, every time the bath or shower is being run,
or the washing machine requires hot water, or any hot tap is
opened, the heating will not be on. As a result, you may find
the radiators getting cooler on occasion.
Finally, the flow rate of water from the taps is less than that
of a storage system. Systems fed from a storage cylinder
seem to gush water through the taps when compared with
the instantaneous systems, which need a little time to heat
the water as it flows through the heater. Some combination
boilers with very high heat outputs have combated this
problem to a certain degree, but it must be understood that
the bigger the boiler output, the bigger the gas supply pipe
needs to be, if this is the fuel used to feed the boiler.
Bearing this in mind, is the gas supply pipe feeding your
house sufficiently large? Some of the larger combination
boilers require a gas pipe of 28–32 mm in diameter.

REGULAR BOILER AND HOT WATER STORAGE

CYLINDER
The advantages of having a stored vented domestic hot
water supply are generally the opposite of the problems of
the combi boiler. These advantages include the following:
CC The water flow out of the taps will be good (this is not to
be confused with pressure, as previously described).
CC The central heating is independent of the hot water (i.e.
this is not a priority system).
CC The kilowatt rating or output size of the boiler does not
need to be as high.
CC There will still be a limited backup supply of hot water if
the water mains supply is turned off.
The points above relate to a vented storage system. If an
unvented system is installed, a large supply from the mains
is still required to combat poor flow conditions (minimum
25 mm polyethylene pipe). The disadvantages of the storage
system are the opposite of the advantages of the
combination boiler:
CC More pipework is required for installation, therefore it is
more expensive to install.
CC Additional space is required for the storage cylinder and
the cold water cistern.
So, in conclusion, if there are only two or three people
living in the property, the minimum pipe diameter is 22 mm
and the occupants are prepared to wait a minute or two
longer to run their bath, then a combination boiler might be
a suitable system. Money will be saved on installation and
on running costs.

Types of central heating system

There is a variety of different methods of domestic central
heating, including:
CC electric storage heaters
CC warm-air heating
CC underfloor heating (radiant heating)
CC water-filled radiators (see Figure 3.1).
Water-filled radiators are by far the most common system
and therefore will be the main focus of this chapter. Of the
others:
CC electric storage heaters use cheap-rate electricity at night
to warm up heat-retaining blocks, designed to release
their heat slowly throughout the day
CC warm-air heating consists of a network of ducting to
distribute preheated warm air around the home
CC underfloor heating uses either heated electric cables or
waterfilled pipe coils to warm up the structure of a
building.
Underfloor heating is often installed in new buildings
instead of the more traditional radiator system. Underfloor
heating, often referred to as radiant heating, merits a review
of its design in order to understand how it works effectively,
compared with water-filled radiator systems.
Central heating

these
systems
dry systems wet systems may be
vented or
unvented
(sealed)

electric warm air radiators radiant

heating
(under
floor)
electric storage small micro
boiler heaters bore bore

Figure 3.1 Types of central heating system

Radiant heating
Radiant heating uses infrared heat rays that do not warm up
the air through which they pass but the structure upon
which they fall. In other words, radiant heating does not
directly increase the temperature of the air in a room;
instead, it warms up the structure of the building.
When a person enters a room, their body tries to become the
same temperature as the surrounding structure and, as a
consequence, if the building is cooler than you are, your
body loses infrared heat as it tries to even out the
temperature difference. If, however, the structure of the
building is warm, no heat will be lost from your body in this
way. As a consequence, the ambient temperature of the
room can in fact be cooler than your body and the building
as the air temperature does not unduly affect your body
temperature.
The advantages of having a radiant heating system include:
CC cooler room temperatures, which create a sense of
freshness
CC less transference of dust and airborne bacteria caused by
the effects of convection currents
CC very low water temperatures resulting in greater
efficiency from the boiler – typically around 90 per cent
(efficiency is explained later in this chapter).

Figure 3.2 A radiant (underfloor) heating system

Traditionally, UK homeowners put on their heating for only
a few hours in the morning and a few hours in the evening.
This limited amount of time is rarely sufficient to warm the
whole building and, as a result, higher flow temperatures
are used to warm the structure. This creates a certain
amount of discomfort underfoot due to the elevated water
temperature in the underfloor pipes, and also reduces the
efficiency of the boiler. For a radiant system to work really
well, long periods of low-temperature water heating are
required.
The other major disadvantage of this system is the problems
created if the pipe coil leaks. Fortunately, leaks are quite
rare, but it can prove very costly to find the leak and make
the repair.

Central heating using radiators

Unlike underfloor heating, traditional water-filled radiators
warm up the air surrounding the large metal surface of the
radiator. It is this warming of the air that creates convection
currents within the room. Convection currents are the flow
of warm air around the room, caused by the hot air rising as
it expands and becomes lighter, and the cooler, heavier air
falling to replace the void – the cycle continuing until the
room is warm.
The pipe layout of this sort of central heating system can
be of several designs, although around 95 per cent of all
domestic heating systems using radiators use what is
called the two-pipe system – i.e. there are just two pipes
leaving the boiler. These two pipes, the flow and the
return as they are called, travel around the house to the
various radiators. At each radiator a tee connection is
made to a pipe that branches off to feed a valve, usually
found at one end of the radiator. The two pipes terminate
at the final radiator.

For the past 50 years or so, central heating systems have

used a circulating pump to circulate the water around them.
Very rarely, in older properties, gravity circulation systems
can still be found (see Chapter 2). Sometimes these systems
use solid fuel (wood or coal) and – unlike gas- or oil-
burning appliances – since you cannot simply switch off the
flame, a radiator or two is incorporated as a heat leak from
the boiler, allowing heat to escape naturally from the boiler
by gravity circulation. However, these systems are now
quite antiquated and ought generally to be replaced.
Other central heating designs, such as the one-pipe circuit or
the ‘reversed return’ system, can also be found but, due to
their rarity in the domestic home, they fall outside the scope
of this book and have been omitted to avoid confusion. See
Appendix 3: Taking it further, for further reading on these
systems.
The water to the system shown in Figure 3.3 is supplied via
a feed and expansion (f & e) cistern found in the roof space
(see Chapter 2). This type of design is referred to as a
vented system. However, if the water has been fed directly
from the cold supply mains via a special filling point, the
system is referred to as a sealed heating system and is not
under the influence of atmospheric pressure.
Note also that the boiler is used to heat up the domestic hot
water. In the system shown, a circulating pump is only used
to force the water around the heating circuit. The water in
the hot water cylinder circulates due to the effects of gravity
(i.e. convection currents, where the lighter hot water rises
and heavier cold water sinks, as discussed in Chapter 2).
This design does not comply with current Building
Regulations but may, nevertheless, be the system you have.
Modern systems use a circulating pump for both the heating
and hot water to provide a more efficient system (a fully
pumped system), as shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.8.
The installation of a modern central heating system fuelled
by either gas or oil must comply with the latest Building
Regulations. Systems that were installed prior to the current
laws do not need to be updated but, if you replace your
boiler at some time in the future, you will need to upgrade
your system as appropriate.

System shown with gravity primaries. This

is no longer acceptable for new gas and oil
installations.
Figure 3.3 The two-pipe system of central heating
SEALED HEATING SYSTEMS (CLOSED SYSTEMS)
A sealed heating system is one that, once it has been filled
up – usually via a temporary cold mains connection – has
the temporary hose connection removed and the system is
closed off. The water is now trapped within the system and
so it is not under the influence of atmospheric pressure (see
Figure 3.4).
Combination boilers are installed as sealed systems. They
are designed with a temporary mains water filling
connection (Figure 3.5) to the central heating water and a
permanent cold water mains supply for the domestic hot
water draw-off. The temporary filling connection is
disconnected from the water supply because:
CC it is a Water Regulations requirement

CCHow are sealed systems different from vented

or open systems?
The water in a sealed system is trapped within a closed
circuit and is therefore not subject to the influences of
atmospheric pressure. The expansion of the water, due to it
being heated, is accommodated within a sealed expansion
vessel. This expanding water creates additional pressures
within the system and causes it to rise in excess of 1 bar
pressure. In fact, these systems are invariably slightly
pressurized, as a manufacturer’s requirement is to fill to a
typical pressure of 1.5 bar. As the pressure increases within
the system so does the temperature at which the water boils.
This could be dangerous if excessive pressures develop, so
safety controls need to be included at the time of
installation.
These safety controls are:
CC a temperature cut-off device, designed to shut down the
appliance if the temperature exceeds 90°C
CC a pressure-relief valve (safety valve), which can open to
relieve the pressure from within the system if it becomes
too great.
Figure 3.4 A sealed heating system

Figure 3.5 A temporary filling hose

THE SEALED EXPANSION VESSEL
In the case of vented systems of central heating, the water
expansion resulting from the heating process is
accommodated within the f & e cistern. Sealed systems,
however, do not have this cistern open to the atmosphere,
so the expanding water is taken up within a sealed
expansion vessel, a special steel container often found
within the boiler casing itself.
The vessel contains a rubber diaphragm that separates it into
two compartments. One side is filled with air to a pressure
equal to that of the water in the system when it is cold; on
the other side the system allows water to flow in and out as
necessary. As the water heats up it expands and enters the
vessel, pressing against the diaphragm and squeezing the air
on the other side of the diaphragm into a smaller space, thus
causing the pressure to increase. When the system cools, the
increased air pressure forces the water back out into the
system (see Figure 3.6). This expansion vessel is of a
different design from that used for a system of unvented
domestic hot water, where a rubber bag is used to contain
the expanding water (see Figure 2.12).

FULLY PUMPED SYSTEMS AND THE LOCATION OF

THE PUMP
In a fully pumped system the circulating pump creates
pressure within the pipework. It creates a positive, or
pushing, force as the water is thrown forward from the
pump and a negative, or sucking, force as it is drawn back
into the pump when it returns from its journey around the
system.
air pressure test point increased pressure
due to expanding expansion
water of water
diaphragm

connection
to system

system cold system heated up

Figure 3.6 The operation of a sealed expansion vessel

In the case of a sealed system (see Figure 3.4), the pump is
often incorporated within the boiler, installed on the pipe as
it leaves the boiler. Because a sealed system is not subject
to atmospheric pressure, half the system is subject to
positive pressure and half to negative pressure. The pressure
gradually reduces from the pushing force to zero, and the
suction slowly gets stronger as the water returns to the
pump. As a consequence, provided that there are no leaks,
air cannot be drawn into the system.
This is not the case with an open-vented system. Figure 3.7
illustrates the principle that the cold feed enters the system
at the point where the influence of the pump changes from
positive to negative pressure. This point is referred to as the
neutral point.
Figure 3.7(a) shows the system working well – the pump is
creating positive pressure (above atmospheric pressure)
around the whole system, which ensures that there are no
micro-leaks (very small openings allowing the passage of
air but not water) that will allow air to be drawn into the
system. In this same system (see Figure 3.7a), if the pump
were installed the other way round it would create a
negative pressure throughout (below atmospheric pressure).
This would work fine, but air could be drawn in, for
example, through radiator valve gland nuts, where the
spindle turns (a typical micro-leak). Therefore, to ensure a
good design, always aim to get a positive pressure.
150 mm
maximum

+ –
+ – + + – + + – + –
N N N
+ + + + – –

+ + Figure 3.7 The

principles of
(a) Location of pump to (b) Water will be correct pump
give positive pressure. pumped over
the open vent.
location
–
(c) Air will be sucked in via the vent.
Remember this
If the central heating pump is incorrectly located, air will
be drawn into the circulatory pipework, which will in turn
lead to all sorts of problems including the corrosion of the
steel radiators.

However, in the system shown in Figure 3.7(b), the open

vent pipe is under a positive pressure and therefore will
allow a quantity of water to discharge into the f & e
cistern, subject to the head pressure created by the pump,
and in so doing will oxygenate the water.
In the system shown in Figure 3.7(c), the open vent is
subject to the negative pressure of the pump, so air will be
drawn into the circulatory pipework. This configuration is
often overlooked, as it is not easy to spot. You can
identify it by submerging the open vent in a cup of water –
if it is sucking air into the system, it will suck the water up
from the cup.
It is not only inconvenient when air is drawn into your
installation, causing radiators to fill with air and
preventing them from working correctly, but it is also
slowly but surely corroding your system from within as
the oxygen in the air, mixed with water, causes the iron
radiators to corrode and rust.

With an open-vented, fully pumped system, it is vital to

check that the open vent connection is within 150 mm of
where the cold feed joins the circulatory pipework.

THE AIR SEPARATOR

Heating installers sometimes incorporate an air separator
into the pipework to serve as the collection point for the
cold feed and open vent pipe (Figure 3.8). This fitting
ensures that the required close grouping of the cold feed
and vent is maintained and also creates a situation where
the water becomes shaken and turbulent as it flows
through the fitting. This helps the air molecules in the
water to dissipate and escape by forming bubbles and
rising up out of the system through the open vent.
f & e cistern
air separator installed

pump

motorized
valves boiler
c.h. flow and return
fully pumped system using an air separator

vent

flow from boiler

flow to system

co
ld feed
three tapping air separator
(the cold feed is introduced within 150 mm of vent)
Figure 3.8 Using an air separator

Micro-bore systems
Micro-bore is the name given to a central heating design
that uses very narrow water pipes. At first sight, the pipe
layout may look rather different from the two-pipe system
but, in fact, it still follows the same basic design
principles. The illustration of the micro-bore system in
Figure 3.9 shows that a flow-andreturn connection has
been run from the boiler to each radiator. The main
difference between micro-bore systems and the usual
systems using 22 mm and 15 mm pipework is that, instead
of using tee joints at the connection to each radiator, a
manifold is employed, from which several branch
connections are made. (Figure 3.9 shows another variation
on the theme of central heating design: the micro-bore
system has been run from a combination boiler.)

Radiators and heat emitters

There are many different types of radiator, including
modern fancy-shaped towel rails, skirting heaters, panel
radiators,

Figure 3.9 A micro-bore heating system

convector heaters, and old-fashioned cast-iron sectional

column radiators (see Figure 3.10). Whatever type they
are, they all basically do the same job of warming the
room in which they are installed. They warm the air in
close contact with the radiator, and convection currents
then circulate the warmed air around the room, as
discussed earlier. Some designs are more effective than
others: for example, convector heaters incorporate metal
fins to help distribute the heat from the radiator to the air.
Manufacturers indicate the heat distribution from a
particular heater as its kilowatt output; the higher the
kilowatt output, the greater the rate at which heat can be
emitted. This must be considered when fitting heaters: it
would be useless to install a radiator that is too small for a
room because the occupants would feel insufficiently
warm. Similarly, a radiator that was too large would
occupy more wall space than necessary and

cast-iron
column radiator

fan convector heater

 panel radiator

wheel head lockshield

valve or TRV valve convector radiator
(back view)

air vent fins heated removable

by conduction front panel

skirting convector heater

Figure 3.10 Radiator and heater types

also make the overall heating system less efficient. The
room might warm up more quickly, but the amount of fuel
needed to heat up the larger volume of water within the
radiator would increase.
The size of heater for a particular room can be calculated
using special tables and calculations, but these are
beyond the scope of this book. The process is not,
however, particularly complicated and, if you are
interested in learning more, see the reading suggestions
in Appendix 3: Taking it further.

Radiator valves
A control valve will be fitted to each end of your radiator.
CC One is designed to open and close the radiator as
required.
CC The other, called a lockshield valve, is non-adjustable
and will have a plastic dome-shaped cap.
These are shown in Figure 3.11. The first valve, used to
open and close the radiator, may be a simple plastic-
headed on/ off control valve or a thermostatic radiator
valve (TRV). For many years the heating system installer
would choose whether or not to use a manual valve or a
TRV, but current Building Regulations dictate the use of
TRVs. The only radiators that can be fitted with a manual
valve are those connected to radiators in rooms with a
room thermostat.
The TRV automatically closes off the water supply to the
radiator when the room has reached the desired
temperature and therefore saves on fuel by avoiding
continuously supplying heat to a sufficiently heated room.
The purpose of the lockshield valve at the other end of the
radiator is to control the amount of water flowing through
the radiator. It is identical to the manual on/off valve at the
other end, except that the plastic head does not have an
internal square socket to fit over the turning spindle of the
valve. The installer would have pre-adjusted this valve
with a spanner when balancing the system at the time of
installation.
temperature-

heat sensor adjustinghead wheel head glandnut

bellows
thermostatic
chamber radiator valve (TRV) manual radiator valve
packing

pressure
pin

valve

union ‘tail’ to valve

connect into
heat emitter
Figure 3.11 Radiator valves

If you have a micro-bore system, sometimes both valves

are found at one end. This is achieved by utilizing an
internal tube in the radiator to distribute the water flow as
necessary, as shown in Figure 3.12.

BALANCING THE SYSTEM

In order to ensure that the first radiator on the heating
circuit does not take all the hot water flow from the boiler
– due to the water taking the shortest route through this
first heater rather than going around the whole system –
the lockshield valve is partially closed. By having this
valve open by, say, only half a turn, most of the water is
forced to continue along the heating circuit to the next
radiator. Further radiator lockshield valves are also
adjusted as required, to force the flow of water throughout
the whole system.

WHICH IS THE FIRST AND WHICH IS THE LAST

RADIATOR IN THE SYSTEM?
Basically, when you turn on the heat source of a cold
system, the first radiator to get hot is the one nearest the
boiler, and it will have the shortest circuit. The second one
to heat up will be the next radiator along and so on,
throughout the system.
 internal distribution tube

Figure 3.12 Micro-bore connections at one end of a radiator

AIR IN THE SYSTEM AND AIR VENTS

Before water enters the central heating system for the first
time, air will be inside it. As water enters the system of
pipework, air will be trapped in high pockets and, if left
there, will prevent the system from operating correctly.
Small openings into which airrelease valves have been
installed are used to expel air from any high points such as
the tops of radiators.
The installer of the system will aim to run the pipework in
such a way as to avoid trapping air. Where this is
unavoidable, an automatic air-release valve can be
inserted in the pipeline. This device contains a small float
with a valve attached to its top end. If water is present, the
float rises and the valve blocks up the outlet; if there is no
water within, the float drops and opens its outlet point or
vent hole (see Figure 3.13).
In addition to letting air out of the pipework and radiators,
it is also necessary to open any air-release points when the
system is being drained down, otherwise it will take
forever to empty because air needs to enter the system in
order to facilitate the removal of the water.

cap to
seal off
valve

air outlet vent

washer

inlet

valve open valve closed

Figure 3.13 An automatic air-release valve

The boiler
What about the heat source for the system? In its most
fundamental form, this is simply a metal box that is
surrounded by a fire. In fact, the first heating systems were
just this, a metal box referred to as a back boiler, found
within the fireplace of the lounge. Surprisingly, there are a
few still out there in some older properties.
.
Boilers today are fully automatic devices that turn up the
heat as necessary and, with the exception of solid fuel
systems, completely turn off when not required. The water
is just heated until the required temperature is achieved, as
set by its built-in thermostat, and then the heat source
turns off. The fuels that could be used for the boiler
include:
CC solid fuel, including coal, wood and straw
CC electricity
CC gas

CC oil.

Electric boilers are quite rare and so they fall beyond the
scope of this book. The remaining fuel types, however,
have been used in boilers for many years, and the design
of the boiler has developed into a very efficient appliance,
unlike those of yesteryear.
Solid fuel has limitations in its design, and because these
boilers tend to be more labour-intensive – i.e. you need to
load the fuel and empty the ash – they are not very popular
and account for around only 0.5 per cent of all
installations. Around 92 per cent of installations use gas
and the rest use oil.
Due to developments over the years, there are many
different boiler designs from many different
manufacturers, with a neverending list of models
applicable to the particular designs. But fundamentally
they all fall into one of four basic types:
CC natural draught open-flued
CC forced draught open-flued (fan-assisted)
CC natural draught room-sealed
CC forced draught room-sealed (fan-assisted).
from room
 open-flued appliance

forced draught room-sealed appliances

Figure 3.14 Boiler designs
Essentially, these names relate to the method by which air
is supplied to the boiler:
CC Natural draught or forced draught indicates whether or
not the appliance has a fan incorporated to assist in the
removal of the combustion products to the outside.
CC Open-flued boilers take their air from within the room
where the boiler is located.
CC Room-sealed means that the air is taken into the boiler
from outside the building.
Figure 3.14 illustrates these four designs.
The boiler in your home will be of one of these designs.
For example:
CC If you have a back boiler situated behind a gas fire in
the living room, you have a natural draught open-flued
boiler.
CC If you have a large free-standing boiler in your kitchen,
with a flue pipe coming from the top, travelling into a
chimney or passing through a pipe to discharge up
 above the roof, again this is likely to be a natural
draught open-flued boiler.
Both of these types take their air from the room in which
they are installed, and this air is replaced via an air vent
from the outside.
If your boiler has a terminal fitting flush with the wall, it is
most likely to be a room-sealed appliance.
CC If this terminal is quite large, it will be of the natural
draught type.
CC If it is smaller, say about 100 mm in diameter, it will be
fan assisted.
These boilers do not take the air required for the
combustion process from the room, but directly from
outside.
There are many variations of boiler design, where the
location of the fan or the route of the flue pipe – which
may be vertically through a roof or horizontally out
through the wall – may vary, but they all fall within one of
the four basic types listed above.
In addition to the basic boiler designs, boilers are further
classified into four generic types:
CC non-condensing regular boiler
CC non-condensing combination boiler
CC condensing regular boiler
CC condensing combination boiler.
The differences between regular boilers and combination
boilers have already been discussed in Chapter 2, but a
new term is used here: ‘condensing’.
CONDENSING BOILERS
A condensing boiler is designed to take as much heat
from the fuel and combustion products as possible and,
as a result, is much more efficient. It is sometimes
referred to as a highefficiency boiler.
All domestic boilers installed prior to 1988 were designed
in such a way that no consideration was given to the heat
contained within the combustion products discharged from
the boiler. If you were to take a thermometer and measure
the temperature of the flue gases as they left the terminal,
you would get a reading of something like 160°C. This is
clearly a waste of heat and therefore of fuel. The
condensing boiler is designed so that these combustion
products are cooled to as low a temperature as possible,
thereby using as much of their heat energy as possible.
For the traditional central heating system using radiators,
this flue temperature would be somewhere around 80°C.
This temperature could be reduced even further to, say,
45–50°C where a radiant underfloor heating system was
installed (as discussed earlier). Where the appliance
reduces the flue products down to a temperature of less
than 54°C – i.e. the dewpoint of water – the water
produced as part of the combustion process condenses and
collects within the boiler and is subsequently drained from
the appliance.
These boilers, when in operation, especially when it is
cold outside, are easily identified by the water vapour
discharging as a mist, referred to as a ‘plume’, from the
boiler terminal.
How do these boilers extract all this extra heat? Basically,
the boiler has a larger and more tightly grouped heat
exchanger or, in some designs, such as the one illustrated
in Figure 3.15, it has a second heat exchanger through
which the flue products pass. The heat exchanger is the
part that contains the central heating water over which the
hot products of combustion pass.

HIGH-EFFICIENCY (HE) BOILERS

The boiler designs that work to the highest standard are of
the forced draught room-sealed type. A modern boiler has
electronic ignition and a highly efficient heat exchanger,
making it far superior to the old cast-iron boilers installed
30 years ago that operated on gas with a permanent pilot
flame acting as the ignition source for the boiler. These
old boilers might be operating at about only 50–60 per
cent efficiency, whereas modern boilers may be operating
at efficiencies of over 90 per cent.

than
54°C)
Figure 3.15 Internal view of a condensing boiler
When talking of efficiencies, one is effectively talking
about the running cost. For example, for every £100 spent
on fuel, if your boiler is only 55 per cent efficient, you
will be getting only £55 worth of heat, and £45 would
simply be going up the chimney. But where your boiler is
90 per cent efficient, you will be getting £90 worth of heat
for every £100 spent.
It is because older boiler designs waste fuel in this way
that current regulations no longer permit them to be
installed. If you need a new boiler, the chances are, with a
few exceptions, that the heating installer will be bound by
law to install a boiler with an efficiency of 86 per cent or
higher.

Heating controls
In your home you may or may not have all of the controls
listed below; in fact, you may have no more than a switch
to turn the power on to the boiler and pump. However, the
design of a modern central heating system will use a
whole range of controls for increased efficiency. One
requirement of the current Building Regulations for all
new and replacement systems using gas or oil as the fuel
source is to have a minimum of the following controls:
1 A full programmer or an independent time switch for
heating and hot water
2 A room thermostat, providing boiler interlock

3 A cylinder thermostat (where applicable), providing

boiler interlock
4 TRVs on all radiators, except in rooms containing a
room thermostat
5 An automatic bypass valve (if necessary)
These controls all serve to reduce the amount of fuel
required to heat the water, thereby increasing the
efficiency of the system. In other words, they save fuel. If
you need to undertake any major renewal work in your
home, such as replacing the boiler, your system controls
will also need to be upgraded as necessary and include all
the controls listed above.
With the exception of the TRVs previously identified,
what do each of the remaining controls do?

THE PROGRAMMER
This is, in effect, a fancy clock. It allows the heating to
come on at specific times as set by the occupant of the
building. Modern installations require the use of what is
referred to as a full programmer. This basically means that
the heating circuit(s) and domestic hot water circuit can be
controlled independently, allowing separate time settings
for heating and hot water. Earlier designs of programmers
did not have this independence, for example:
CC mini-programmers allowed heating and hot water to be
on together, or hot water only (but not heating only)
CC standard programmers allowed heating and hot water to
be on on their own, but used the same time settings.
These older time controllers will need to be replaced if the
boiler is replaced, to comply with the current Building
Regulations.

THE ROOM THERMOSTAT

A room thermostat is a device that senses the temperature
of the room. When the temperature set by the occupant is
reached, an electrical contact is broken inside the
thermostat to switch off the electrical supply to the pump
or motorized valve found on the pipe serving the heating
circuit. With no electrical supply, the water ceases to be
pumped around the circuit.

The room thermostat is normally positioned on a living

room wall, at a typical height of about 1.5 metres but not
in a position where it will be affected by draughts or by
heat from the sun shining through a window. The
thermostat should not be located in a room with an
additional heater, such as an electric or gas fire – the hall
might be a good alternative.
It is essential that the room selected for the thermostat
does not have a TRV fitted to the radiator within the
room because, if the TRV closes, the room thermostat
will fail to reach its operating temperature, and the
heating will be on constantly. The idea of incorporating a
room thermostat is to close off the heating circuit when
the desired temperature has been reached in the living
room. If the room thermostat is off, provided that the
cylinder thermostat is not activated, the boiler and pump
will be turned off, thereby saving fuel.
Some older systems may not have a room thermostat and
just have TRVs fitted to the radiators to control the flow.
These systems will need to be upgraded when the boiler is
next replaced.

THE CYLINDER THERMOSTAT

The cylinder thermostat is a device fixed to the side of the
hot water cylinder, about one-third up from the base. It is
set by the installer to be activated when the top of the hot
water cylinder has reached a temperature of around 60°C.
As with the room thermostat, when the desired
temperature is achieved, the electrical contact is broken
inside the unit, which switches off the electrical supply to
the motorized valve on the pipe circuit to the cylinder heat
exchanger coil.
Older systems may not have a cylinder thermostat – a
situation that will need to be rectified when the boiler or
cylinder is next replaced, to bring the system into line with
the regulations now in force.

BOILER INTERLOCK
Boiler interlock is when the boiler is linked with the
thermostat system so that the boiler will only ignite if heat
is required by either the domestic hot water or the central
heating system, as regulated by the cylinder and room
thermostats respectively.
Older systems did not always have a room or cylinder
thermostat. For example, central heating systems were
often designed only with TRVs fitted to the radiators, and
gravity circulation of hot water to the cylinder from the
boiler was allowed to continue until the boiler thermostat
was satisfied.
Sometimes, to prevent the domestic hot water becoming
too hot, a mechanical thermostat was installed in the
return pipe to close off the flow of water in the circuit, and
the boiler thermostat was the only control for switching
the boiler on or off. Invariably it continued to heat up and
cool down, night and day, as the boiler slowly lost its heat
to the surrounding atmosphere. This is referred to as ‘short
cycling’ and is clearly a drastic waste of heat and fuel, and
this is what boiler interlock prevents.
Systems without boiler interlock need to be upgraded
when major work is undertaken on the system, such as
when replacing the boiler. Where you only intend to
replace the hot water cylinder, you must include a
cylinder thermostat to operate a motorized valve to close
off the circuit and switch off the boiler, but you do not
need to upgrade the central heating controls. However, if
you replace the boiler, both the cylinder thermostat and
the room thermostat must be provided, thereby providing
total boiler interlock.

THE AUTOMATIC BYPASS VALVE

This device is a valve fitted in a pipeline, which opens
automatically to allow water to pass. These valves may be
incorporated in the pipe circuit for several reasons, such as
because the boiler has a pump-overrun facility. This
facility is needed in systems where the pump must
continue running for a time after the boiler has switched
off in order to allow the heat within the boiler to dissipate
and for it to cool down sufficiently, thereby preventing
heat damage to the boiler itself.
If the motorized valves of the central heating circuit and
domestic hot water circuit are open, they will allow the
water to flow, but where these are closed, due to the
temperatures of their circuits being satisfied, there will be
nowhere for the water to flow. As a result, pressure will
build up within the flow pipe from the boiler and this will
press against the spring-assisted valve of the automatic
bypass to force the valve to open. Some boilers come with
a pre-installed automatic bypass.
Prior to the automatic bypass, the plumber would have
installed a slightly opened manually set lockshield valve,
but this method is no longer permitted to serve this
function because it can reduce the efficiency of the
system.

MOTORIZED VALVES
Older central heating systems will not have these controls
because, prior to the 1980s, systems generally were
installed as shown in Figure 3.3. These older systems
either had TRVs fitted to all but one radiator on the
system to control the room temperature, or a room
thermostat was used to control the heating requirements,
which switched off the pump when the temperature within
the room where the thermostat was located reached the
required level. The temperature of the domestic hot water
was generally only regulated by the boiler thermostat.
These earlier systems, of which many thousands are still
in existence, are far less efficient than the modern well-
designed systems that use a motorized valve to close off
the water supply to a particular circuit.
Closing off the motorized valve by way of the electrical
power supply, from the room or cylinder thermostat as
appropriate, provides a situation where the boiler is
prevented from firing unnecessarily. The boiler of the
modern system cannot fire unless either the room or
cylinder thermostat is calling for heat, because it is these
controls that send the power supply to feed a motorized
valve.

The motorized valve itself consists of a small motor

positioned on top of a housing, inside which a ball-shaped
valve is moved by the motor, opening or closing the route
through which the central heating or domestic hot water
can pass. The two basic designs of motorized valve are
shown in Figure 3.16. They are:
CC two-port (zone valve)
CC three-port (either mid-position or diverter valve).
 two-port valve three-port valve

Figure 3.16 Motorized valves

When power is supplied to the motor in a two-port valve,

it turns and causes the pipeline to open. As the valve
opens it makes the switch contact inside the unit to allow
electricity to flow to the boiler and pump. Should the
power to this control be switched off, the valve closes,
assisted by a spring, and in so doing breaks the electrical
contact to the boiler and pump.
There are two basic types of three-port valve: the diverter
valve and the mid-position valve. The older design of
diverter valve allowed the water to flow either from the
central inlet port to the outlet pipe feeding the domestic
hot water circuit or to the central heating circuit. In effect,
it opened one route but closed the other, i.e. diverted the
water flow, hence its name. This system was wired up to
give priority to the domestic hot water in the cylinder, so
that, while this was being supplied with heat from the
boiler, the central heating system had to be off. This was
affected by an internal ball, which pivoted on a fulcrum
between the two outlet ports.
The second type of three-port valve, referred to as a
midposition valve, allowed the internal ball valve to stop
in the mid position as it was swinging across to close off
one of the outlets, thus allowing water to flow to both the
heating and domestic hot water at the same time, should
both the room and cylinder thermostats be calling for heat.
This mid-position valve therefore had the advantage over
the earlier diverter valve.
It must be understood, however, that the amount of water
flow that can be expected through the valve is restricted
while the valve is in the mid position, so they are only
suitable for systems that are not too large.
As for the operation of these valves, this is a lot more
complicated to explain. The main thing to remember is
that, if no power is allowed to go to the valve, the power
cannot continue to travel to the boiler and pump.

Protecting heating systems

Two major threats to the trouble-free functioning of
heating systems are frost and corrosion.

FROST PROTECTION
Sometimes, if pipework or the boiler is located in an
unheated part of the building, such as a garage or the roof
space, or where a separate outbuilding has been used for
the boiler, it will be necessary to provide some form of
protection against frost damage, including:
CC filling the system with special central heating antifreeze
CC using a special frost thermostat and pipe thermostat,
positioned at the predicted coldest points, in order to
bring on the boiler with the intention of heating the
water within, thereby maintaining it at a temperature
just above the freezing point of water (0°C).
The two thermostats listed, the frost and pipe thermostats,
are used in conjunction with each other:
CC The frost thermostat is designed to make its electrical
contact when the outside air temperature drops.
CC The pipe thermostat allows electricity to flow through
its contact only where the water temperature inside the
pipe, on which it is positioned, drops to around 5°C.
Thus, when it is very cold outside, the frost thermostat
makes its electrical contacts, which allows the electricity
to flow to the pipe thermostat. If the water inside the pipe
is sufficiently warm, the electricity will not flow beyond
this point but, if the water inside the system is dangerously
cold, it will allow the electricity to pass to the boiler and
pump. Once the pipe thermostat is satisfied, with
sufficient heat detected within the pipe, it breaks the
electrical circuit.

CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors can be added to a central heating
system in order to prolong its estimated lifespan. Several
trade brands can be purchased from any plumbers’
merchant. The corrosion inhibitor serves several functions,
including:
CC lining the pipework in order to minimize the problems
of corrosion
CC lubricating the pump
CC reducing the build-up of bacteria within the system.
The only problem is the fact that, to have any real effect, it
must be added to the system within a short time of
installing the system.
Turning off the water supply
To turn off the internal cold water supply stopcock, take
the following steps:
1 Find the valve (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.2).

2 Turn the handle in a clockwise direction.

3 If it operates freely, continue turning clockwise.

4 Open the kitchen sink tap to check that the water has
stopped flowing.
It is advisable to check that this valve works before an
emergency arises. Simply try closing the valve as you
would any other tap in the home. This will involve turning
the operating handle or head in a clockwise direction. It is
a good sign if the valve operates freely. Continue turning
clockwise, counting the number of turns, until you feel the
valve is fully closed. Then check that it has worked
correctly by going to the cold sink tap in the kitchen and
turning it on to see if the water stops flowing.
We should always choose the kitchen tap because it is sure
to be on mains supply, unlike other downstairs cold taps
that may be fed via a cold water storage cistern in the roof
space. When you try this tap, be prepared for the water to
continue flowing for a short period before stopping
completely because water may be draining out from the
cold supply pipe within the house. Once the supply stops
completely, there shouldn’t be any problems. However, if
the sink tap continues to drip, you may need to apply a
little more turning force to the supply stopcock to force
the washer inside this valve tighter on to the seating.
To re-establish the water supply, you simply open the
stopcock, turning it anticlockwise the same number of
turns as you counted when closing the valve. Finally,
check to see that the
water is flowing freely from the sink tap outlet. It might
spurt out at first, due to the air pressure build-up caused by
the air in the pipe compressing when the water is turned
on; this is quite normal.
If all has gone well, you have completed your very first
plumbing job! Simple really, wasn’t it?

Remember this
It is essential to make sure that you know where to turn
off the water supply in an emergency. Remember, if you
turn off this valve, eventually all water in the pipes will
cease to flow, whatever the system. Make sure you know
the valve works before an emergency arises!

Why did we count the number of turns when turning off

the supply? This will be explained in more detail in the
next chapter, but basically it is to ensure that you do not
create any noise problems in your system. For example, if
the supply stopcock was originally only open two turns
and you then closed it and re-opened it by, say, four turns,
you would allow a potentially greater volume of water to
flow through the valve. This might cause shock waves to
form within the system, due to such a large volume of
water stopping when a tap in the system closes. These
shock waves can create banging noises within the
pipework.
One final point to note regarding the stopcock is that it is
never a good idea to fully open the valve so that the head
will not turn anticlockwise any more, as this means that
the valve spindle is wedged up to its highest position, and
this might lead to the valve seizing up. So, if you ever do
require the maximum possible flow through the valve,
open the valve fully and then turn it back half a turn.
To recap:
CC turn clockwise to close the valve (and stop the water
flow)
CC turn anticlockwise to open the valve (and restart the
water flow)
CC count the number of turns when opening or closing the
valve CC keep the valve labelled up for easy identification

Key idea
To help you identify the purpose of a particular in-line
stopcock or valve anywhere in the home, it is a good idea
to tie a label to the valve indicating what water pipes will
be isolated when the valve is closed shut.

PROBLEMS WITH TURNING OFF THE SUPPLY

Unfortunately, it is not always straightforward to turn off
your supply as just described. Often, due to insufficient
maintenance and lack of use, you may encounter problems
such as the following:
CC The tap head has seized up and won’t move.
CC Water leaks past the spindle after the valve has been
operated.
CC Water continues to flow after you have turned off the
valve.
CC There is no water flow when the stopcock is re-opened.
These points are discussed in greater detail below.
 crutch head

rising spindle
packing gland nut

packing
headgear

body
jumper
washer

Figure 4.1 Section through the supply stopcock

CCMain stopcock seized up
Since the valve is, as a rule, not operated from one year to
the next, it can simply seize up due to lack of use. There is
only so much torque that you could apply to the head
before damage would result, so what can be done to help?
You can try loosening off the packing gland. Referring to
Figure 4.1, take a small spanner and slightly undo the
packing gland nut by turning it anticlockwise. This
releases some of the pressure on the packing inside the
spindle. The packing is designed to prevent water seeping
past the spindle itself when it is turned. This may be all
that is required, but it may be necessary to undo this nut
substantially before any movement of the head is
possible. It is not advisable to completely remove this
packing gland nut because, until it is possible to close off
the supply, water could leak from this point, and you may
need to retighten the gland nut to stop the leak continuing.
If the valve still will not budge, you will need to consider
turning off the outside stopcock or contacting the water
supply authority to ask them to turn off your supply for
repair. With the water to this seized-up valve turned off,
the water will need to be drained from the system so that
the valve can either be stripped down to free up the
component part, or be replaced completely.

CCWater leakage past the spindle of the stopcock

After operating a stopcock that has not been used for
some time, occasionally you will find that water seeps
past the packing gland nut when you turn the supply back
on. You may have had to loosen off this nut to close the
valve in the first place, causing this leak. What can be
done? Simply try to tighten the gland nut by turning it
clockwise.
Tightening this nut applies pressure to the packing,
squeezing it out to form a tighter seal. This can
unfortunately have the effect of making the valve very stiff
to operate, and sometimes just tightening this nut is not
enough to cure the problem, in which case you may need
to repack the gland.
To repack the gland:
1 Fully close off the stopcock that is to be worked on.
2 Completely undo the packing gland nut by turning it
anticlockwise until it comes away from the housing and
can be slipped further up along the spindle. Very little
water should come out because you have turned the
supply off, and any water will be the result of it draining
down from the system. You may need to drain this
water via the drain-off cock, located above the
stopcock.
3 With the packing gland nut removed, wrap a few
strands of PTFE tape (an abbreviation for
polytetrafluoroethylene, a common plastic jointing
material available from all plumbing supply outlets)
 around the spindle and push it into the void into which
the packing gland nut screws, poking it down with a
small screwdriver (as shown in Figure 4.11).
4 Now replace the packing gland nut, tightening it just
sufficiently to squeeze the new packing material within
the gland.
5 Re-open the valve and tighten the packing gland nut
until the water seepage past the spindle stops.

CCStopcock ineffective when closed

If you have turned off the main supply stopcock and
water continues to flow from the kitchen sink tap, it is
likely that the washer has perished and no longer
functions. The first thing to do is double-check that the
valve is fully closed and not just stiff. Having done that,
consider turning off the outside stopcock or contacting
the water supply authority to ask them to turn off your
supply for a repair to be initiated.
With the water turned off and the water drained from the
system, it will be possible to strip the valve down to re-
washer it. This can be done as follows:
1 Use a spanner to undo the headgear (see Figure 4.1), by
turning anticlockwise. This removes the top half of the
valve from the body attached to the pipe.
2 With this removed, you will be able to remove any
remains of the old washer and replace it with a new 12
mm tap washer, obtainable from any plumbers’
merchant.
3 When you replace the headgear, check that the fibre
washer used where the head meets the body is in good
condition; if it is not, water may escape from the joint
where the two surfaces meet. There is usually no
 problem with this fibre washer, but occasionally they do
perish. Usually a few turns of PTFE tape between the
mating surfaces, forming a new washer, is all that is
needed to form a tight seal.
4 Turn the water supply back on and test whether this
valve is operating correctly, by ensuring that it does not
leak past the spindle or from the body of the tap where
you removed the headgear.

CCNo water flow when the stopcock is re-opened

This is another problem that can occur when you turn off
the water supply. It is caused by the washer becoming
detached from the jumper (see Figure 4.1) and remaining
stuck down on to the valve seating. You can try giving
the side of the tap a knock in the hope of dislodging it,
but most likely the supply will need to be turned off and
the valve stripped down to rewasher the valve.

TURNING OFF AN EXTERNAL UNDERGROUND

STOPCOCK
As you may have gathered from the solutions identified
above, it is generally inadvisable to access the external
stopcock unless you are prepared to dig up the ground
around the stopcock to expose it. However, if there is an
emergency and you need to turn off the supply at all costs,
you may have to do this. The valve will be at least 750 mm
below ground and may be even deeper, so you will need to
use a stopcock key to access the valve (Figure 4.2). This is
designed to pass down the large pipe duct leading to the
stopcock and slip over the top of the valve head to initiate
the turn.
Remember this
Do not turn off the
outside stopcock unless
you have to. It is always
possible
that the
valve
might
leak at
the
packing steel rod
gland
when you
re-open
the supply, creating a situation where you
need to dig down to the valve to
undertake a repair.
emergency temporary timber key

stopcock
key

‘V’ cut in end

Figure 4.2 Using a stopcock key

TURNING OFF THE COLD WATER FROM A

STORAGE CISTERN (LOW-PRESSURE PIPEWORK)
Where the water feeding an appliance such as a sink, bath
or toilet cistern is supplied directly from the mains inlet,
turning off the incoming supply stopcock will stop the
flow of water. However, if the water continues to flow,
you will know that it is being supplied via the cold storage
cistern.
If you simply turned off your incoming supply stopcock
and waited long enough, the water would eventually stop
flowing, as the cold storage cistern would gradually
empty. However, you can instead turn off the stop valve in
the pipeline that exits the storage cistern (see Figure 1.4),
by turning the head clockwise.
This valve may be located in the loft close to the storage
cistern or, if you follow the route of this pipe where it
passes through the ceiling to the room below, you may
find it more conveniently in a cupboard. Some buildings,
such as blocks of flats, do not have a loft and so the cistern
will be located high in a cupboard somewhere around the
property. This valve will not be of the same design as the
mains supply stopcock. Traditionally, gate valves were
used here, but they have invariably been replaced in recent
years with more reliable lever-operated quarter-turn valves
(see Figure 4.3).
wedge-shaped gate non-rising spindle
(a)

wheel head

seating

(b)
 valve open
quarter-turn head

valve closed
Figure 4.3 (a) A gate valve and (b) a quarter-turn lever-
operated valve

If you find you have a gate valve, it may only halt the main
flow of water and still let a little water through – this type
of valve is not always very effective. Sometimes gate
valves fail altogether and, even when they do work, they
sometimes fail to re-open. Quarter-turn valves do not
usually cause problems and, if you have one, you simply
turn it one-quarter of a turn until the handle is
perpendicular to the pipe. This type of valve should always
be installed if you are considering a new or replacement
valve. When choosing a new valve, make sure the type
you select maintains a full bore when you look through it
in the open position; if you choose a design with a reduced
bore, you will notice the lack of water flow after it has
been installed.
If you cannot locate the valve from the storage cistern or it
does not work effectively, it is possible to block the outlet
pipe from the cistern with a cork. Alternatively, turn off
the supply feeding the cistern and drain out the water via
the taps fed from it. The cistern can be turned off at its
inlet stopcock or screwdriveroperated quarter-turn valve. If
you cannot find a valve, you can lift the arm of the float-
operated valve, which will stop the water flowing into the
cistern. You can tie this up using a piece of string and a
batten resting across the top of the cistern.
If the storage cistern feeds the hot water supply as well as
the cold water, draining out the water from the cistern will
also stop the flow of water from the hot taps.

TURNING OFF THE HOT WATER SUPPLY

Following the same principles as for turning off the cold
water supply, you need to go upstream of the hot water
heat source to locate an isolation valve on the pipework.
With a combination boiler, this will be a quarter-turn
valve found just beneath the boiler itself. This valve may
have an operating handle or you may need to use a
spanner or screwdriver to turn off the valve, giving just
one-quarter of a turn. For other instantaneous systems
there may be a valve incorporated with the appliance or
you may have to source a valve on the pipework to the
appliance.
In stored hot water cylinder systems, you will find the
isolation valve on the pipe supplying the cylinder (see
Figures 2.6 and 2.8). This stop valve may be in the same
cupboard as the cylinder or you may need to go into the
roof space, where a vented system is supplied by a cistern.
With the water supply to the hot water cylinder isolated, it
is also advisable to turn off the power supply to the heat
source.
With the supply to the cylinder closed off, water can no
longer enter the cylinder and therefore, when a tap is
opened on the hot distribution pipe from this vessel, it runs
only for a minute or so, just long enough to drain the water
from the leg of pipework from the cylinder to the tap. The
cylinder itself remains full, even though no water flows
from the tap. In the examples of stored hot water supply
discussed above, the hot water is drawn off from the top of
the cylinder and water is trapped in the cylinder within a
big
U-shaped leg of pipework when the supply to the cylinder
is closed.
Figure 4.4 shows the isolation valve closed. Water will
stop flowing from the tap but is still lying within all the
areas shaded and so, if you wish to cut into these parts of
the system, you will need to drain it via the drain-off
cocks.

cold feed

open vent pipe

isolation valve
(closed)

tap opened

drain-off drain-off
cock cock

Figure 4.4 Water trapped within the pipework

To remove this water, for example to replace the cylinder,
the drain-off cock at the base of the cylinder will need to
be opened and the water drained through a hosepipe to an
outside drain. Figure 4.4 also shows water trapped within a
low section of pipework – in the piece of pipe below the
tap outlet. You need to be aware of this when working on
any drained-down pipework because water will flow from
a cut pipe until it is all drained off. This can be
disconcerting for the novice plumber who has turned off
the water supply, checked that nothing is coming out of the
taps, and proceeded to cut the pipe, only to find water
flooding out of it.

Draining down the water

supply
Draining down either the hot or cold water system is only
necessary when you wish to undertake major repair or
alteration work or if you plan to go away for an extended
period in winter, leaving an unheated building. When
going on holiday, especially during the summer, normally
you need only to turn off the incoming water supply as a
precaution.
In order to fully drain down your pipework, take the
following steps:
1 Locate the supply isolation valve and close it. If you
plan to drain down everything, you’ll need to turn off
the mains supply stopcock. However, if it is just, say,
the low-pressure cold or hot water that needs draining
down, you will need only to close the valve from the
storage cistern. If the cold water within the storage
cistern itself needs to be drained, you will need to close
the inlet valve to the cistern.
2 Open the outlet tap fed from the isolation valve that you
have just closed. Water will flow until it has drained
from the pipe. At this point, remember that, while water
is no longer feeding the system, there will still be water
lying in pockets of pipework, and in the case of the hot
water system the pocket includes a cylinder full of
water (see Figure 4.4).
3 Connect a hosepipe to the drain-off cock (see Figure
4.5) and run it to a suitable discharge point. The square-
headed drain-off valve can now be turned anticlockwise
to open it, with the aid of a spanner, allowing the water
to flow. However, do not completely remove the
spindle of this valve as it unwinds, otherwise the water
will discharge all over the floor.
4 Open several outlets to help with draining the water in
steps 2 and 3 above, and flush the toilet if it is fed by
the section being drained – this allows air into the
pipework, which will help to remove the water.
washer
‘O’ ring

hose
connection

valve shown in open position

Figure 4.5 A drain-off cock

Draining down the central
heating
Should you ever need to drain down the water from the
central heating system, this is how to do it:
1 First, turn off the electric power supply to the central
heating system to ensure that the boiler cannot fire up.
2 If it is a vented system, you must now turn off the
isolation valve supplying the system. This does not
apply to a sealed heating system because it has no
permanent water connection. Even if the temporary
hose that was used to fill the system has not been
removed by the installer, the isolation valve would still
be in the closed position. The isolation valve for
the vented system can be found on the inlet supply pipe
to the f & e cistern in the roof space. If there is no valve,
you will need to get a piece of wood, position it across
the top of the cistern and use a piece of string to tie up
the lever arm to the float-operated valve, thereby
preventing it from opening as the water in the system
drains away.
1 You are now ready to start draining down. Locate a
drainoff cock (see Figure 4.5) somewhere on the system
at a low point. There is usually one situated near the
boiler itself. Connect the hose and open the valve. The
water flow may be a little slow at first, because air
needs to get into the system in order to let out the water.
2 Now go to a radiator high in the system, such as on the
first-floor level, and open the air-release valve with a
small square-headed radiator key – this will assist the
process of draining down by letting air into the system.
 You will hear the air rushing into the system as the
water empties. Radiator keys can be purchased from any
plumbers’ merchant.
3 Slowly open more radiator air vents, doing the higher-
level radiators first, until they are all open. It is essential
to keep an eye on the water draining from the system, as
the drainoff cock is renowned for letting water escape
through its thread, so you may need a flat tray placed in
a suitable position to catch the water.
4 When all the water has been removed, it is wise to close
the radiator air vents to ensure that the system is ready
to refill and to make sure that the valves, if fully
removed, are not lost.
Sometimes the drain-off cock fails to open, simply because
the washer is stuck to the seating. The best thing to do is to
try and locate another valve. However, if you need to open
the one that is stuck, try tapping the side of the valve;
otherwise, totally remove the screw-in spindle and poke a
small screwdriver into the valve to dislodge the washer. If
you do this, you must be totally prepared for the water that
will gush from the fitting once the washer is dislodged,
and be prepared to re-insert the valve head. Sometimes
you can attack this washer through the hose connection
hole.
The water drained from a heating system can be just like
black ink and it can stain as much as ink, so do not take
this course of action unless you definitely know what you
are doing. Finding another drain-off cock may save a lot of
hassle.
A dripping tap
A dripping tap is one of the most common problems
encountered in the home. It could be the result of one of
the following:
CC a faulty or worn-out washer
CC dirt or grit lodged across the seating
CC damaged seating
CC damaged ceramic discs (quarter-turn taps).

REPLACING A TAP WASHER

Replacing a tap washer is a relatively simple process. The
first thing to do is turn off the water supply feeding the tap,
then open the tap as far as possible to make sure that no
water flows from it before proceeding. Figure 4.6 shows
some of the main differences in the general design of taps.
Basically, taps have either a rising or a non-rising spindle.
Taps with a rising spindle usually have chromium-plated
easy-clean covers, which need to be removed in order to
get a thin spanner on to the nut of the headgear
underneath (see Figure 4.7).
screw holding
capstan head on to tap
 head circlip
rising non-rising
packing spindle spindle
gland nut headgear
packing
‘O’ ring
easy-clean headgear
cover
jumper

backnut
washer
body
washer

screwdown bibtap pillar tap

Figure 4.6 Types of tap design

To remove this cover, grip it firmly and turn it

anticlockwise to unwind it. You may need a spanner for
this process, but take care not to damage the chromium
finish. You will not be able to completely remove this
cover because of the capstan head, but you should be able
to lift it sufficiently to get your spanner in to grip the
headgear itself, which is also turned anticlockwise to
remove it from the tap body. When doing this, the body of
the tap needs to be held very firmly to prevent it from
turning within the appliance.
Taps with a non-rising spindle incorporate an
aesthetically designed easy-clean shrouded cover, which
must also be removed in order to gain access to the nut of
the headgear. This may simply pull off, but it is usually
held on with a small fixing screw. This will be either
somewhere around the perimeter of the operating handle
or, more likely, beneath the tap indicator cover found on
top of the tap as (see Figure 4.6). To remove this cover, a
small screwdriver is usually needed to ease it up. With the
cover removed, you will see the screw that holds the top of
the tap in place; this can be undone and the operating
handle pulled from the tap. A spanner can now be used, as
described above, to unwind the head of the tap from the
body.
With the head finally removed from the body of the tap,
you will see the washer on the base of the jumper. Look
inside the body of the tap to inspect the surface of the
seating and check that there are no obstructions preventing
effective operation. Once the washer has been located, it
can simply be removed and replaced with a new one. The
washer may be pressed on to a small central stem or held
in position by a small nut. If the nut is difficult to undo,
soak it in penetrating oil to free it because, were it to snap
off, you would have to replace the whole jumper. Taps on
baths use a 19 mm tap washer, whereas all other
appliances use a 12 mm tap washer. With the washer in
place, reassemble the tap by reversing the procedure
described above, and test to check that it now effectively
closes off the supply.
So, to recap:
1 Turn off the water and ensure that the water is off.

2 Remove the chrome shield from the tap.

3 Using a spanner, remove the headgear from the tap

body.
4 Remove the old washer and fit on the replacement.

5 Reassemble the tap and test it.

Figure 4.7 Replacing a tap washer
THE TAP IS STILL DRIPPING!
If you have put a new washer into a tap and discovered
that it still drips, this suggests a far greater problem. First,
however, a second washer could be tried, ideally a softer
one. However, it might be that the seating has become
eroded. This can occur particularly where the pressure is
very high. The answer is to do one of the following:
CC Install a nylon substitute seat (sold with a matching
washer). This is dropped over the old seat and it is
forced into position as you close the tap.
CC Recut or smooth off the original brass surface seating
where the washer sits. In order to do this, you need a tap
reseating tool, available cheaply from a reputable
plumbers’ merchant.

Using a tap reseating tool

With the water turned off and the head removed, as
above, screw the tap reseating tool into the body of the
tap (see Figure 4.8). Adjust the tool and wind it down
until the cutting head reaches the seating. Turn the handle
of the cutting head a few times to cut off a thin layer of
the brass seating. Now remove it and look inside the tap
to inspect the seating; if it looks OK, reassemble the tap
with a new washer.

reseating tool with

cutting head

body of tap

tap head
removed

seating of tap

Figure 4.8 Reseating a tap

RE-WASHERING SUPA-TAPS
Although these taps are no longer made, there are still
vast numbers in existence. They were designed in such a
way that it is possible to re-washer them without turning
off the water supply, as follows:
1 First, hold the operating head of the tap firmly and
unwind the retaining nut (see Figure 4.9) by turning
clockwise with a spanner (it is a left-handed thread).
The head will not drop off, but when the tap is turned,
as if opening the tap, it will eventually drop into your
hand. At this point the self-closing device should drop
to form a kind of seal, stopping or greatly reducing the
water flow while the washer is replaced. If it does not
drop, don’t panic; the water will only flow into the
appliance and it is possible to poke a small screwdriver
into the outlet to dislodge this closing device, thereby
 allowing it to drop. Alternatively, simply turn off the
water supply to this tap.
2 With the tap body in your hands, the washer initially
looks as though it cannot be reached but if you push the
water outlet point against a block of wood, the washer
and its antisplash device will pop out.
3 Now separate the washer from the anti-splash device by
prising the two apart with a screwdriver. It should be
noted that the Supa-tap washer is encased with its own
jumper and therefore needs to be replaced as a complete
unit.
4 With the new washer in place, reverse the sequence of
events described above to reassemble the tap.

TAPS WITH CERAMIC DISCS

Dripping taps that use ceramic discs often require the
replacement of the discs themselves. It is always worth
looking first to see whether any grit or blockage is
preventing the valve from closing fully, but if a disc is
cracked or damaged, it will need to be replaced. You will
need to give the precise details of the manufacturer and
product type when ordering replacements.
(a)
retaining
nut

washer

automatic self-
closing device

internal view of tap

(b) (c)
 nut

automatic
selfclosing device

(d) (e)

anti- splash washer deviceand

jumper

Figure 4.9 Re-washering a Supa-tap

The discs are supplied as a cartridge and the cartridge for

the hot tap turns in the opposite direction from that used
for the cold supply, so make sure you fit the right ceramic
cartridge type.
In order to get at a ceramic disc, follow the procedure for
stripping down a tap described for the re-washering of
taps, above – you will find a disc in place rather than a
washer (see Figure 4.10). At the same time as you replace
the discs, replace any rubber-sealing washer supplied.
 ensure you fit the right
cartridge, i.e. left and right

ceramic discs

Figure 4.10 Cleaning and replacing ceramic discs

Water leaking from the body of

a tap
If you open a tap, and water seems to escape from a point
somewhere around the spindle, it is probably the result of
water leaking past the gland where the spindle turns. The
water will only leak when the tap is running. To resolve
this problem, you need first to identify the tap design: does
it have a rising or a non-rising spindle (see Figure 4.6)?

WATER LEAKING FROM A TAP WITH A RISING

SPINDLE
With this design of tap there is no need to turn off the
water supply; you just need to turn off the tap fully while
you work on it. The procedure is straightforward once the
easy-clean cover has been removed, but this in itself can
be a tricky task because you might find it difficult to take
off the capstan head because it may not have been
removed since the tap was first installed.
Here is some guidance for this task (see Figure 4.11):
1 First, look for a small screw holding the capstan head
on. Look around the base of the capstan head, or under
the plastic red (hot) or blue (cold) indication marker on
top of the handle. Occasionally there is no screw.
2 Holding the body of the tap firmly, try to pull off the
capstan head; if it is held on very tightly, a few gentle
taps with a small wooden mallet aimed upwards might
dislodge it. One trick to try is to open the tap fully, with
the easy-clean cover also undone and raised as high as
possible, and insert a block of wood tightly between the
cover and the body of the tap. If you then close the tap,
with any luck the process will have jacked the capstan
head off the spindle. Alternatively, using some
penetration fluid might work. The amount of force
required can sometimes be quite large and on rare
occasions you might need to remove the tap altogether,
to avoid unnecessary damage to the fitment.
With the capstan head and easy-clean cover removed, you
will be able to see the packing gland nut. You will see that,
when the tap is opened, water will discharge from this
point and will stop when the tap is closed.
Tightening up the gland nut a little may be all that is
required.
However, where this does not cure the problem:
1 Turn off the tap.

2 Unwind this nut and remove it from the spindle.

3 Pack a few strands of PTFE tape or some waxed string
around the spindle and push it into the void into which
the packing gland nut screws, poking it down with a
small screwdriver (see Figure 4.11).
4 Replace the packing gland nut, tightening it just
sufficiently to squeeze the new packing material within
the gland.
5 Re-open the valve and, if necessary, tighten the packing
gland more until the water stops seeping past the
spindle.
6 Finally, reassemble the easy-clean cover and capstan
head.

Figure 4.11 Repacking the gland

WATER LEAKING FROM A TAP WITH A NON-RISING

SPINDLE With this design of tap, the packing gland has
been replaced with a rubber ‘O’ ring (see Figure 4.6).
Once you have removed the tap operating head, you will
see that the water is escaping past the spindle if the tap is
turned to the ‘on’ position.
To cure this problem:
1 First, turn off the water to the tap.

2 Remove the easy-clean shrouded cover and remove the

headgear from the tap body as described earlier.
3 Now remove the circlip located at the top of the valve.
Do this by placing a screwdriver between the open
edges and twisting gently, thereby forcing it apart to slip
it from the spindle. Unfortunately, this circlip will
sometimes break, in which case it will need to be
replaced (see Figure 4.12).
4 With the headgear in your hands, push on top of the
spindle, unwinding it and removing it from the brass
housing, exposing the ‘O’ ring.
5 The old ring can now be flicked off, usually with the aid
of a small screwdriver.
6 Replace the ‘O’ ring with a new one, applying silicone
grease to provide some lubrication.
Now reassemble the tap and test it. If this repair does not
resolve the problem, it may be due to excessive wear of
the spindle, in which case you would have to replace the
tap.

‘O’ ring
circlip

removing the circlip

Figure 4.12 Replacing the ‘O’ ring in a tap with a non-rising

spindle

WATER LEAKING FROM THE SWIVEL OUTLET OF A

TAP
This is the result of a worn-out ‘O’ ring, found at the base
of the swivel spout. There is no need to turn off the water
supply; just turn off the hot and cold taps. The first task is
to remove the small retaining screw or locking nut at the
base of the spout (note that some designs do not have this
securing device). You will then need to turn the swivel
outlet to one side, in line with the tap heads, and pull it off
from the body of the tap to expose the large ‘O’ ring (see
Figure 4.13). You can now swap this for a matching
replacement, applying a little silicone lubricant as
necessary. Where excessive wear has occurred, the
problem may persist, in which case you would have to
replace the tap.

Lack of water flow from a tap

The water that discharges from a tap should come out with
sufficient force (i.e. the force you would expect from a
normally working tap). Some taps are undoubtedly better
than others, with a greater flow or pressure, but in general
we know what to expect. Therefore, when faced with a tap
with a poor water flow rate, we can surmise that something
is wrong.
Before condemning the whole system of pipework,
consider that it may be the tap itself that is faulty. Does it
operate freely and open fully? Look at the pipework and
see what else is served from the same section, and check
out these taps or outlets too. Are they also suffering this
lack of flow? If so, has the problem been getting slowly
worse or is it a sudden drop in pressure or flow? Clearly, if
several taps are affected, there is some form of blockage in
the pipeline that must be removed.
Such a blockage will generally be one of the following:
CC A turned-off or closed-down water supply
CC A blockage due to debris in the storage cistern
CC A plug of ice
CC An airlock
CC Corrosion or limescale build-up
The first thing to do in this situation is look for the source
of the water that is being blocked. If the problem occurs
suddenly, affecting the cold water mains supply to the
kitchen sink tap, possibly with the flow stopping
completely, it may be worth phoning your water supplier
as they may have turned off the water for some reason.
For your low-pressure pipework, such as that serving the
hot and cold taps to the bathroom, check whether the
storage tank in the loft is full of water. Is the lid in place?
Ensure that vermin have not got into the vessel, drowned
and sunk to the bottom, blocking the outlet pipe.
The weather will be a good indicator of whether a
blockage might be due to ice. This scenario is discussed
later. The problems of airlocks, corrosion and limescale,
however, may not be so obvious and are discussed in more
detail below.

BLOCKAGES CAUSED BY AN AIRLOCK

When an airlock is suspected to be the cause of a lack of
water flow to a tap, the air must be forced from its trapped
location. An airlock is the result of poor plumbing design
in a low-pressure (storagecistern-fed) system. When
running pipework, you should never run it uphill and then
downhill, because air will accumulate in the high pocket
(see Figure 4.14). With air trapped in the high pocket, no
water can pass if the water pressure is insufficient. You
should aim to design your system so that air within can
always rise and escape through a tap outlet or via the cold
feed or open vent pipe.
With a badly designed system with high points, once the
air has been expelled from these high points it allows
water to flow, so the problem generally only recurs when
a system has been drained down. If you didn’t install the
plumbing system yourself, you won’t know whether it
was installed correctly, therefore, as an unsuspecting
individual who has drained down the pipework, you have
no idea that this will occur until you try to refill the
system. So, let’s say you have turned on the water supply
after draining down for some reason and there is no water
flow at the outlet. You simply do not know where the
high point is that is causing the trapped air, so what do
you do?
The first thing to try is to open the tap and, either using a
hose connected to its outlet or positioning your mouth
around the spout of the tap, try to give a good blow. What
this sometimes does is blow a bit of water that was lying
inside the pipe up, forcing itself past the trapped air which
can then escape back out of the system, via the cold feed.
A variation of this is to get a small length of hosepipe and
pass it down into the storage cistern and into the cold
water pipe feeding the offending section of pipework.
With the hose in place and with the tap opened, you can
now blow with all your might in the hope of forcing the
water past the trapped airlock.
Failing this, try a trick used by many plumbers. Get a
small piece of hosepipe and join the cold high-pressure
mains water tap outlet to the low-pressure tap outlet and
use this water
total blockage due
to trapped air

storage cistern

partial blockage

Figure 4.14 Common causes of airlocks

pressure to force the air from the high section. This trick
works, but note that technically you would be in violation
of the Water Supply Regulations unless you had some
means of backflow in place to ensure that contaminated
water could not flow back into the water authority mains.

BLOCKAGES DUE TO CORROSION OR SCALE BUILD-

UP
Limescale build-up is a problem that has already been
discussed, but recognizing it is not always easy. It is
generally accepted that both corrosion and scale build-up
occur gradually over a long period, during which time
things slowly get worse.
The type of metal used will indicate the likelihood of
pipework suffering from corrosion. Galvanized iron pipes
in particular can be a problem and, if you have these, you
should always suspect them of causing a reduced water
flow rate. For example, where galvanized iron has been
used in conjunction with copper or brass, electrolytic
corrosion occurs, creating encrustations within the pipe.
The worst-affected point would be where the two
dissimilar metals join together. Fortunately, galvanized
iron is no longer used for domestic pipework and therefore
this problem will only occur in older dwellings.
Electrolytic corrosion is discussed in Chapter 6.

A blockage caused by limescale is not as easy to detect

and is only a problem in hot water systems. The point
where the blockage may be worst is within the pipe exiting
the top of the hot water storage cylinder. If you isolate the
water supply to this cylinder and remove the pipe coming
from the top dome of the cylinder to inspect it, you may
find limescale blocking the pipe. This is where the hottest
water is found and therefore it is here that limescale is
most likely to form. (Figure 1.10 shows a fitting blocked
by limescale.)

Toilet will not flush

Toilets can fail to flush for mechanical reasons that will
vary depending on their design.

SIPHON TYPE
This type uses a lever arm to flush the toilet; this lever lifts
the large diaphragm washer inside the siphon tube (see
Chapter 1).
If the WC fails to flush, the first thing to do is simply to
lift the lid from the cistern and check the operation of the
linkage system used to lift up the diaphragm washer.
Assuming this is OK, the fault will almost certainly be a
split or worn-out diaphragm washer. This can easily be
replaced but, with close-coupled WC suites, you have to
remove the whole cistern from the wall in order to remove
the siphon. There is a siphon design built as two parts,
which allows you to pull the siphon apart to facilitate this
repair, but unfortunately these are not commonplace.
Toilet cisterns with flush pipes such as that shown in
Figure 1.20 do not need to be removed from the wall.
To replace the washer, take these steps:
1 Turn off the water supply to the WC cistern – there
may be a quarter-turn valve on the inlet supply pipe.
2 You now need to bail out the water from the cistern,
using a sponge if necessary to draw out every
remaining drop of water; otherwise what remains will
discharge on to the floor when the siphon is removed.
3 For cisterns with a flush pipe, unwind the large nut
securing it to the siphon, turning it anticlockwise.
4 Next, unwind the big nut securing the siphon to the
cistern.
5 You can now lift the siphon from the body of the
cistern. To complete this action you will need to
unhook the linkage to the lever arm and sometimes, if
the arm of the floatoperated valve gets in the way, you
may need to remove this as well.
6 With the siphon removed from the cistern you can now
see beneath the base of it and you’ll see the location of
the old perished diaphragm washer.
7 Remove the hook attached to the top of the shaft that
pulls the diaphragm; this then allows the diaphragm
housing to drop from the base of the siphon (see Figure
4.15).
8 With the old washer removed, a replacement can be
inserted. You can buy them, if you are lucky to find
one of the same size; however, I personally have
always used thick plastic polythene sheeting and cut
out my own, simply laying the old washer on the
plastic as a template. The type of plastic you require is
the type used as a damp-proof membrane or one of
those heavy-duty plastic builder’s bags. When you get
the old washer out, you will see the type of plastic I
mean.
9 With the new washer cut, replace everything in the
reverse order. All jointing washers should be in good
condition, but where they have perished simply wrap
some PTFE tape around the joining parts (not around
 the threads) where the old jointing washer or material
was.

replace PVC

remove hook
from top of
siphon

diaphragm washer

Figure 4.15 Replacing a WC siphon washer

10 Turn the water supply back on and test to see if it
works.
Hopefully this has been another job well done!
ReMOvING A CLOSe-COUPLeD TOILeT CISTeRN
With a close-coupled toilet cistern there is, unfortunately, a
little extra work to do before the siphon can be taken out:
the cistern has to be physically removed from its location
bolted to the WC pan. To do this, take these steps:
1 Turn off the water supply to the cistern and undo the
pipe connection to the float-operated valve.
2 The overflow connection will also need to be
disconnected. If this is at the bottom of the cistern, only
undo the nut that connects to the pipe going outside and
do not entirely remove the internal plastic tube from the
cistern, otherwise the water in the cistern will escape on
to the floor.
3 Next, remove the two screws holding the cistern back to
the wall.
4 Finally, remove the two wing nuts found beneath the
cistern, one on either side of the back of the WC pan,
holding the cistern down tight on to the pan itself. The
cistern is now free to move and can be lifted from the
pan.
5 Tip out the water from the still-full cistern into the WC
pan.
6 With the cistern removed, you will see a big black foam
washer pushed over the securing nut of the siphon, often
referred to as a donut washer. Simply pull this off and
replace it with a new one (which you can get from a
plumbers’ merchant) when reassembling the WC after
completing the repair.
7 Follow the procedure described above to remove the
siphon and replace the washer.
8 Finally, reassemble the components in the reverse order.
In the unlikely event that you cannot obtain a new donut
washer, it is possible to apply a large ring of ‘plumber’s
mait’ (see Appendix 2: Glossary) as an alternative.
However, if you use this, it is essential that the pan and
cistern connecting
parts are absolutely dry, otherwise the plumber’s mait
will not form a proper seal.
9 Turn on the water supply and test to see if it works.

VALVED TYPE
These flushing devices have only been installed since the
turn of the twenty-first century and therefore are relatively
new in the scheme of things (see Figure 1.8). When you
operate the push-button mechanism to flush the cistern, the
valve inside lifts up from its seating to allow the water to
discharge directly into the cistern outlet. If the unit fails to
flush, it is generally due to a broken component and, in
most cases, the whole internal flushing valve will have to
be replaced because spares for these devices are not
generally available.
If you are lucky, you may be able to purchase an identical
unit, making a replacement a relatively simple process.
Looking at the new component, you will notice that there
is a facility to turn and remove the valve from its base
plate. So, once you have done this and removed the
existing valve unit within the cistern, the damaged part can
be replaced without the need to remove the cistern.
Remember to turn off the water supply before carrying
out this task.
Water continuously discharges
into the pan
This problem might occur for one of the following
reasons:

CC Damaged or split siphon or flushing valve

In this case you will need to replace the flushing
mechanism in its entirety. In order to do this, follow the
guidance for a siphon type of flushing mechanism
above but, instead of replacing the washer, replace the
whole internal flushing component.
CC Worn-out washer (valved type)
If a replacement washer for a valved flushing cistern is
available (it will depend on the manufacturer), this
should be your first course of action but, alas, these are
not generally available and the entire mechanism may
need to be replaced.

CC Grit accumulated beneath the valve washer (valved

type) Where grit is preventing the valve fully dropping
to seal the outlet, you will have to twist the valve
anticlockwise to release it from its base plate, at which
point you can inspect it. When doing this, you will
need to turn off the water supply to the cistern. If the
washer is damaged, the valve section may need to be
replaced.

CC Siphonic action failing to stop (siphon type)

When the cistern continues to flow due to continued
siphonage, it may be that the cistern is filling too
 rapidly, in which case close down the isolation valve a
little.
Alternatively, it might be that the piston is not dropping
once the lever arm has been operated. In this case you
will need to investigate to find out what is stopping this
action.

CC Water discharge through an internal overflow

This means that the float-operated valve is not operating
correctly and is not closing off the supply, in which case
you should refer to the notes below relating to the toilet
cistern overflowing.

Toilet or storage cistern

overflowing
Should you find that water is dripping or pouring from an
overflow pipe outside your building, it is likely that a
cistern is overflowing due to the float-operated valve
(ballvalve) failing to close off the water supply. There are
several possible causes of the valve malfunction,
including:
CC a faulty washer – this is the most likely cause; the
washer simply wears out and perishes over time
CC limescale – causing the components to rub tightly
together, preventing the valve from moving freely and
closing
CC the float itself may have developed a leak and have
filled with water, making it ineffective, but this is quite
rare – if this is the case, simply replace the float.
If you call out a plumber to make the repair, they are likely
to replace the entire valve. Plumbers today often do not
repair ballvalves as a new one is inexpensive and it would
take longer to repair it than to replace it. Replacing the
valve also allows them to offer a better guarantee of their
work.
Replacing the valve is quite a simple process and is
completed as follows:
1 Turn off the water.

2 If you have a storage cistern, lower the water level by

flushing the WC or opening a tap.
3 Remove the old valve (see Figure 4.16). Usually it is
possible to undo the large union nut inside the cistern,
which allows the valve to come away for servicing
purposes. The bit that is left is that which holds the
valve in the cistern and on to which the water supply
connection is made. You can now simply undo this nut
on the new valve. If there is no internal union nut, you
will need to replace the entire valve.
4 Install the replacement valve.

5 Adjust the water level as required. This is generally

indicated by a mark inside the WC cistern saying ‘water
level’ or, in the case of the storage cistern, 25 mm
below the point where it would ultimately overflow.
The float-operated valve can, however, be serviced and
repaired. This basically requires you to close off the
supply to the cistern and to remove the valve as above.
Then you simply strip down the component as necessary,
cleaning off any limescale or abrasions and replacing the
washer.
Float-operated valve (ballvalve) washers are readily
available from plumbers’ merchants, but since they are
available in a couple of designs – diaphragm ballvalve
washers and Portsmouth ballvalve washers (see Figure
1.6) – you may need to take your old washer into the shop
to ensure that you get the right design.

cistern wall

union nut

removal of old valve

replacement valve

Figure 4.16 Replacing a float-operated valve

Sometimes the cause of an overflowing cistern is a small

piece of grit that has travelled through the pipe and
blocked the small inlet hole through which the water needs
to pass.
Figure 1.6 shows the location of the washer in the two
designs of float-operated valve. In the Portsmouth design
of ballvalve you will notice that the washer is housed
inside a small piston. To remove the old washer in this
type you simply position a flatbladed screwdriver in the
slot of the piston when removed from the valve and use a
large pair of pliers or a toothed wrench to unwind the end
of the housing, thus exposing the washer. If you do not
have a replacement washer, you can sometimes get away
with just turning the old washer over.

Toilet leaking when flushed

This is a common problem and in most cases it can be
fixed by remaking a connection to a component that has
worked loose, often by some unknown movement of the
appliance.
Where could it leak from? This is the first thing to find out
and to do this you simply need to flush the WC and look
and feel for the water escaping. Do this as many times as
necessary, as it is quite common to think the leak is at one
place only to discover later that it is higher up and the
water is running down, hidden from view. A leak may
arise from several possible locations, including:
CC in a flush pipe joint, where a low- or high-level cistern
is used
CC at the point where the close-coupled cistern sits on the
pan
CC at a crack in the porcelain pan itself
CC at the outlet connection to the drainage pipe.
With the exception of the cracked pan, which clearly
would need replacing, all of the above can be repaired as
follows.

LEAKY FLUSH PIPE JOINT

This would be a leak from the flush pipe either as it leaves
the cistern or as it adjoins the pan.
CCWhen the leak occurs as the pipe leaves the
cistern
1 The first and simplest thing to do is to try to tighten the
large nut (turning it clockwise) that holds the flush pipe
to the threaded connection of the siphon as it leaves the
cistern base. If there are two nuts, do not turn the big
nut holding the siphon into the cistern. If tightening the
nut does not work, you will need to unwind it and look
at the jointing material beneath. No water will come
out when you disconnect this, because water is only
present during the flushing operation.
2 With the nut unwound, you will usually find a rubber
ring that has been forced into the joint making up the
space between the flush pipe and the siphon. In most
cases you can apply a few turns of PTFE tape around
the existing ring to give it that additional volume to fill
the gap. Do not wind the PTFE around the thread of the
siphon as this will do nothing and may in fact prevent
you from making a sound joint. The joint is formed
where the jointing material is forced into the gap.

CCWhen the leak is where the flush pipe adjoins the

pan
1 In this case it is likely that you will need a new flush
pipe cone or connector. To replace this, you may need
to undo the cistern connection end of the flush pipe, as
identified above, to give you some additional
movement, otherwise you simply pull the flush pipe
back from the pan, possibly turning it to the side if room
is restricted. The joint is only a push-fit type joint,
although there are a few different designs (see Figure
4.17).
2 Once you have removed the old material or connector,
you can replace it with a new flush pipe connector,
replacing everything in the reverse order. If you
experience difficulty in pushing the flush pipe into the
joint when using the insert cone type, use a little
lubricant, such as washing-up liquid, to ease it. The
order of assembly for this type of joint is first to place
the cone inside the inlet horn of the WC, then to push
the flush pipe into the cone.

inlet horn

flush pipe

WC pan

insert cone internal cone

Figure 4.17 Flush pipe cones
CCWhen the leak is where the close-coupled cistern
sits on the pan
When water seeps from the space between the cistern and
pan when flushed, it indicates that the ‘donut washer’
located over the siphon-securing back nut has perished.
The only thing that can be done is to replace this washer.
Remove the close-couple cistern (as described earlier) to
identify the problem and effect a repair.

CCWhen the leak is where the pan adjoins the

drainage pipe For well over 35 years the WC pan outlet
connection to the drain has been made using a flexible
plastic connector, which either forms part of a plastic
drainage pipe or is a device such as a ‘Multiquick’, which
is a patented WC pan connector (see Figure 8.7).
These flexible joints are very durable and yet, like
everything, are subject to possible damage. When this joint
is leaking, the best course of action is probably to replace
it with a new flexible pan connection. In order to do this
you will need to remove the WC pan. For a low- or high-
level cistern with a flush pipe, you will not need to turn off
the water supply and remove the cistern, but for a close-
coupled pan you will need to remove the whole lot in order
to remake the joint.
Where older cement-jointed connections have been made,
such as in securing the pan to the floor or in forming the
outlet joint itself, you may find that the pan cannot be
removed and your only hope is to apply some form of
sealant, such as silicone, over the crack in the joint, but in
truth, the days of the pan may be numbered.
GATANGA TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL COLLEGE

PLUMBING TRADE THEORY

Burst pipes
The uncontrollable discharge of water from a pipe rapidly
sets the heart racing. This is where your ability to locate
and isolate the necessary stop valves for each part of your
plumbing system will pay dividends. If you have not
already done so, now might be the time to review the
section that deals with turning off the water supply (see
Chapter 4).
When water accumulates above a plasterboard ceiling, the
ceiling will often begin to bulge. If this happens, it is
always advisable to make a small hole at the lowest point
of the bulge, thereby letting the water out, which can then
be caught in a bucket. Failure to do this may eventually
lead to large sections of the ceiling coming down and
creating a great deal of mess and damage. Making a water-
release hole can also prevent water accumulating above
the ceiling and running on to electrical equipment, causing
additional problems.
If a burst pipe is the result of someone banging a nail into
it, the easiest way to minimize the water flow is to pop the
nail back into the hole made in the pipe. It will probably
continue to leak but the nail will greatly stem the flow
while you drain down the system via a suitable drain-off
cock.
If, for some unknown reason, you cannot isolate the water
supply, you could get a hammer and flatten the relevant
pipe section; this is not guaranteed to stem the flow but
provides a little hope in a desperate situation.

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FINDING THE LEAK
Here are some indicators that will provide clues as to
which system is leaking:
CC Can you hear the float-operated valve running in the
loft storage cistern? If so, the leak is not on the mains
supply.
CC If you turn off the mains supply only, does the leak stop
immediately? If so, this indicates that it is fed directly
from the mains supply.
CC Is the water hot, suggesting that it is from the hot water
or central heating system? Where the leak is from the
hot water or central heating system, it is advisable also
to turn off the heat source.
Once you have stopped the water flow, you can begin to
control the situation. If the leak is in a section of pipework
that is hidden from view, such as above a ceiling, the first
thing to do is expose the pipework where the leak is most
apparent by lifting floorboards or removing any covering
panels. Now turn the water back on for a short while in
order to pinpoint the leak. Don’t be surprised if, when you
turn on the water, the leak is not from the area you
suspected. Water has an uncanny way of travelling long
distances undetected.
When you turn the water back on, consider again the clues
above, which may give some indication of which system is
leaking. If you hear cisterns filling in the loft, look to see
which cistern is filling. If it is the f & e cistern, you know
that the heating system is leaking. If it is the larger cold
storage cistern, it will be the low-pressure hot or cold
water that has the leak. Each of the cold water outlets from
the cistern can be closed off to pinpoint which pipe is
leaking.

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A bit of detective work often needs to be done to locate the
source of a leak. You will need to call on your
understanding of the system designs described in Chapters
1 and 2. You may need to expose more pipework and
listen very carefully to the sound of the water hissing from
the pipe.
One of the most difficult leaks to locate is one beneath a
sandand-cement floor screed. The water seems to travel
everywhere through the channels preformed for the pipes,
making detection very difficult. It is invariably a case of
trial and error, exposing test holes in the floor to find the
wettest sections.
Eventually, however, the point of discharge will be found,
as will the supply isolation valve. The rest is now basic
plumbing, cutting out the affected section of pipe and
replacing it. For this work, see the notes in Chapter 6 about
jointing pipework.

Noises from pipework

Water flowing through pipes and into vessels can cause a
variety of noises, all of which may be quite annoying in
their own way. Sometimes we put up with these noises
because of the cost of curing the problem. The key thing is
to install the system correctly in the first place and most of
the problems will never occur.
The various kinds of noise you might have include:
CC one or two loud banging noises, usually when a tap is
closed
CC a series of rapid banging noises
CC humming in the pipework
CC a shushing noise as water passes through the pipework

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CC noise generated by a pump
CC creaking floor timbers
CC splashing noises as water refills a cistern
CC noises from a boiler, like a kettle boiling
CC gurgling noises in the pipework
CC gurgling noises from an appliance waste trap.
This is not an exhaustive list, but it represents the more
common situations dealt with below.

ONE OR TWO LOUD BANGING NOISES, USUALLY

WHEN A TAP IS CLOSED
This is the classic ‘water hammer’ sound. It is the result of
a tap or stopcock jumper/washer or non-return valve
rapidly closing, creating a sudden back-surge of water.
This noise can also be created by pipework that has not
been fixed securely, so that it flaps about. Securing loose
pipework may cure the problem, but if not:
1 Slightly turn down the incoming supply stopcock,
reducing the incoming water flow rate and thereby
preventing these back-surges.
2 Where water flow cannot be compromised, it is possible
to purchase a small expansion vessel to take up the
shock wave. This expansion vessel, designed
specifically to deal with this problem, is similar to that
used for an unvented domestic hot water system, but a
lot smaller.

A SERIES OF RAPID BANGING NOISES OR HUMMING IN

THE PIPEWORK These different sounds are, in fact, caused
by the same thing. The sounds are generated by the float-
operated valve in a storage cistern rapidly opening and
closing as it rides up and down on the small ripples or

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waves formed on the surface of the water in the cistern.
The waves are formed as water flows into the cistern when
the float-operated valve opens to make up the water level
after some water has been drawn off.
If the plastic cistern has been installed without the metal
reinforcing piece that came with it, the cistern wall will
flex as the float rides over the ripples on the water. There
are several possible cures for this problem:
1 Secure the float-operated valve (ballvalve) by fully
supporting the cistern wall.
2 Replace the normal 100 mm diameter float with a larger
ball float.
3 If a larger float cannot be obtained, secure a damper
plate to the lever arm to create a larger surface area (see
Figure 5.1).
4 Fit a baffle within the cistern to prevent waves forming.
This is basically a dividing plate to reduce the total
surface area of the water.
5 Turn down the incoming supply stopcock to reduce the
water flow into the home.
float-operated valve

metal reinforcement
to plastic cisterns

damper plate

Figure 5.1 Preventing ballvalve murmur

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A SHUSHING NOISE AS WATER PASSES THROUGH THE
PIPEWORK This noise often occurs if the installer has
failed to take the small internal burr off the pipe when
using a copper tube cutter. It is also sometimes generated
where pipework has been run within a timber stud wall.
The plasterboard over the timber studwork acts as a
resonator, amplifying the sound of the water flowing
through the pipe. When pipes are run within timber stud
walls, they should ideally be insulated and the pipe clips
placed on rubber or felt mountings to stop this
transmission of noise.
.
NOISE GENERATED BY A PUMP
Where this problem occurs with a central heating system,
turning down the setting – if a variable speed pump has
been installed – will generally alleviate the problem.
However, this may create a different problem in large
heating systems in that the furthest radiators from the
pump may not get warm enough.
Where the pump noise comes from a shower booster
pump, it may be that the pump has not been fitted with
flexible connections and on to a flexible mounting, and
so this would need to be provided if necessary. Also
check that the pump is not touching anything that would
act as a sounding box and elevate the noise level.

CREAKING FLOOR TIMBERS

This is generally the result of pipework running below
timber floors and passing through the floor joists with
notches that are barely large enough, or pipes that have
been run touching one another. The noises are the result of
the copper pipes expanding and contracting as they heat up
and cool down.

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When passing copper pipework through notches that have
been cut in the joist, ideally a felt pad or piece of carpet
underlay should be laid to dampen any movement noise
caused by the pipe expanding or contracting. The only
option is to lift the floorboards and investigate.

SPLASHING NOISE AS WATER REFILLS A CISTERN

You can eliminate this noise by fitting a polythene
collapsible silencer tube (see Figure 5.2). These are often
fitted as standard to WC flushing cisterns but are rarely
fitted to cold water storage cisterns. Within the loft and
inside an insulated cistern the noise is rarely heard, but if
the cistern is above your bedroom in a quiet house, it is the
sort of noise that sometimes, at night, seems like Chinese
water torture.
If you cannot get a polythene silencer, sometimes fitting an
inclined ramp, on to which the water can discharge inside
the cistern, eases the problem.

polythene silencer tube

Figure 5.2 Fitting a polythene silencer tube

NOISES FROM A BOILER, LIKE A KETTLE BOILING

Noises from the boiler, such as the sound of bubbling
water, can have one of several causes. If the system used
to work well and the problem has only just started for no

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apparent reason, it is possible that a narrow pocket of air
has become trapped within the boiler, perhaps as a result
of limescale or corrosion. The noise is generated by the
formation of steam and its subsequent condensing within
this area of trapped air. The only remedy, apart from a new
boiler, is to treat the system with a descaling solution.
Where a power flush is sought, this may require the
services of a reputable heating engineer; however,
depending on the age of your system and the materials it is
made from,
e.g. aluminium, copper or steel, several manufacturers
produce chemical cleaning solutions, available from any
plumbers’ merchant. These come with the necessary
application instructions and can be administered to clean
out your system.

GURGLING NOISES IN THE PIPEWORK

These sounds are to some extent to be expected in a new
system, as trapped air is slowly released from the system
via the vented pipework. However, if these bubbling
noises continue to flow up through the system, it suggests
a much deeper problem. It is possible that air is being
drawn into the system, in particular the heating system,
because a circulation pump is incorrectly located (see
Chapter 3).
Air being continually drawn into the system increases the
speed of corrosion within the system and, apart from the
noise generated, it should still be rectified in order to
extend the life of your system.

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GURGLING NOISES FROM AN APPLIANCE WASTE
TRAP
These noises are the result of water being siphoned out
from the trap. See Chapter 1 for a discussion of this
problem.

Hot water problems

Hot water problems may occur in both the water supply
and the central heating systems.

WATER GETTING TOO HOT

If the water is too hot, the most likely reason is that the
thermostat on the cylinder is set too high or that the
thermostat itself has malfunctioned. Where the
temperature is set too high, the simple remedy is to
adjust the thermostat setting. This needs to be done with
a screwdriver. Isolate the power before adjusting an
immersion heater thermostat, as you will need to
remove the top cover from the unit (see Figure 2.7).
You won’t need to isolate the power if a central heating
cylinder thermostat has been strapped to the side of the
cylinder.
In both cases, set the temperature to provide water at
60°C at the top of the cylinder (see Chapter 2). If,
however, the thermostat has malfunctioned and simply
fails to operate and close off the heat source, the
thermostat probably needs to be replaced. This is a
relatively simple process, making the electrical
connections with a similar replacement component, but
you will need to isolate the power before doing this. This
will be discussed further in Chapter 8.

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NO HOT WATER OR CENTRAL HEATING
A lack of hot water or central heating could be due to one
of several possibilities. You may have hot water but no
heating, or vice versa. There may be a blockage within the
pipeline, such as limescale or sludge build-up, but this type
of problem is fairly uncommon. The most likely cause, and
the first thing to investigate, is an electrical control fault
preventing the power reaching the point where it is
required. The areas to investigate are:
CC a blown fuse or loss of power supply
CC the time clock/programmer wrongly set or faulty
CC a faulty thermostat (room, cylinder or immersion heater
thermostat as appropriate)
CC a faulty motorized valve
CC a fault with the boiler or pump.
Electrical faults generally require the assistance of an
expert. The engineer will go through the above list and, by
a process of elimination, find where the fault lies.
The power supply to the boiler and pump ultimately
follows a set route (see Figure 5.3), and in order to
determine the cause of a problem you will need to check
that power is going to the first component, then that it
leaves that component to move on to the next component,
and so on until it reaches the boiler and pump. Along the
way you will discover where the interruption in the
sequence occurs, so you can focus on the area causing the
fault. So, for example, if you find that 230 volts is going
into the cylinder thermostat yet there is no voltage coming
from it, this suggests that this component or the wiring to
or from it is at fault.

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 power fuse programmer cylinder motorized
supply thermostat valve

room motorized boiler

thermostat valve and
pump

Figure 5.3 Sequential flow diagram showing power supply

to the boiler and pump

RADIATORS NOT GETTING HOT

If the radiators fail to get hot, this may be the result of an
electrical fault as discussed above. However, assuming
that you have an electrical supply to the pump and boiler,
it might be a problem with the pump itself. You can check
whether the pump impeller is going round simply by
placing the end of a large screwdriver up against the pump
and putting your ear to the handle. This transmits the
sound along the screwdriver shaft to the handle and you
will hear whether the pump impeller is going round.
You can investigate the operation of the impeller further
by removing the large central screw from the body of the
pump, out of which a little water will discharge. Behind
this big screw you will see another smaller screw head that
will be rotating if the pump is in operation. If not, try to
turn it with your screwdriver; if you are lucky, it will start
up and flick from your screwdriver as it rapidly turns. In
this case, replace the outer large screw to stop the water
seepage. I hardly dare say it, but giving the pump a quick
tap on its side with a hammer will sometimes nudge a

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pump back into action. If the impeller fails to turn, it will
need to be replaced.

CCReplacing the central heating pump

Once you have decided that the pump is faulty, you will
need to buy a replacement of a similar design. The task,
summarized in Figure 5.4, is then completed as follows:
1 Remove the electrical power supply to the pump and
boiler by isolating the circuit and removing the fuse.
Once you have confirmed that the power is dead,
remove the old wires where they enter the pump.
2 If you are lucky, there will be a water isolation valve on
either side of the pump. These are operated by turning
the two slotted heads on the valves one-quarter of a turn
with a screwdriver or spanner. Where there are no
isolation valves, or these are ineffective, you will need
to drain down the whole heating system (see Chapter 4).
3 With the water isolated, you can now undo the large
nuts on either side of the pump and remove it.
4 With the old pump out, position new sealing washers, if
these are used for the mating surfaces, and use a little
jointing paste where the components meet as the new
pump is inserted.
5 Firmly tighten the joints to secure the new pump in
position.
6 Now turn the water supply back on and check for leaks.

7 If all is sound, you can remake the electrical

connections and test the system.
Once the new pump is in place, the speed, if it is a
variablespeed pump, will need to be set to the lowest
setting and only increased if all the radiators fail to get hot.

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Setting the speed too high might create unacceptable
noises within the system.

ensure you fit a new

sealing washer

valves turned off

to isolate water
to confirm pump
supply when is working remove
replacing pump this screw to view
rotating head

pump

below
Figure 5.4 Replacing a central heating pump

RADIATORS DON’T GET HOT, BUT THE PUMP IS OK

If the radiators fail to get hot but the pump is working, the
system may be blocked with sludge caused by corrosion.
Should this be the case, you will need to descale the
system using a special acidic solution to dissolve it, as
discussed earlier.
Sometimes a radiator only gets warm around the sides and
along the top and has a cold spot in the middle. This is a
classic sign that corrosive sludge has accumulated in that
particular part of the radiator. Again, it may be possible to
solve this problem by using a descaling solution.
Alternatively, the radiator can be removed and subjected to

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individual treatment and flushing through with a high-
pressure hose.

CCBleeding a radiator
There may be just one or two radiators on your system
that are not getting warm. Assuming that the valves at
each end of the radiator are open, the first thing to check
is that they are not cold simply because they are full of
air. Air is expelled from the system radiators through a
small air-release valve located at the top and to one side
of the radiator, a process referred to as ‘bleeding’. Do this
as follows:
1 Turn down the room thermostat. This will turn off the
pump. (The reason for turning off the pump while
bleeding the radiator is to ensure that air is not sucked
into the system if the pump is creating a negative
pressure within.)
2 Use a special square-headed radiator key to open the
airrelease valve, turning it anticlockwise. You will hear
the air being forced out and eventually water will appear
at this point, whereupon you simply close the air-release
valve.
3 Turn the room thermostat back to the desired setting.

If a particular radiator continues to accumulate air, this

suggests that air is being drawn into the system, possibly
due to the incorrect positioning of the circulation pump.
This situation must be addressed because the air that is
being drawn into the system will speed up the corrosion
process and very soon you will be experiencing leaky
radiators that have corroded from the inside. Correct pump
location has already been discussed in Chapter 3.
If some radiators still remain cold after bleeding, the
system might be too large for the pump. A particular

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pump only generates so much pressure and will only push
the water so far, so a larger pump may be required. The
pump may have variable settings and it might be possible
to increase its speed and pressure by making a simple
adjustment on the side of the pump itself.
Another possibility is that some of the radiators closer to
the pump have their lockshield valves open to such an
extent that they are taking all the flow of water, in which
case they need to be closed a little in order to balance the
system (see Chapter 3). A simple test to see if balancing is
required is to close off the manual radiator valve operating
heads to several radiators that are working fine, to see if
the cold radiators then get hot; if so, you need to balance
the system better.

LEAKING RADIATOR VALVE

Sometimes when a radiator valve is operated, it leaks from
the nut at the point where the spindle turns. This can only
be seen when the plastic head is removed. This leaking
joint is often the result of the valve not being used
regularly. The simplest cure – and often all that is required
– is to tighten up the gland nut (see Figure 3.11). If this
does not cure the problem, the gland will need repacking.
To do this, take these steps:
1 First, turn off both radiator valves. To close the
lockshield valve you will need to use a small spanner.
When you close the lockshield valve, count the number
of turns it takes and, when required, only open the valve
by that number of turns.
2 With the valves closed, simply unwind the gland nut,
pack a few strands of PTFE around the spindle and push
it into the void into which the packing gland nut screws,
poking it down with a small screwdriver.

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3 Now replace the packing gland nut, tightening it just
enough to squeeze the new packing material within the
gland.
4 Re-open the radiator valves and test it.

Repacking this gland nut is basically the same procedure

as repacking any gland, as described with reference to a
leaking stopcock or tap in Chapter 4 (see Figure 4.11).
Note that some designs of valve do not have a gland nut
and use an ‘O’ ring. If this joint leaks, the valve will need
to be replaced.

Blockages in the wastewater

pipework
The most effective weapon used by the homeowner or a
plumber when tackling an obstruction is a plunger. The
plunger, when applied effectively, can cause some very
large pressures to push directly on to a blockage. If the
pipe is full of water, the force with which you push down
on the plunger is concentrated on the area of the blockage
– say a 100 mm drainage pipe – and, when the plunger is
pulled up again, it creates a partial vacuum and the
pressure of the atmosphere on the other side of the
blockage pushes back up on it.

BLOCKED SINK, BASIN OR BATH

The first thing to try is to use a plunger to unblock the
plughole.
1 You will require a force cup plunger as shown in Figure
5.5. These are easily obtainable from most hardware
stores or plumbers’ merchants.
2 Fill the sink with a fair quantity of water.

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3 You must now block up the overflow pipe. To do this,
take a piece of rag and stuff it hard against the overflow
opening. You must make a good seal here in order to be
successful in the plunging operation.
4 All you need to do now is push the plunger up and
down over the waste pipe outlet several times.
Using a plunger will usually clear a blockage; however,
blockages to appliances such as sinks and basins are often
the result of soap and fatty deposits. Plunging will give
some relief to the problem but will not remove all the fatty
debris and may make only a small hole in the blockage,
which will soon block up again. In this instance the ideal
solution is to remove the trap from the appliance for
internal inspection.

CCRemoving the trap

Where a plastic trap has been fitted to the appliance, this is
a relatively easy operation, but for older metal traps more
force and therefore more care will be required to undo the
nut(s) of the trap.

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 block the overflow
with a piece of rag

force cup plunger

plunging a sink waste

appliance waste

waste pipe

unscrewing a trap to remove a blockage

Figure 5.5 Unblocking a sink or basin
To remove the trap, take these steps:
1 Empty as much of the water from the appliance as
possible, bailing it out into a bucket.

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2 Now position a bucket or suitable receptacle beneath the
appliance to catch any spillage and remaining water
from within the trap itself.
3 If a bottle trap has been fitted, you will just need to
remove the lower dome-shaped bottom, as shown in
Figure 5.5. Where a tubular trap has been installed, you
will need to remove this in its entirety, as follows:
i Undo the large nut that joins the trap to the appliance
waste outlet, turning it anticlockwise.
ii Now undo the nut that joins the trap to the pipe; this
will allow you to remove the trap.
4 Be prepared for a sickly sight of fat, hair and general
grime. However, once all this rubbish has been removed
(undoing the third large nut adjoining the two sections
of the trap if necessary), you will have a clean trap with
an effective internal bore.
5 Before replacing the components, just look into the
outlet pipe for any further signs of blockage. If there is
excessive blockage, it may be time to consider using a
series of long drainage springs to poke down the tube,
or you could remove the whole pipe section and replace
it, but this is not usually necessary.
During this process no water, apart from that held within
the sink and trap itself, will flow from the appliance. In
most instances the trap is fairly easy to access, but
sometimes it may be difficult to reach the nut adjoining the
waste outlet of a pedestal basin. It might be possible to
ease the pedestal forward a small amount to gain better
access, but take care as it is designed to give support to the
basin and is easily chipped, being made of porcelain.
When you reassemble the waste pipe, take extra care when
doing up the nuts as they are made of plastic and it is easy

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to cross-thread a joint, preventing it from doing up tightly.
The seal that was in place before you undid it will
probably still be fine to reuse, but if necessary you can
wrap a few turns of PTFE tape to the mating surfaces near
the damaged sealing washer. Do not wrap PTFE tape
around the pipe threads themselves as the nut and thread
are just used to pull or clamp the two mating surfaces
together, crushing jointing material in place to form the
seal – they do not themselves form the watertight seal.

BLOCKED TOILET
When a toilet blocks, the natural instinct is to panic and to
wish the problem would go away as quickly as possible.
When you flush the toilet, the bowl fills with foul water,
which just sits there. It may slowly drain away but the
blockage still remains, and after the next flush the water
will back up and fill the bowl again.
Purchasing a simple drain rod and a 150 mm rubber
plunger to screw on to its head could easily save you
hundreds in plumbers’ call-out charges. If you call out a
plumber, they will probably fix the problem within 30
seconds of arriving, leaving you happy to pay whatever
they ask. But there is no magic – it is simply a matter of
them using their plunger to create the pressure needed to
dislodge the blockage.
So what do you do?
1 Obtain a drainage rod or chimney sweep’s rod with a
thread on one end. On to this, screw a 150 mm drain
plunger obtainable from a plumbers’ merchant.
2 Ensure that some water, however disgusting, is in the
WC bowl, or flush the appliance so that it fills and
backs up.

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3 Push the rubber plunger back and forth down inside the
pan, back towards the trap, as shown in Figure 5.6.
With any luck this will cure the problem. I once cleared a
blockage using this technique but without a plunger. I used
an old-fashioned floor mop on to which I secured a plastic
bag; this made a suitably effective plunger. Plunging can
be very effective and so, if a toilet remains blocked after
plunging, this suggests a blockage further down the
pipeline. Air is simply getting in via the open vent pipe at
the top of the drain, relieving the partial vacuum you are
trying to create.
Blockages further along the drainpipe might also affect
other appliances, in effect putting several appliances, such
as sinks and baths, out of action.
150 mm rubber
plunger on a
drain rod

blockage

Figure 5.6 Unblocking a WC pan

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BLOCKED DRAINS
What a nightmare! Nobody likes blocked drains.
Everything in the household may be put out of action as
a result of this kind of blockage. The first course of
action is again to consider the plunger.
Let’s assume that you lift up the inspection/manhole
covers outside your home and find that they are filled with
sewage. Arm yourself with a set of drainage rods now, not
just the single one required to unblock a WC pan (rods can
be hired quite cheaply from most hire centres). Secure a
100 mm plunger on to the end and insert this into the next
dry manhole chamber down from the blockage, aiming
towards the one full of liquid. Insert the rod several metres
and then pull it from the pipe. Nine times out of ten, this
will create the suction required to dislodge the blockage. If
you cannot locate a dry inspection chamber, you will need
to try to pass your rods, with the plunger attached, through
the sewage towards the outlet to pass it into the pipe.
Again, once it is inserted, simply push and pull the plunger
to create an alternating pressure to dislodge the blockage.

Unfortunately, plunging the pipework does not work in

every situation, but always try it first. Where it fails, you
will need to secure the worm screw attachment on to the
end of the drainage rods. You then pass these down
through the pipe until the blockage is found and then you
need to give a few forward blows, hitting the blockage
directly, attacking it from both directions if necessary –
upstream and downstream. But remember: never turn the
rods anticlockwise (see Figure 5.7).
Drainage systems installed in buildings prior to the 1960s
often incorporated a special intercepting trap at the point
where the house drain joined the public sewer. These are

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no longer installed because they were often the cause of
blockages.
If one of these is blocked in an older property, it will need
to be plunged in the same way as a WC pan. However, if
the blockage is downstream of the trap, there is a stopper
that allows rodding access towards the sewer. The stopper
should be removed by lifting it from its seating, pulling it
up with the attached chain.

Key
One final point regarding blocked pipes is that, if you have
to remove bolted-on access covers, particularly those
inside the house in the above-ground part of the drainage
system, give some thought to what might be behind the
access door. These doors are designed to be watertight, so
prior to opening them you cannot tell what is behind them.
Since the pressure of the backed-up liquid contained
within could be quite considerable, spraying the contents
some distance from the opening, you will need to take
precautions to avoid getting covered in effluent.

BLOCKED GUTTERS AND RAINWATER PIPES

Over time your gutters will collect dust from the
atmosphere, plus moss and other debris as it falls on and
comes down from the roof. This inevitably silts up the
gutters, making a wellwatered bedding material for seeds
to grow in. Eventually the gutter will overflow because the
water cannot freely pass to the downpipe. It is very easy to
clear out this debris, and a useful tool to help with this is a
small semi-circular section fixed on to the end of a pole, to
pull any debris towards you. Simply collect the rubbish
into a bucket for removal.

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6
Take care when working up a ladder. If you do not feel
confident doing so, it may be advisable to call on someone
else

Figure 5.7 Rodding a drain

to do the work. If you do decide to do it yourself, always

ensure that the ladder is ‘footed’ by another competent

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person so that it will not slip, and never overreach when
working up a ladder. Never lean the ladder up against the
gutter itself as it may cause damage, especially where a
plastic gutter has been installed, but, more importantly,
your ladder can also easily slip to the side when it is
resting against such a smooth surface, making it very
dangerous.
Should the rainwater pipe itself become blocked with
debris, it poses a much more difficult problem. You can
try poking a drainage spring up or down the pipe, but
sometimes, especially if it is a plastic rainwater pipe, it is
quicker to disconnect the entire pipe section and do the
unblocking at ground level. Fortunately, it is usually just a
blockage at the bottom end of the pipe that is creating the
problem, causing the water to back up and come out of the
joints, which are not made watertight – and, incidentally,
were never intended to be watertight. A blockage at the
bottom of the pipe is often the result of a blocked gully,
which can simply be emptied physically by hand.!

Smell of gas or fumes

Never allow this situation to go unchecked! If you smell a
gas leak, take the following measures for your own safety
because otherwise an explosion could result:
1 Turn off all gas appliances.

2 Turn off the emergency gas control valve at the gas

meter.
3 Open all windows.

4 Do not operate light switches and extinguish all naked

flames.
5 Call a gas service engineer or your gas supplier.

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 Key idea
Just as you should know the location of your mains inlet
water supply stopcock, you should know the location of
the gas supply inlet. Make sure you can access it easily, in
case you need to turn off the supply in an emergency.
The telephone number of the national UK gas emergency
service is 0800 111 999. In the US, simply call 911.
In newer houses, the gas meter and emergency control
valve are often outside in a meter box. If you have a gas
meter box, make sure you know where the key is kept in
case of an emergency. You can close off the supply
completely by turning the handle attached to the control
valve just a one-quarter turn.

The products of combustion are highly dangerous, not just

from gas appliances but also from any fuel-burning
appliances such as those burning oil and solid fuel. You
may smell products other than gas, and there is a good
chance that these will contain carbon monoxide, a highly
toxic gas (see Chapter 2). As above, if you smell any
fumes, do the following:
1 Turn off the gas appliance.

2 Open the windows where the fumes are discovered.

3 If you feel drowsy, evacuate the building to get some

!
fresh air.
4 Call a doctor if necessary.

Focus points
1 Turning down the incoming cold water supply
stopcock will often cure a host of sloshing and
banging noises in pipework.

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2 Creaking floor joists are often the result of
insufficient expansion allowance between the notch
in the timber and a hot water pipe passing through,
so, as the pipe expands due to heating up, it rubs
against the timber.
3 A noisy boiler is often caused by corrosion or scale
build-up within the heating circuit, leading to air
becoming trapped in the boiler.
4 Do not undertake electrical work, such as changing
the circulating pump on the central heating system,
unless you are competent with electrical installations
and know how to work safely in this field.
5 When radiators fail to get hot, the system could be
poorly balanced or blocked by sludge, which is
invariably the result of corrosion within the system.
6 Most blockages in wastewater pipework can be
rectified by the use of a plunger.
7 When using a plunger, you must block up the
overflow pipe, where one is fitted.
8 The trap beneath appliances such as sinks and basins
can simply be disconnected and drained into a
bucket. For this task the water does not need to be
turned off.
9 When unblocking drains, take suitable precautions to
avoid contamination by the foul and dangerous
bacteria found in these pipe systems.
10 If you smell gas or fumes within a building, act
immediately by turning off the appliance(s) and
ventilating the property by opening all doors and
windows. Do not operate any light switches, and call
either a gas engineer or the supplier for further
advice.

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Corrosion
Corrosion is a chemical attack on metal, which brings
about its destruction. There are two forms of corrosion:
CC atmospheric

corrosion CC electrolytic
corrosion.

ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION
Everyone has seen atmospheric corrosion: leave a tin can
in the garden and very soon it will be rusty and full of
holes. It is the water and oxygen in the air that causes this
corrosion: their presence on the exposed surface of iron
causes oxidation. The resultant iron oxide is not stable and
falls away, exposing more fresh metal, and the process
continues until there is none of the iron left and only a
scattering of iron oxide (rust) on the ground.
Atmospheric corrosion attacks all metals in this way but
unless the metal is ferrous (i.e. contains iron) the corrosion
formed on the surface of the metal is stable and so
prevents any further corrosion. This process can be seen
on a copper roof that has turned green – the green is the
oxidized copper that has formed due to corrosion over a
period of time. Copper pipe is unaffected by atmospheric
corrosion and it can therefore be used for water supplies
without fear. If we used iron pipes for water services, they
would last only a very short time. You may find iron
pipework in your home, but the iron has been covered with
a coating of zinc, referred to as being galvanized, so the
metal is in fact protected to some degree against
atmospheric corrosion.

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As discussed in Chapter 3, steel radiators are used in
central heating systems and last for many years without
rusting.
This may seem strange as they are totally filled with water,
but for corrosion to occur there also needs to be oxygen
present. There is a certain amount of oxygen within a
sample of water, but the radiators do not rust because the
water is never changed, except for repair work, and within
a week or so of filling the system all the oxygen in it will
have escaped back into the atmosphere. And with no
oxygen there is no rusting.

ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION
Galvanized mild steel – iron coated with zinc – is no
longer installed in the home, although it can still be found.
This pipework, although protected against atmospheric
corrosion, is subject to another form of corrosion brought
about by a process known as electrolysis. This is where
one metal attacks and destroys another metal lower down
the electromotive series. The electromotive series is a list
of metals with different abilities to resist destruction by
another metal – the metals lower down the list are less
able to resist than those higher up the list. Where there is a
mix of different metals within a system, the metal lowest
on the list is destroyed first, before electrolytic corrosion
begins on the metal next highest in the list. The
electromotive series of typical plumbing metals is:
CC copper

CC lead

CC tin

CC iron

CC zinc

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CC aluminium.
Galvanized mild steel pipes are iron with a coating of zinc.
The zinc coating not only protects the iron against
atmospheric corrosion but also provides a sacrificial metal
to be destroyed before the iron when mixed with other
materials such as copper. If you look at the list above, you
will see that the copper would destroy the zinc before the
iron is attacked, as the zinc is lower down the list.

Pipework used for water

supplies
You can buy a whole range of fittings designed to make all
kinds of connections, such as for joining pipe to pipe or a
pipe to an appliance. Today you can pick up special
flexible pipe fittings designed to help you make
connections to basins, baths and other appliances. In the
past these connections could only be achieved with the use
of a bending machine. For the past 50 years or so, copper
pipe has been the material most widely used for running
water through; however, plastics are being used more and
more and, depending upon the age of your property, you
may find other materials including mild steel and lead
pipework, which is no longer installed but to which
connections can still be made.

CONNECTIONS TO LEAD PIPES

Lead pipework installations should always be removed
where possible because the material is toxic and can
contaminate the water supply. Any connections to lead
pipework should be made only as a last resort – for
example, if you need to make a connection on to an
existing lead mains cold water inlet supply pipe. The
connection is made using a special compression fitting.
These joints are similar to the compression joint used for

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copper pipes (see below), except that they are much larger
and have a rubber compression ring instead of the brass
ring used for copper. These compression fittings (e.g.
Lead-loc) can be obtained from most plumbers’
merchants. The replacement of old lead mains should be
considered at the earliest possible opportunity, for which a
local government grant may be available.

CONNECTIONS TO MILD STEEL PIPES

As with lead pipes, mild steel pipes should generally be
removed whenever possible, as they have now well
exceeded their expected lifespan. It is more than likely that
they are excessively corroded inside and are affecting the
volume of flow that you should expect. In fact, old steel
pipework is one of the major causes of blockages to
existing systems of water supply. Connections to mild
steel pipework with copper will create additional
electrolytic corrosion problems, as discussed above, and
any connection made could be the source of a blockage
problem within a few years.
Connection to the pipe can be achieved with a similar
compression joint to that used on lead pipe, with a rubber
compression ring. However, the best joint to use would be
to make a connection on to a threaded joint. This would be
one of the following:
CC A male iron thread (an external thread)
CC A female iron thread (an internal thread)
Figure 6.1 shows these fittings. The threaded connection
is made by firstly applying a few turns, in a clockwise
direction, of PTFE jointing tape on to the male thread of
one fitting. This is then wound into the female thread of
the other fitting, thereby forming a sound bonded joint.
The copper or plastic pipe is then made on to this fitting
as a compression connection (see below). It is possible to

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use a jointing paste instead of PTFE tape, but you will
need to ensure that it is acceptable for use with the
contents of the pipe, as indicated on the side of the tin.

– mild steel pipe 15 mm copper pipe

female iron compression joint thread

1′′
2

male iron – female iron to 1512′′ mm thread

copper coupling
Figure 6.1 Threaded joints
PTFE
PTFE is the abbreviation for polytetrafluoroethylene,
which is a white-coloured plastic tape used extensively for
making joints to threaded pipe connections, or as a
packing material where some make-up to a small void is
required. It is readily available and can be purchased at all
plumbers’ merchants. PTFE is known as Teflon in the
USA.

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Copper pipework and fittings
Copper has become well established as a piping material
suitable for all water supplies and in all circumstances.
Making a sound water connection to a pipe is a relatively
simple operation and, once you’ve mastered this skill, you
will be able to undertake fairly substantial projects. There
are three basic jointing methods used in the domestic
environment:
compression joints
soldered joints
push-fit joints.

COMPRESSION JOINTS
These are made using a fitting that clamps a compression
ring on to the pipe and wedges it into the fitting at the
same time (see Figure 6.2). To complete a sound joint,
take the following steps:
1 Push the nut on to the pipe.

2 Push on the brass compression ring.

3 Insert the end of the pipe fully into the fitting, making
sure that it reaches the stop.
4 Push the compression ring along the pipe to the mouth
of the fitting.
5 Now wind the nut on to the thread of the fitting in a
clockwise direction. This pulls the compression ring
into the fitting. It is essential that the compression nut is
not tightened too much as this will distort the
compression ring inside, which may cause a leak. The
joint should only be tightened sufficiently to hold the
connection firm. When the water is turned on, it can
always be tightened a little more if necessary, but once

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 tightened too much no further tightening will cure the
leak.
Note that no jointing materials are necessary to make this
connection: it is a dry jointing method. However, a trick
sometimes used by plumbers, especially where the
compression ring used is not new, is either to wrap a ring
of PTFE tape over the compression ring or to apply a little
jointing paste on to the ring to make up for any blemishes.
This is not applied on to the threads of the fitting, as these
are just used to pull the joint together and do not make the
seal.

tee coupling elbow

nut
pipe compression ring

section through a compression

coupling Figure 6.2 Compression fittings

SOLDERED JOINTS
These are joints that have been made with the use of a
blowlamp, although an electric soldering machine can also
be used to supply sufficient heat to the joint without the
need of a blowlamp.

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There are two types of solder fitting: those that contain a
ring of solder (referred to as solder ring fittings) and those
that require the solder to be applied from a reel (referred to
as end-feed fittings) (see Figure 6.3). When using the
solder ring fittings, no additional solder needs to be
applied to the joint.
Note that the solder used for hot and cold water supplies
needs to be lead free in order to avoid contaminating the
water. However, where central heating pipework is being
installed, it makes no difference what kind of solder you
use. Both of these solders are readily available from
plumbers’ merchants.

ring of solder
within fitting

solder ring reducer end-feed reducing tee end-feed tap connector

ring of solder within fitting solder

solder ring joint end-feed joint

(solder is added to joint)
Figure 6.3 Soldered joints

To make a soldered joint, take the following steps:

1 Adequately clean the mating surfaces of the pipe and
inside the fitting. Do this with wire wool or a special
nylon cleaning pad available from plumbers’ merchants.

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2 Apply a suitable flux to the cleaned surfaces. This is a
special paste, readily available from plumbers’
merchants, applied in order to keep the work area clean
while soldering, thereby allowing the molten solder to
stick to the copper and flow easily. Note that solder will
not adhere to dirty or oily surfaces. (There are self-
cleansing fluxes that will clean the pipe and fitting as
the heat is applied, but take care: they can be
aggressive, and any residual flux needs to be fully
flushed from both inside and outside the pipe.)
3 Ensure that there is absolutely no water in the pipe
when soldering, otherwise it will not reach a high
enough temperature – even the smallest drop of water
will prevent the solder from melting.
4 Using a blowlamp or a soldering machine, apply heat to
the assembled joint to melt the solder. Apply the solder
as soon as it melts – do not simply hold the blowlamp
there and burn away all the flux. If solder ring fittings
have been used, the solder will be seen emerging at the
mouth of the fitting. Then remove the heat source.
5 Take care not to set fire to any combustible materials in
the vicinity.
6 Allow the joint to cool before moving it.

7 Finally, wipe off any residual flux – otherwise, it will

make the pipe go green from the effect of corrosion on
the pipe.
Should the joint leak when you test it, you will need to
completely remove it and form a new joint, using a new
fitting. The problem is most likely to have been a dirty
joint. Cleanliness and the application of a flux are essential
in order to solder a joint successfully.

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The completion of a soldered joint is a relatively
straightforward task if you follow the guidelines above.
There must be no water in the pipe in order to solder
successfully. The pipe must be clean and have a suitable
flux applied. Any joint that fails will need to be completely
removed.

PUSH-FIT JOINTS
There is a whole range of push-fit joints available. These
joints are very effective and you should not worry that
they will not hold the water pressure – as long as you have
assembled the joint correctly, inserting it fully into the
fitting and ensuring that it is pushed all the way up to the
internal stop. The joint is achieved by the use of an
internal ‘O’ ring. When elbow or bend joints are used, they
have the advantage that they can be swivelled around to
any direction, even when water is in the pipe. Because of
this freedom of movement, the pipework does need to be
fully supported with pipe clips (see below).
Push-fit joints cannot readily be pulled from the pipe as
there is an internal grab ring preventing withdrawal.
However, they can be dismantled and reused. To remove
the joint (see Figure 6.4), push the end collet tightly into
the fitting and, while holding it close to the fitting, pull out
the pipe. Different manufacturers use different methods to
disassemble the joint, so you may need to obtain further
advice from the manufacturer of a particular fitting.

elbow

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 push and hold
collet in to ‘O’ ring
withdraw pipe

collet
section through a straight coupling

Figure 6.4 Push-fit joints

PIPE CLIPS
All pipework needs to be securely supported and held
firmly by a pipe clip. These clips should be securely fixed
to the wall or adjoining surface at a distance not
exceeding the dimensions listed in Table 6.1 below.

Pipe size Copper clips Plastic clips

(mm) horizontal Vertical horizontal Vertical
15 1.2 1.8 0.6 1.
2
22 1.8 2.4 0.7 1.
4
28 1.8 2.4 0.8 1.
5

Table 6.1 Maximum pipe support spacing, in metres

Bending copper tube

Copper tube can be installed using fittings throughout,
thereby avoiding the need to pull any pipe bends.
However, this would:
CC increase the installation time
CC add to the cost of the job

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CC increase the likelihood of leaks
CC reduce the pressure available at the outlet, due to the
increased frictional resistance caused by the fittings
installed.
It is possible to purchase special flexible pipes and these
do have a use in areas such as making the final
connections to bath taps, but these would again increase
the cost of the work if used extensively throughout a
plumbing project and they do look unsightly. Bends pulled
directly on to the pipe are preferable, but in order to form a
bend you will need either a bending spring or a bending
machine.

USING A BENDING SPRING

This is the cheap option for pipe bending. A bending
spring, if used correctly, will generally be more than
adequate for occasional use. However, it is easily damaged
and can get stuck inside the pipe if wrongly used.
There are several tricks for successfully using a bending
spring:
CC Don’t pull the bend too sharply, i.e. have a long radius
to the bend. As a general guide for a 90° bend on 15
mm copper pipe, the radius will be something like that
if pulled around a pipe of 150 mm diameter.
CC Always slightly over-pull your bend, then open the
bend out again. This will release the spring inside the
pipe to assist removal.
CC When withdrawing the spring after pulling the bend,
do not just pull hard at the end of the spring, but turn it
in a clockwise direction. Do this with the aid of a
screwdriver passed into the loop at its end. This
tightens the spring up, forcing it to a smaller diameter.
Just pulling hard to remove the spring will damage it.

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CC If it gets stuck, try gently closing and opening the bend
a little to free up the spring.
Bending springs are ideal where small bends and direction
changes are required and when used to form offsets in the
pipework. With the spring inserted into the pipe, pull it
around a round object or around your knee, keeping the
radius smooth and not too sharp (see Figure 6.5). If at any
time a ripple begins to form in the bend, immediately stop
the process and withdraw the spring as it will undoubtedly
get stuck inside the pipe.

USING A BENDING MACHINE

A small handheld bending machine will last a lifetime. It
will cost more than a bending spring but you can also hire
one by the day. With a bending machine it is possible to
form all kinds of weird and wonderful shapes. A few
simple operations are explained here, but if you struggle to
pull a 90° bend to the accuracy described, do not worry;
just pull the bend with a little extra spare pipe and cut it to
the required length as necessary.

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Figure 6.5 Pipe bending with a spring

CCForming a bend
The procedure described here can be used to form a bend
at any angle up to 90°.
1 First, measure and mark on a straight length of pipe the
distance to the back of the bend you require, as shown
in Figure 6.6.
2 Place the pipe into the bending machine with this mark
square in line with the back of the bending machine.
3 Attach the hook of the tube stop to the pipe.

4 Position the back guide on the pipe and engage the

roller to hold it in place.

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Finally, pull down the lever arm to form the bend, stopping
when the desired angle is achieved. Note that to form a
bend in 22 mm pipe requires considerable strength.
‘x’ mark pipe here

pipe
proposed bend

lever arm of
bending machine
pulled down

‘x’ roller
back guide

square
pipe

tube stop
Figure 6.6 Pulling a 90° bend

CCForming an offset
An offset is a series of two bends that, in effect, allows the
pipe to continue in the same direction but along a new
parallel plane.
This is achieved as follows:
1 Take a measurement of the required offset.

2 Now pull the first bend to an angle within the machine.

This angle can be as large or as small as suits your

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 needs, but should not be too sharp otherwise there will
be insufficient room for the tube stop and hook to sit on
the pipe when making the second bend. An angle of
around 30° is usually about right.
3 The pipe is now repositioned in the bending machine,
with the bend you have just pulled pointing upwards.
Ensure that the pipe is lying in the bender with the first
offset in line with the direction of the roller, otherwise
your second bend will be pulled in a different plane.
Place a straight edge parallel to the angle of the first
bend formed, to measure the required distance of the
offset (see Figure 6.7).
4 Once you have measured the correct distance for the
required offset and put the tube stop in place, the pipe
can be pulled round until the correct angle is achieved
along the new parallel plane.

Plastic pipework and fittings

Over the past 20 years or so there has been quite a
revolution within the plumbing industry regarding whether
to use copper or plastic for the pipework within a building.
Plastic pipework can be used safely for both cold and hot
water supplies, including the central heating. Plumbing
systems can certainly be installed much more quickly with
plastic piping, and no jointing is required in long pipe
runs. It is also easier to poke or push it through difficult
locations or pipe ducts. Water noise due to water flowing
through the pipes is also greatly reduced. But, for pipes
that will be seen and that run on the surface, plastic looks
rather messy. It lacks the sharpness and conformity of a
regular shape that one expects from a piece of copper tube.

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Fortunately, nowadays the external pipe diameter of most
plastic pipe is the same as for copper, and therefore you
can simply use a mix of the two materials, running plastic
below floors and anywhere else they won’t be seen, and
making the final connections that will be on show in
copper. The push-fit method of jointing would be used
(see above).
The polyethylene (PE) plastic pipe used underground, such
as that used for the mains water supply pipe from the road
into a building, is of a different type and to make this type
of joint a special compression fitting is usually used,
although some pushfit joints can be used. It should be
noted that, when making this plastic joint, an internal
sleeve is inserted into the tube end as it enters the fitting,
thereby providing additional support.
Polyethylene pipe has a very thick wall so, for example, 25
mm PE equates to 22 mm copper pipe and 20 mm PE
equates to 15 mm copper pipe.

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 proposed offset
on pipe
required
offset

pulling first bend

required
offset straight edge

back guide

tube stop tube

pulling second bend

fir
st bend
Figure 6.7 Forming an offset
PLASTIC WASTE PIPEWORK
Within the home, plastic plumbing materials for internal
drainage pipes have been used now for well over 40 years.
These materials are very simple to join together and, when

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installed correctly, last for many years without any
problems. The three types of joint used are:
CC push-fit
CC solvent-welded
CC compression fitting (see Figure 6.8).

CCPush-fit joints
These consist of a large ‘O’ ring housed within the fitting
and into which the spigot of another fitting or the plain end
of a pipe is pushed. In order to make a successful joint, the
pipe needs to be cut square and a small bevelled edge
chamfered on to the pipe end, using a rasp or similar tool.
Now, ideally, some silicone lubricant or soap solution is
put on to the pipe and it is pushed firmly into the fitting.
Where a long pipe run has been made, it is advisable to re-
pull the pipe from the fitting a little, say 10 mm, thereby
allowing for expansion of the plastic pipe.

Solvent-welded joints
These joints, once formed, cannot be reused, unlike the
push-fit joint, which can be pulled apart and used over and
over again. The solvent-welded joint uses special solvent
weld cement. It is not a glue used to stick the two surfaces
together but a solvent that burns into the pipe and the
fitting, thereby bonding the two to form a sound, firm
joint. Once made, the joint hardens within seconds and,
when fully set, no amount of pulling or twisting will have
any effect. To form this type of joint, follow these steps:
1 First, clean the pipe en d and the internal surface of the
fitting with a solvent cleaner. This process can be
omitted if your fittings and pipe are reasonably clean.

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2 Now smear a thin layer of solvent cement on to the pipe
end and inside the fitting to be joined to it. Bring the
two together quickly, giving a slight twist, thereby
ensuring that the cement is in contact with all parts of
the mating surfaces. Before the solvent sets, make sure
the bend, if used, is facing in the desired direction.
Leave the fitting to stand for a few minutes, after which
time it will be set quite firm and will generally be ready
for use.
3 It is essential not to use too much solvent cement
because excess cement will be pushed into the pipe and
wasted, and the joint will take much longer to set.
Solvent cement gives off vapours, so do not use it in
confined spaces without plenty of ventilation. The
cement is also highly flammable.

‘O’ ring

solvent-welded joint push-fit joint

nut flat rubber

washer compression
ring

compression joint

Figure 6.8 Joints used on plastic waste pipe

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Remember this
When forming a solvent-welded joint on plastic waste
pipe, remember that, once the joint has set – usually
within 30 seconds or so – the joint cannot be pulled apart.
If incorrectly positioned, the joint would need to be cut
out of the pipeline.

Compression joints
Waste pipe compression joints are generally restricted to
the connections of traps to the pipework. For this joint, a
rubber compression ring is used. To form this type of joint,
follow these steps:
1 Push the nut on to the pipe.

2 Push on the flat plastic washer.

3 Push on the rubber compression ring.

4 Fully insert the end of the pipe into the fitting, making
sure it reaches the stop.
5 Push the compression ring along the pipe to the mouth
of the fitting.
6 Now wind the nut on to the thread of the fitting in a
clockwise direction. This pulls the flat washer up to the
compression ring, forcing it into the fitting. These joints
are generally made watertight by no more force than
that required to tighten the nut up by hand.

Specialist plumbing tools

Before starting out on any plumbing job, you will need a
selection of tools to enable you to complete the task with
relative ease. If you do not have the correct tools, you will

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become frustrated very quickly and find you wish you had
never started the job in the first place.

Quick kit guide to plumbing tools

Listed here are the tools you should ideally have to hand,
to deal with a good percentage of small works:
✲ Various sized screwdrivers, both cross- and straight-
head types
✲ Claw hammer and selection of wood chisels
✲ Club hammer for heavier work and a selection of cold
chisels for brickwork
✲ Various adjustable spanners
✲ One or two adjustable wrenches such as pump pliers or
Stilsons
✲ Basin spanner*
✲ Large-framed and junior hacksaws, plus some spare
blades
✲ Cutting knife (e.g. Stanley)
✲ Wood saw
✲ Copper tube cutters*
✲ Various rasps and
files ✲ Side cutters
and pliers
✲ Large and small spirit level
✲ Tape measure
✲ Stopcock key (see Chapter 4)
✲ Temporary bonding wires*
✲ Blowlamp
✲ Sink plunger & 150 mm plunger for WC pans (see
Chapter 5)
✲ Pipe bender (see Chapter 6)
✲ Battery drill and various drill bits for both wood and
wall

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✲ Dustsheets
✲ Personal safety equipment
* These are specialist items, which are identified further over
the following pages.

THE BASIN SPANNER

This tool is essential if you need to tighten or loosen the
nuts located up behind a bath, basin or sink where space is
very restricted. There are several designs of basin spanner,
and the design you use is very much a matter of choice – I
personally find the adjustable wrench type the most
versatile (see Figure 6.9).
Explaining how to use this spanner is difficult and it is
really necessary to get some hands-on practice. You
can change the turning direction, i.e. clockwise or
anticlockwise, of the adjustable wrench shown simply
by altering the direction to which the toothed head is
facing at the top of the shaft.

adjustable wrench

‘shetack’ type of
basin spanner

Figure 6.9 Basin spanners

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THE TUBE CUTTER
This is not an essential tool because you can cut a pipe
with a hacksaw, even a junior hacksaw, but it will cut the
pipe squarely and with a great deal of ease. However, its
biggest drawback is that it puts a small internal burr on the
pipe. Often the plumber does not worry about this, but it
can cause noise problems that are not identified until it is
too late to do anything about it. The internal burr should
ideally be reamed or filed out, and many cutters include a
reamer for this purpose. The cutter is operated by winding
down the handle until the single roller touches the pipe
(see Figure 6.10). The tool is then rotated fully around the
pipe; the handle is then wound down another half to one
turn and rotated again. You repeat this process as many
times

roller pipe slice

cutting
wheel

reamer

roller pipe cutter

Figure 6.10 Copper tube cutters

as necessary until sufficient depth has been cut into the

pipe to cause it to part. A particularly good cutter for

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getting into tight areas is the pipe slice, but with this you
need to select one of the correct size, i.e. 15 mm or 22 mm.
This design of cutter automatically cuts the pipe as it is
rotated, without you needing to adjust the blade depth.
These cutters will cut right through the pipe so, before you
cut it, it is absolutely essential to check that there is no
water within the pipe, otherwise this will flow
uncontrollably from the pipe ends when they part.

TEMPORARY CONTINUITY BONDING WIRE

Although pipework these days is supposed to be bonded
and safe from electrical currents (see equipotential earth
bonding in Chapter 1), it is possible that there might be a
fault, unknown to anyone, in which an electrical current is
flowing down to earth through your metal pipework.
Anyone who cuts the pipe and pulls the two sections apart
runs the risk of being electrocuted. Plumbers rarely use a
temporary bonding wire and are even more rarely
electrocuted, but it does happen (on only half a dozen or so
occasions a year), occasionally fatally. The choice is
yours. What happens is that the fault current flowing down
through the pipe to earth is interrupted as the pipe is cut.
As the operative holds on to the two separate pipe ends,
the current can resume its path and flow through the
individual, up their arm, through the trunk and heart and
back down the other arm to rejoin the pipe. Their muscles
will contort with the shock and they will grip the pipe
more tightly and be unable to let go.
In order to ensure complete safety, anyone doing this sort
of plumbing work should place a temporary bonding wire
across the section to be cut, so that, in the event of a
current flowing, the fault path is maintained as the two
pipe sections are pulled apart. This bonding wire should
be kept in place until the pipe section is reinstated, such as

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when inserting a new tee connection. A bonding wire is
essentially the same as a set of car jump-start leads (see
Figure 6.11).

disconnected
pipe

10 mm2 cable

Figure 6.11 Temporary continuity bond

Concealing your pipework

Most people do not like to see pipework, so concealment is
one of the keys to a successful plumbing job. Pipes run on
the surface can never be made to look good, so hiding
them within walls and below floors should always be
considered. However, there are a few specific
requirements that need to be observed. Figure 6.12 shows
methods that can be used.

When concealing any form of pipework, consider noise

transmission and the effects of placing pipes inside
compartments and below floors. They will often act as a
resonator and increase the volume of any noise

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generated. Secure where necessary, allowing for
movement, and use rubber or foam mountings.

PIPES BELOW FLOORS

Solid floors
There is no problem in running the pipework within the
floor screed (i.e. the top layer of sand and cement)
providing there is some protection around the pipe to
prevent chemical attack or corrosion caused by the cement.
In the case of heating pipework, there also needs to be
some provision to allow for expansion. This can be
achieved by placing the pipe within some thin lagging
material or running it within a small floor duct, covered
with a plate. If you wish to run the pipe in concrete, it will
need to be fully protected and to do this you could run it
within a larger-sized pipe.

Timber floors
It is essential to remember that, if you cut too much
material from a structural floor joist, you will weaken it,
possibly making it unsafe. For example, the maximum
depth to which a floor joist can be cut is one-eighth of the
overall depth of the joist, and the notch should be made
close to the bearing wall. Also, when running pipes below
timber floors, remember to allow for expansion and
contraction, and possibly consider

1
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 pipe screwed to
stud with resilient
max =
wall width mounting
3

pipe run within a wall chase

(solid wall)

pipe within timber wall

joist length
max = 4

joist depth
max = 8

notching floor joists

timber floors

Figure 6.12 Concealing pipework within walls and floors

laying the pipes on to felt pads to cut down the noise from
these movements. You should also avoid pipes touching
each other because this will also create noise problems.

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PIPES WITHIN WALLS
Solid walls
Pipes can be concealed within an internal wall within a
pipe chase (a channel cut into the wall, as seen in Figure
6.12) and simply plastered over; however, there must be
provision to isolate the pipe should a leak occur. Again,
ideally the pipe should be protected against acid attack
from cement-based products. As with floor joists, there is a
maximum depth at which any pipe chase can be placed
before weakening occurs – this depth is onethird of the
thickness of the wall for vertically installed pipes, and one-
sixth where the pipe chase is run horizontally.

Timber walls
When running pipework within timber stud walls, you
must consider the possibility that the water flowing
through the pipes could resonate through the structure.
Securing the pipe clips on to rubber or felt mountings and
adding additional pipe insulation material will help to
reduce this. Above all, ensure that the system is fully
checked for leaks before finally sealing in the pipes.

Gas installations
Many homes in the UK have a gas supply for the purpose
of heating and cooking. The gas supply may be fed
directly from pipes coming from the street outside your
home and enter via a gas meter. Alternatively, you may
buy your gas in bulk in a liquefied form and store it
outside in a special holding tank until it is required, when
it is drawn off automatically as it is converted to its
gaseous form. These two methods of gas supply are
essentially the same to you, the consumer: you open a pipe
and gas comes out. The two gas types are:

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CC natural gas – fed directly from a pipe in the street
CC liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) – supplied in gas
cylinders or bulk-purchased.
Both types of gas burn in the presence of oxygen,
producing a blue flame. They both have a distinctive smell
– not a true property of the gas but a ‘stenching agent’
added at the production plant, so that it is easy to
recognize should there be a leak.
The two gases have slightly different characteristics. One
of the key differences is the way that they react on leaving
the pipe. Natural gas is lighter than air, so it will rise
upwards and be readily dispersed into the environment.
LPG, on the other hand, is heavier than air and sinks down
towards the ground and so is not as easily dispersed, often
gathering in low-lying pockets such as basements. LPG
gas leaking from a pipe drops around your feet and is less
easily smelled, which results in it rapidly accumulating
undetected.
The gas pipework for a natural gas installation is fed
through a gas meter, purely for billing purposes.
Obviously, this is not required when the gas is bulk-
purchased.
It is important to note the location of the emergency
control valve at the point of entry to the building. This
should be accessible at all times so that, if required, the
supply can be shut off very quickly. From this point the
gas pipe is run to all the appliances requiring a gas supply
(Figure 2.1).

1
9
Within a gas appliance, the registration card,
gas is regulated and passed identifying what areas of
through a fine injector in gas work they are allowed
order to allow the correct to undertake (see Appendix
proportion of gas and air to 1: Legislation).
mix within the combustion
chamber where the fuel is cooke

burned. The appliance has

many safety measures to
ensure that gas will not
boiler
flow through the appliance
1
until it is required and that
it can be burned safely.
Due to the potential danger 22 mm
of incorrectly installed gas
A
fittings, the installation of 22 mm
pipework and the provision meter

for its use fall under very

strict regulations. It is not
illegal to work on your own emergency control valve
to close off the supply
gas installation pipework or
appliances on a DIY basis, Figure 2.1 Layout of a typical
but unless you are gas installation
absolutely certain of what Remember
you are doing you would be
Never employ someone to
ill advised to touch
undertake any form of gas
anything. Gas installers are
service, installation or
trained and assessed to
repair in your home
ensure their competency to
without first confirming
carry out gas installation
that the operative is
work; when any gas work
registered with the Gas
is carried out within your
Safe Register. Your safety –
home you must ask to see
and the validity of your
the engineer’s gas
Index
198
home insurance – may 30 people in the UK. The
depend upon it if fuels we burn – including
something does go wrong. coal, wood, oil and gas –
Confirm an operative’s Gas are hydrocarbons, which
Safe Register details by are made up of hydrogen
phoning 0800 408 5500. and carbon in various
proportions. Both of these
A leak from a water-filled elements can burn in the
installation can cause a presence of oxygen and, if
great deal of damage but it completely consumed, are
rarely poses any real converted to harmless
danger. On the other hand, carbon dioxide (CO2) and
a gas leak within a property water vapour (H2O).
is highly dangerous. When However, if insufficient
gas is burned, it is oxygen is available to
converted to water vapour support the combustion
and carbon dioxide, both of process, carbon monoxide
which are harmless gases, (CO) may be produced
being present in the because the carbon is not
atmosphere and within the fully converted to CO2.
air we breathe. However, if Carbon monoxide does not
for some reason insufficient have an odour and
oxygen is available in the therefore cannot easily be
air used for the combustion detected. An appliance can
process, incomplete discharge small quantities
combustion can occur and of this combustion product
as a result carbon into the home without
monoxide is produced. detection. Look at Table
CARBON 2.1. It lists the common
MONOXIDE (CO) symptoms of carbon
monoxide poisoning that
Every year, carbon
are often simply attributed
monoxide gas poisoning
to stress or tiredness from
claims the lives of around
Index
199
overwork. If in doubt, have Table 2.1 Typical effects of
your fuel-burning carbon monoxide (CO)
appliances checked. poisoning
Warning: Very small
proportions of carbon
monoxide in a room can
prove fatal very quickly. Oil
Percen
tage of installations
CO Some households in rural
Sympt locations use oil as their
oms/e source of fuel. The oil is
ffects supplied to the premises in
in bulk and stored in a large
adults oil tank. Tanks today are
in the
generally made of plastic;
air
if you order a plastic tank
Less than 0.01 Slight headache after 1–2 hours
0.01–0.02
to replace a traditional steel
Mild headache plus feeling sick and dizzy
after 2–3 hours one, make sure there is
0.02–0.05 Strong headache, adequate provision
palpitations and tosickness
within 1–2 hours support the entire surface
0.05–0.15 Severe headachearea of its base,
and sickness otherwise
within half an it
hour may buckle and eventually
0.15–0.3 Severe headachesplit.
and sickness
Where within
the oil 10
tank is
minutes; convulsions and possible death after
close to a building, it needs
15 minutes to be of the ‘bunded’ type.
0.3–0.6 Severe symptomsThiswithin 1–2 minutes
means and
that there is a
death within 15 minutes
tank within a tank so that,
1 or more Immediate symptoms and death within 1–3
should a leak develop, the
minutes
outer tank will contain the
oil spillage.
An oil pipeline is run from
the oil tank directly to the
Index
200
appliance (Figure 2.2). Oil Oil needs to be atomized
is generally only used as a into a fine spray or
fuel for boilers or vapour in order to burn:
sometimes for a large range plunge a flame into a
cooker. Along this pipeline tank of oil and it will be
several controls will be extinguished. Modern
found, including an boilers use a pressure jet
isolation valve, a filter and burner, which forces the
a fire valve. oil out through a fine
nozzle, where it is
The fire valve is designed
atomized and ignited
to close off the oil line in
within the combustion
the event of a fire. Today
chamber of the boiler
these valves are installed
(Figure 2.3).
outside, at the point of
entry to the building, but in A cooker may also use this
the past simple valves were method or it may employ
installed within the what is termed a pot
appliance itself. burner. This allows the fuel
to flow slowly, driven by
inlet connection
gravity, into a tray at the
vent
base of the burner. Here,
oil tank sight gauge
the vapour is ignited and
filter
the flame passessensor
up through
plastic oil tanks must
be fully supported at the pot where it is mixed
the base with the air supply to
produce a safe, stable
flame.
stopvalve fire valve
stopvalve
Figure 2.2 An oil line to a
boiler

Index
201
Flues and flue

ventilation for
gas- and oil- flow

burning connection

appliances
Oil-burning appliances
and many gas-burning
passage of
appliances require the flue products
by-products of their
combustion to be
expelled to the external return
connection
environment. This is
achieved by way of a
flue pipe, which could
combustion pres
be one of several chamber insulation
different designs chamber
Figure 2.3 An oil boiler
installation

Air needs to be supplied in

order to remove these by-
products from the premises,
otherwise the system will
not work satisfactorily.
The installation of both gas
and oil supply and the
fluing and ventilation
necessary for these systems
Index
202
is a very specialist subject
and further reading is
recommended for those
with a particular interest in
this area (see Appendix 3:
Taking it further).
Unfortunately, all too often
the flue system or air
supply requirement for
appliances burning these
fuels is not seen as as
important as the actual gas
or oil supply pipework
itself. Both these
appliances can produce
carbon monoxide (see
above), which can be a
silent killer in our homes.

The end.

Index
203