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Computer Science and
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Published by Amity University Press for exclusive use of Amity Directorate of Distance and Online Education,
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 Contents
Page No.
Module - 1 01
1.1: Basics of Computer
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Introduction to Computer
1.1.3 History and Evolution of a Computer
1.1.4 Generation of Computer
1.1.5 Applications of Computers
1.1.6 Capabilities and Limitations of Computer
1.1.7 Components of a Computer System
1.1.8 Memory
1.1.8.1 Primary Memory
1.1.8.2 Secondary Memory
1.1.8.3 Flash Memory

Module - 2 34
2.1: Introduction to Number Systems
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Decimal Number System
2.1.3 Binary Number System
2.1.4 Hexadecimal Number System
2.1.5 Octal Number System
2.1.6 Binary Coded Decimal
2.1.7 Decimal to Binary Conversion
2.1.8 Decimal to Octal Conversion
2.1.9 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
2.1.10 Binary to Decimal Conversion
2.1.11 Octal to Decimal Conversion
2.1.12 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
2.1.13 BCD to Binary Conversion
2.1.14 Binary to BCD Conversion
2.1.15 1’s Complement
2.1.16 2’s Complement

Module–3 50
3.1 Introduction to Information System
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Introduction to IT
3.1.3 Need of IT
3.1.4 Introduction to information storage and processing
3.1.5 Role and Application of IT
 3.1.6 Internet
3.1.7 WWW
3.1.8 Different types of Software
3.1.9 Introduction to Information system
3.1.10 Business data processing

Module-4 65
4.1: Operating System
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Definition of Operating System
4.1.3 Uses of Operating System
4.1.3.1 Operating System as a User Interface
4.1.3.2 Operating System Service
4.1.3.1 Operating system as Resource Manager
4.1.4 History of Operating System
4.1.5 Types of OS
4.1.5.1 Batch System
4.1.5.2 Spooling
4.1.5.3 Multiprogramming System
4.1.5.4 Time sharing or Multi-Tasking System
4.1.5.5 Multiprocessing System
4.1.6 Data Communication
4.1.6.1 Data Communication System
4.1.6.2 Direction of data flow

Module-5 84
5.1 Introduction to Program, Flowchart and Pseudocode
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Program
5.1.3 Process of programming
5.1.4 Algorithms
5.1.5 Introduction to flow charts
5.1.6 Basic symbols of flow charts
5.1.7 Rules for drawing flow charts
5.1.8 Advantage of flow charts
5.1.9 Limitations of flow charts
5.1.10 Pseudocodes
5.1.11 Sequence logic
5.1.12 Selection logic
5.1.13 Iteration logic
5.1.14 Advantage of Pseudocode
5.1.15 Disadvantage of Pseudocode
Computer Science and Information Technology 1

Module - I
Notes

Course Contents:
●● Introduction to Computers
●● History and Evolution
●● Generation of Computer
●● Applications of Computers
●● Capabilities and Limitations
●● Components of a Computer System – Control Unit, ALU, I/O Devices
●● Memory – RAM, ROM, EPROM, PROM, Flash Memory and other types of
memory.

Key Learning Objectives:

At the end of this block, you will be able to:

1. Define Computer
2. Describe the history and evolution of a computer
3. Define the generation of computer
4. Describe the application of a computer system
5. Define various component of a computer
6. Define Memory

Structure:
Unit 1.1: Basics of Computer

1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Introduction to Computer
1.1.3 History and Evolution of a Computer
1.1.4 Generation of Computer
1.1.5 Applications of Computers
1.1.6 Capabilities and Limitations of Computer
1.1.7 Components of a Computer System
1.1.8 Memory
1.1.8.1 Primary Memory
1.1.8.2 Secondary Memory
1.1.8.3 Flash Memory

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Unit - 1.1: Basics of Computer

Notes
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn

1. Define Computer
2. Describe the history and evolution of a computer
3. Define the generation of computer
4. Describe the application of a computer system
5. Define various component of a computer
6. Define Memory

1.1.1 Introduction
Whether it is office or hospital, mall, home, everywhere we need computer.
Computers help us store data, perform calculations and help us work in an organised
manner. The computer is used to save time and money by speed and concentration
in a wide range of tasks. Computer have made considerable progress in the field of
Science, technology, education and society. In this unit we will discuss about the
introduction to computer, the history and evolution of a computer, the generation of
computer, the application of a computer system, the various component of a computer
and the memory.

1.1.2 Introduction to Computer

A computer is an electronic device that takes raw data like input and processes it
and gives proper and useful information as output.

In short, the computer works as follows.

Raw Data Information

As Process As
Input Output

Fig. 1.1.1 Block Diagram of Computer Operation

Today, the computer has changed our life in true ways. Today, due to various types
of electronic and computerized machines in this computer age, many of our life’s tasks
are becoming easier and completed in less time. The foundation of the computer which
has made our life so easy was laid about 3000 years ago, i.e., the history of computer
is almost 3000 years old. Computer was not so important earlier days, but today
computer is a well-known word that is used in everyday life. Today, computer is being
used in almost every area of our daily life. For example, nowadays computer is used
for banking, education, medical services, bill payment, satellite system etc. In these

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areas, we can easily complete the biggest work with the use of computer in the least
time. Today, there is no need to install long queue to make reservations in trains. We Notes
can make our own reservation sitting at home with the help of computer and Internet,
keeping in mind the availability of seats in all trains. We also solve complex to complex
calculations in seconds. Even after purchasing goods from a shop, its bill is also being
made from the computer itself.

Today’s era came to be known as ‘Computer era’. Today computer is also being
used as a means of communication. Today, due to computer, communication has not
only been limited in writing but also has access to voice, video and graphics. Due to the
use of computer, we can not only talk to our friends sitting abroad, but we can also see
them. Keeping in view the properties of computers, today the number of works done on
it is continuously increasing. Today’s era is becoming so much dependent on computers
that doing many tasks without the help of computer is becoming almost impossible.
Today’s dependence on computers has increased so much that if even one day the
computer stops working, then many of our important tasks will either stop or be stalled.
Today’s extreme dependence on computers is proved by this fact that the whole world
was shaken by the Y2 K problem, which happened on 31 December, 1999, because
of the Y2 K problem and because of the excessive dependence on computers all over
the world. We had to face a very serious situation which was solved due to intellectuals
around the world in time, otherwise we do not know what would happen today.

Y2K means Year 2000 i.e., after 12 o’clock on the night of 31 December 1999,
Computer’s date would have become 1 January, 1900 not as 1 January, 2000. In
this situation, all the computers around the world would go back a century and many
important tasks, for which we have become highly dependent on the computer, would
stop or go bad. Because until that time (December 31, 1999) the date format of the
computer was MM - DD - YY not as MM - DD - YYYY, which was a very big and
serious human mistake while making computer software which was diagnosed in time
otherwise the results would have been very terrible.

1.1.3 History and Evolution of a Computer

In the context of computer, it is said that computer was invented in China 3000
years ago. Earlier the computer name was Abacus. Abacus can be considered the
basis of a computer. These are still used to calculate digits in many countries like
China, Japan. A brief introduction to Abacus and other early instruments is given below.

Abacus: Abacus is a frame of wire. Small balls are threaded in these wires.
Initially, Abacus was used for business calculations. This machine was used to add,
subtract, multiply and divide digits. This frame is divided into two distinct parts. In which
each wire on one side has two balls, the value of which is 5 and in the other part each
wire has 5-5 balls, the value of which is one.

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Notes

Fig. 1.1.2 Abacus [1]

Napier’s Bones: John Napier contributed the most to the calculation method after
the Abacus. The Scottish mathematician John Napier made some rectangular strips,
with which multiplication could be done quickly. These strips were made of elephant
teeth, so they were called Napier bones.

These strips are shown in Figure 1.1.3. These are a total of ten rectangular strips,
on which the ranges from 0 to 9, respectively, are written in such a way that the tens
digits of one strip come near the unit digits of the other strip. Later, Napier developed
the Logarithm method.

Fig. 1.1.3 Napier’s Bones [2]

Slide Rule: John Napier invented the logarithm method of calculations. In this
method product of two numbers, division of two numbers, square root of number, etc.
are drawn by adding or subtracting the exponents of a chosen number. Even today,
this method is used in big calculations, even in computers. In 1620, the German
mathematician William Oughtred invented an object called slide rule that could easily

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perform calculations based on the logarithmic method. It has two specially marked
strips, which can be moved back and forth in equal measure. The symbols are placed Notes
on them in such a way that the actual distance from the sign having zero of a number is
proportional to the logarithm on a common basis of that number.

Fig. 1.1.4 Slide Rule [3]

Pascal’s Calculator: A mechanical calculator came into existence that was

invented by the great mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal of France when he
was only 18 years old.

He made this machine to help his father who is tax superintendent. It is also called
Pascal’s calculator or Pascal’s adding machine. This machine was used to add and
subtract numbers. This machine had many serrated circles and dials. Each circle had
10 parts and they were connected in such a way that as a cycle rotated once, it rotated
only one part (i.e., one-tenth part) to the left, thereby Carry effect was produced. The
sum or difference of two numbers was found by dialling one number and rotating the
circles equal to the other number respectively.

Fig.1.1.5 Pascal Calculator [4]

Leibnitz’s Mechanical Calculator: Germany’s Professors Leibnitz following the

Pascal and made his own device in 1677. In which some parts of the calculator could
move to the right or left. Leibnitz made many improvements to Pascal’s calculator
to build a complex machine that was able to add and subtract as well as multiply
and divide. The speed of calculating this machine was very fast. This machine was
produced in large amount. Similar machines are still used in many places.

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Notes

Fig. 1.1.6 Leibnitz’s Mechanical Calculator

Difference Engine of Babbage: Mathematics professor Charles Babbage of

Cambridge University is also known as the father of modern computers. In 1823,
Charles Babbage developed a device based on modern computers. It was named
‘Difference Engine’. It could accurately calculate the value of various algebraic functions
to 20 decimal places.

Figure 1.1.7 shows the difference engine of the path. This machine was actually
very useful, because it used to generate many types of mathematical tables in minutes,
which were widely used in those days in insurance, post office, rail, production etc.

Later, the improved form of this machine was used by insurance companies in
making life tables.

Fig. 1.1.7 Difference Engine [6]

Analytical Engine of Babbage: After the success of his difference engine,

Charles Babbage developed ‘Analytical Engine’. There were some arrangements for
input, output, control, calculation and memory. This is how the modern computer was
introduced here. This machine had proposed the following five major parts.

Input Unit- to receive data and instruction

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Storage- to store Data and Instructions.

Notes
Mill- For arithmetic operation

Control- for movement of data in -storage and mills.

Output unit- for output

This machine not only had the ability to perform all actions, but the idea of storing
data was also first introduced in this. Not only this, the ability was also imagined.

Punched Card Devices: In 1880, another electronic device came into the field
of computer’s development, which made it easy to do calculations with the help of
punched cards. Initially all the instruments were made for calculation, the jagged
wheels were manually rotated to dial the numbers. But Charles Babbage first thought
that reading numbers could be done through punched cards as well. He got this idea
by looking at Jacquard’s knitting machine. In fact, in the design he designed for his
analytical engine, the work of giving input was done only through punched cards and
Jacquard built a similar Machine, in which the weaving design was pierced in inserting
cards were used. In other words, the input of the weaving design was on their card
only. The real significance of Jacquard’s discovery was recognized by Charles Babbage
much later.

But the entire credit for implementing this work of Charles Babbage goes to the
Dr. Harmon Hollerith. He was in the US Census Department of America. In America, all
the work of the 1880 census was done by hand, which took many years. Therefore, the
Census Bureau organized a contest before the 1890 census, in which suggestions and
proposals were sought for early census work. The winner of this competition was Dr.
Hollerith, who gave the idea of keeping the data on the punched card. He also made an
electric machine that could sort and count these cards. With the help of such machines,
the entire census work was completed in only two years, whereas it usually took 10
years.

This success of Dr. Hollerith gained popularity for his machines all over the world.
Later Dr. Hollerith formed his own tabulating machine company, which produced
punching machines in large amount. The company later became known as International
Business Machine Corporation, i.e., IBM, which is still the largest computer making
company in the world. IBM produced its own special Punching Machine, which punched
information on a fixed size of cards by punching in the designated locations. Until a
few years ago punched cards were widely used for the input of data, but after modern
terminals came into existence, their use has stopped completely because they are very
expensive.

Early Computers: Until the 1980s, all calculating machines were basically
mechanical. Around this time IBM built MARK- I computer in 1943 in collaboration with
Dr. Howard Ekins and Grace Hopper of Harvard University.

MARK - I was a very large device and its length was about 15 m. The length of the
wires used in this is about 800 km. There were thousands of Electromagnetic Relay and
other parts in it. It was the first general computer that could store and follow programs.
It could multiply two numbers with 20 digits in 5 seconds. The biggest drawback of this
computer was that it used to make a lot of noise and generate huge amounts of heat. It
was very difficult and boring to find any defect in this computer. Nevertheless, in 1950,
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its improved form was sold in the European markets. It was the first computer that
Notes was based on relay switches. All subsequent computers were electronic. Some other
computers came into existence after MARK-I, which are considered to be elementary
computers. They are - ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, LEO, UNIVAC - 1 etc.

1.1.4 Generations of Computers

The history of the development of computers in the modern era has been divided
into several parts according to technology. These parts are called generations of
computers. Five generations of computers exist so far. Each generation of computers is
different from a technical point of view and the characteristics and brief introduction of
each generation of computers is as follows.

First Generation Computers (1946–1958): First generation computers were

very large and based on vacuum tubes and electric valves. At that time the vacuum
tube was the only available electric component. Computers of this generation were
also very large in size and they produced so much heat that it was mandatory to install
air conditioner. Their speed was slow and they were very expensive. Since there was
no operating system in them. Therefore, when required, the user had to do the task
of pressing the switch etc. or installing or removing various devices, which was very
inconvenient.

Following are the names of some computers of this generation- ENIAC, EDSAC,
EDVAC, UNIVAC - I

Second Generation of Computers (1958–1964): In this generation computers,

vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors and the second generation of computers
came into existence. Due to the transistors, the sizes of computers of this generation
have become smaller and their speed has also increased and the cost of computer of
this generation also decreased. This generation of computers produced relatively less
heat than the first-generation computers, but still the need for air conditioner remained.
Input and Output devices were also very convenient in computers of this generation.
Some of the major computers of this generation - IBM - 1401, IBM 1602, IBM - 7094,
CDS - 3600 RCA - 5011 - IBM - 1401 is the most prominent among them which was
very popular at that time and was produced in large amount. This generation of
computers was used extensively in business and industry.

Third Generation Computers (1964–1970) - Third Generation Computers were

came into existence to be between 1901 and 1970. Integrated circuits (IC) began to
be used in computers of this generation. IC i.e., an integrated circuit is a complete
electronic circuit that was built on a small silicon chip. This chip can be as large as
an ant’s size, in which thousands or millions of components are used. After the
development of IC in 1965, the trend of transistors in computers almost stopped. Due
to IC, the size of computers further reduced and computers started working at a faster
pace. These integrated chips were considered the discovery of the next generation
because it had many features like small size, cheap and reliability as per the wishes
of the people. Early in the third generation IBM announced a computer called its 360
Series. These computers were designed for commercial and scientific use, and many
models of these 360-series computer family were packed in blue boxes, due to which
many people are known as it Blue. In this generation, along with computers, external

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devices that store data, such as Disk, Tape, etc. also developed, which also reduced
the pressure on computers’ memory and due to this it became easier to write programs. Notes
Multiprogramming (running multiple programs on the computer simultaneously) and
Multiprocessing were also possible with this generation computers.

The computers of this generation were small in size as well as relatively cheap,
due to which it was possible to install computers in many small companies and
government offices as well. Some of the major computers of this generation were IBM-
360, IBM-370 series, ICL-1900 and ICL-2900 series, Uniq-9000 series etc.

Fourth generation of computers (1970–1985): Fourth generation computers

are considered to be from 1970 to 1985. In 1970, there was a significant increase
in the efficiency of computers. But in reality, the fourth generation was the elaborate
technology of the third generation of computers. Because in the early times of the
third generation, chips were built specifically on the memory of the computer with
economical capability, but in 1971 the first micro-processor came on the market, due
to which the power of the computer was greatly increased. In fact, they are very large-
Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI) in which thousands - millions of transistors are mounted
on a single microchip. Computers that use these chips are called Microcomputers.
In the summer of 1961 IBM built its first personal computer (PC) and it became the
most successful product in the market in a very short time. Both the keyboard and the
monitor were used in this personal computer. The IBM company continued work to
increase its computer memory. PCs used to first use the floppy disk and later the hard
disk as well. RAM and ROM also came into vogue in this generation, due to which work
started happening at a very fast pace and time savings also started.

Fifth Generation of Computers: (1985 - till the Date) - ULSI technology was used
in place of VLSI in fifth generation computers and millions of transistors were installed
on one chip. Many calculations were possible. CD (Compact Disk) was developed for
storage. Internet, E - mail and www (World Wide Web) developed. In this generation
very, powerful computers such as super computers, Laptop, Palmtop Computers etc.
were developed. Development of Artificial Intelligence was also attempted in this era so
that computers too can take decisions on their own according to the situation.

1.1.5 Applications of Computers

In today’s era, there is hardly any area that is untouched by the use of computers
or where computers are not being used. From the biggest project to the bill of goods
taken from a shop, computer is being used. Today, hardly any other field has affected
the human life as much as the computer has done. Here we will study the uses of
computers in different areas of human life.

In the Field of Education: Today many such programs have been prepared
in the field of education, with the help of which we make teaching effective and take
advantage of it. Computer has had a great impact in the field of education. Various
departments of education are benefiting from its use. For example, library, examination,
laboratory, management work, teaching and study etc. In the field of education,
computer is playing its important role as a source of information and storage. This
education has become important in management, teaching and as a new subject. In
the field of science: Ever since the use of computers has started in scientific work, since
then we have been able to do many new scientific works. Since scientific calculations
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are quite complex, they take a long time to solve. But through computer these complex
Notes calculations can be solved in a few seconds.

Computer is being used in the field of Physics, Chemistry, Space Science,

Meteorology, Weather Science, Mechanical Science, Geology and Atomic Science.
Many computers are specially designed for scientific research centers. With their help,
many important experiments can be done.

In the field of business: Computer is being widely used today in the field of trade
and business. The computer is being used in financial modelling, stock management,
statistical analysis, accountancy, payroll system, simulation, administration etc.

In the Field of Entertainment: Computer is also our means of entertainment.

Many computer games have been developed today and with the help of Speakers
we can also listen to music. If the computer has internet facility, information can be
taken on various topics, newspapers can be read. You can talk to distant relatives and
friends.

In Banking and Financial Institutions: Computer has become an important part

of banking and financial institutions. In banks, it is used in keeping information related
to accounts of account holders, in extracting and depositing funds, in the process of
credit and other reports. Apart from this, computers are also used in record keeping,
transactions of shares, money transfer method.

In the Health Sector: A lot of research is being done with the help of computers all
over the world to prevent diseases.

In the Field of Desktop Publishing: In the publishing area, you can design the
layout of books or pages by computer. A lot of software is available in the market for
publication, with the help of which project, report, letter and pages of books can be
easily prepared in a short time. Publishing work can be done by computer at a minimum
cost in a short time.

In the Field of Communication: Computer has revolutionized the communication

field. With the help of this, contact can be established with any person in the world
in seconds, no matter where they are. Additionally, any type of information can
be exchanged. With the help of computer network, we can work on any computer
connected to that network. With the help of internet, we can get information from any
corner of the world because it is a store of unlimited information.

In the Field of Traffic: Computer has a very important contribution in the field of
traffic. In fact, the computer plays a very important role in the miraculous progress in
the field of traffic. In the field of traffic, computers are being used mainly in rail traffic,
air traffic, road traffic etc.

In the Industrial Sector: Today, it has become very easy to work using computers
in various industrial areas. Today, due to computer, complex machines have been
fully computerized in various industries, due to which the machine has become fully
automated and that is why day-to-day work is being taken from those machines and for
this task, need of any special men power is also over. Due to the use of computers in
industries, the quality of the product increases and the quantity of scrap wastage is also
reduced to a minimum. Some of the major industries in which computer production is
helping in many ways are paper and printing, steel etc.
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In the Field of Sports: Computer also has good contribution in the field of sports.
Today, with the help of Computer Animation, many such games have been developed, Notes
which are actually played on wide fields, such as cricket, hockey, tennis, polo, football
etc. Apart from the appropriate areas mentioned, the use of computer is being done
in many areas, such as - conduct any exam, translate one language into another
language, manage libraries, etc.

1.1.6 Capabilities and Limitation of Computer

Capability of Computer:

Automation - We use many types of automated machines in our daily life.

Computer also does all its work in an automatic way. The computer keeps doing its
work automatically once the program is loaded.

Accuracy - Computer does all its work without any fault. If you are asked to
multiply 10 different numbers, then you will make many mistakes in it. But generally,
the computer can complete any process without any fault. The biggest reason for a
mistake by the computer is wrong data input because the computer itself never makes
any mistake.

Versatility - The computer has increased its dominance in the whole world faster
due to its universalism. Computer is being used for doing mathematical tasks as well as
for business tasks. Computer is being used in many fields like Bank, Railway, Airport,
Business, School etc.

High Storage Capacity - There is a capacity to store a lot of data in a computer

system. Computer can store millions of words in very less space, it can store all types
of Data, Picture, Files, Program, Games and Sound. We can store it for many years
and later we can get any information and use it in a few seconds.

Diligence - Today a man is tired after doing some work for a few hours. But the
computer has the ability to do a task continuously for many hours, days, months, even
though its ability to work is neither decrease nor does the accuracy of the result of the
work decrease. Computer performs any given task without any discrimination whether
the task is interesting or not.

Reliability - The memory of a computer is more powerful. The entire process

related to computer is reliable, it does not get tired while working for years and Stored
Memory remains accurate even after many years.

Power of Remembrance - The person does many things in his life but remembers
only the important things, but the computer keeps all the things, whether important or
not, stored inside the memory and later it provides information when required.

Limitations of Computer

Lack of Intelligence - A computer is a machine. It does not have the same

intelligence as human beings, it only follows the instructions given by the user, in any
case the computer neither works nor does more than the instructions given.

Lack of Common Sense - It is also important to know that the computer never
makes any mistake, but if the user takes the wrong work from it, then he does not get

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the general sense of it i.e., if you have not told the computer, “Riya is a girl”, then he will
Notes consider her by default boy, she does not know the difference in name, Computer is not
an intelligent machine, it does not recognize right or wrong.

Dependence on electricity - A computer requires electricity to work, without

electricity, the computer is nothing but a metal box.

Upgrade and Update - A computer is a machine that has to be upgraded and

updated from time to time, if it is not done then the computer is not able to function
properly.

Virus threat - The computer is always at risk of virus, once a virus arrives, it can
damage the computer operating system as well as the protected files in it.

1.1.7 Components of Computer

The basic structure of any computer that is being used is always the same.
The structure of any computer, whether it is small or big, old or new, would have the
following parts.

●● Control Unit
●● ALU (Arithmetic and Logic unit)
●● Main memory
●● Secondary memory
●● Input Devices and Output Devices

Here the raw data is entered into the computer by the input unit and that raw data
is given to ALU and it processed by the Arithmetic and Logical unit, actually ALU is the
major part of CPU which processes the data. ALU is responsible for solving all logical
and arithmetic calculation. After receives the data by ALU, it is stored in the appropriate
location in the memory and various processes are done on this data as per the
instruction of control unit and the result is sent to the output unit.

Main memory, ALU and Central unit are collectively called as CPU i.e., Central
Processing Unit. Input and output devices are used to be interact with the user.
While the user accesses the raw data to the computer through the input devices, the
computer transmits the process information to the user through the output device.

Input - Output Devices - If a user is directly related to something in a computer,

then it is input and output devices: So, input and output devices have an important
place in the computer systems. It is through the input devices that the users enter the
raw data to process in the computer system and with the help of the output devices
it receives the necessary and processed information. Since the other parts of the
computer responsible for the process (e.g. CPU, RAM, Hard Disk etc.) have no
direct interaction with the user, the user has no matter of where and how the process
is happening. It is only meant by giving input and taking output. Therefore, input and
output devices have an important place not only for computer but also for User.

In a nutshell, the function of input devices is to collect data from the user in user
readable form and after that the data is converted by computer software’s and CPU
etc. to be Computer readable form and again the computer with the help of CPU and

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software, the processed data converted into computer readable form to user readable
form and presented to the user with the help of output devices like Monitor. Notes
In modern computers, Input Devices like Key board, Mouse, MICR, OCR, OMR,
Joy Stick, Light Pen, Microphone, Touchpad, Trackball, Barcode Reader, Graphic Tablet
etc. are being used and Monitor, Speaker, USB, Headphones, Printer, Graphic Plotter,
LCD Projector etc. are used as output devices.

Example of some latest input devices are given here.

1. Laser Bluetooth Keyboard: This device projects a QWERTY keyboard on a

flat opaque surface. It is an innovative data input device which uses intelligent
3D electronic recognition technology.

Fig. 1.1.8 Laser Bluetooth Keyboard [2]

2. Wireless Mouse: It has a speed adaptive scroll wheel, dark field laser tracking,
dual connectivity, and easy tracking. This has rechargeable battery as well.

Fig. 1.1.9 Wireless Mouse [2]

3. MBLOK: MBLOK is a Bluetooth wireless flash drives, no wires are required just
plug in the MBLOK with an integrated USB into your computer. It contains 256
GB of storage. You can watch movies hear music or anything without the need
of accessing the internet.

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Notes

Fig. 1.1.10 MBLOK [10]

4. Barcode Reader: Barcode is the unique code represented by the image having
a series different thickness of lines like some of lighter and some are darker in
black color. Generally, these barcodes appeared on the label of the different
types of goods like books, clothes, etc.

Fig. 1.1.11 Barcode Reader [11]

5. Electronic Card Reader: These are used to read a small plastic type of
electronic card, which has encoded data. After reading the encoded data
convert and transferred to computer further processing.

Fig. 1.1.13 Electronic Card Reader [8]

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Example of some latest output devices are given here.

Notes
1. LCD Monitor: LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. It is a thin flat-panel display
or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating
properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystal does not
emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in
color.

Fig. 1.1.14 LCD Monitor [12]

2. Digital Projector: This is a display device that projects a computer- created

image onto another surface, usually some sort of whiteboard or wall. The
computer transmits the image data to its video card, which then sends the video
image to projector. It is most often for presentations or for viewing videos.

Fig. 1.1.15 Digital Projector [2]

3. Plotter: This generates a hard copy of a digitally depicted design. The design
is sent to the plotter through a graphics card and the design is formed by using
a pen. It is generally used with engineering applications and essentially draws
a given image using a series of straight lines.

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Notes

Fig. 1.1.16 Plotter [8]

4. Wireless Headset: This is a combination of speakers and microphone. It is

mostly used by gamers and is also a great tool for communicating with family
and friends over the internet using some VOIP program for other.

Fig. 1.1.17 Wireless Headset [2]

5. 3D Printers: 3d printing or additive manufacturing is the construction of a three-

dimensional object from a CAD model or a digital 3D model. 3D printing is used
to manufacture molds for making jewelry and even the jewelry itself.

Fig. 1.1.18 3D Printer [13]

Central Processing Unit (C.P.U.)

The Central Processing Unit is really the main part of any computer. It can also be
called the brain of any computer system. In short, a Central Processing Unit is often
called a C.P.U. Often we call the box shown in the following figure 1.1.8 as the C.P.U.
but this is incorrect. We know the following box as System Unit. If other parts of the

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computer like mother board, RAM, hard disk etc. are properly assembled in it, otherwise
it is just a cabinet. Notes

Fig. 1.1.19 C.P.U. [7]

All the work done in computer is controlled by C. P. U. itself. That is why it is also
called computer’s brain.

The C. P. U. mainly consists of three important parts which are as follows

●● Memory unit
●● Arithmetic and logic unit
●● Control unit
Memory Unit: The Main memory stores all the data or programs that come into
the computer for the process. The importance of this memory unit becomes clear from
this point that if there is no memory unit, then any data given to the computer will be
instantly destroyed and the process of processing will be stopped. Hence it is a basic
component of computer.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit: Arithmetic and Logic unit abbreviated to A.L.U. All
types of arithmetic operations (such as adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing,
etc.) and logical operations for the CPU (such as comparing small and large numbers
in two numbers, i.e., whether the numbers are equal or which of them is small or large
etc.). In this, all actions take place in a binary system.

Control Unit: The main function of a control unit is actually to control the various
components of the computer. It monitors the parts of the computer. Therefore, it is a very
important part of the C.P.U. and its function is very important for computer. This unit is
responsible for properly executing the programs by creating synergy in all parts of the computer.

The first CPU used in PCs had a clock speed of approximately 4.77MHz. Today’s
latest CPU have clock speed 5.3GHz.

AMD Opteron, AMD Athlon XP, AMD Thunderbird Athlon, AMD Duron, AMD K-6 Series,
Intel Itanium, Intel Itanium II, Intel Pentium II, Intel Pentium III, Intel Pentium 4, Pentium III,
Pentium II, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Core i9 etc. are the example of some CPU.

Fig. 1.1.20 Intel Pentium II Microprocessor [13]

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Notes

Fig. 1.1.21 AMD K-6 series Microprocessor [14]

Fig. 1.1.22 Core i9 Microprocessor [15]

Fig. 1.1.23 Core i7 Microprocessor [15]

1.1.8 Memory
There is a system to store data and instructions in any computer, this arrangement
is called computer memory. The computer holds the data and instructions in its memory
and processes it based on the same data and instructions when the command is
received. In fact, the computer has no mind of its own. It works only on the basis of
the data and instructions stored in its memory and the commands given by the user.
Memory is compulsory for every computer because memory stores the programs which
are followed by the central processing unit of the computer i.e., C.P.U.

The part of memory in any computer which is in directly touch of the computer is
known as main memory, internal memory or primary memory and that part of memory
in a computer which is used for storage and which can be easily moved from one place
to another is known as auxiliary memory, external memory or secondary memory. Thus,
the computer memory can be divided into two parts which are as follows

●● Primary Memory
●● Secondary Memory

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1.1.8.1 Primary Memory

Notes
Primary memory is also called as Internal Memory or Main Memory since any data
in memory is stored as Bytes. There are millions of Bytes in it, each Bytes is made of
eight Bits. Bits are actually 0 and 1 digits i.e., combination of primary digits, in which
any information or data can be stored in the computer.

A bit is the smallest unit to store information as is clear from its name “Primary
Digits” that it only stores that data as two digits and that two digits are “0” and ‘1’. Here
“0” means “FALSE” or “OFF” and “1” means “TRUE” or “ON”. The combination of 8 Bits
is called a Byte and the Combination of 4 Bits is known as NIBBLE.

Bits 1 or 0

Nibble 1 0 0 1

Byte 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 Byte 8 Bits
1 Kilo Byte 1024 Bytes
1 Mega Byte 1024 Kilo Bytes
1 Giga Byte 1024 Mega Bytes
1 Tera Byte 1024 Giga Bytes
1 Peta Byte 1024 Tera Bytes
1 Exa Byte 1024 Peta Bytes

In the main memory, running programs and their input data and output are stored
temporarily for some time. As soon as their need is finished, they can be removed and
other data or programs can be kept there. The size of main memory is limited, but its
speed is very fast, so that whenever any data is needed, it can be taken instantly.

The following information can be kept in main memory

●● All the data to be processed and the instructions required to process it are
obtained by input means.
●● Intermediate results of processing.
●● Final processing results that are kept until output is sent to the instrument.
Main or Primary Memory can be mainly divided into two parts which are as follows

●● Random Access Memory (RAM)

●● Read Only Memory (ROM)
Apart from these, C.P.U. also have a memory called cache memory.

Random Access Memory: Random Access Memory is also called RAM. RAM
is called Random Access Memory because this memory is organized in such a way
that any memory location can be accessed directly and anytime without accessing the

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location prior to that location. This memory is on a chip made of a Metal Oxide Semi-
Notes Conductor (MOS). Figure 1.1.9 shows a RAM.

Fig. 1.1.24 R.A.M. [8]

RAM can select any location and use it directly to store any data or read data from
it. RAM is made up of such registers and connected circuits that make it possible to
transfer data to and from there. Each such location has a fixed address, with the help of
which that location can be reached.

The RAM is divided into several sections so that the information can be stored
in it in an orderly manner and they can be found instantly when needed. Each such
section is given a fixed address and with the help of any data bus, any information can
be extracted from RAM and any information can be stored in it. RAM is mainly divided
into the following two parts.

●● Dynamic RAM
●● Static RAM
Dynamic RAM: Dynamic RAM is cheaper than Static RAM. That is the reason
dynamic RAM is mostly used as main memory.

Since a capacitor are used to store information or data in D RAM. So, if any data
is stored in such RAM, then it cannot be retained in it. Unless the data is refreshed
periodically. After a few milli seconds, the process of repeatedly writing all the contents
of RAM or data to the memory of D RAM is called refreshing process. Special Refresh
Circuit is used for this task.

D RAM is mainly divided into the following parts.

●● SD RAM
●● RD RAM
●● DD RAM
SD RAM: It is the short name for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.
It is such an extended memory that it is possible to transfer data at any time. Using this
increases memory performance unexpectedly.

RD RAM: It is short name for Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory. With the
help of this RD RAM, data can be transferred at speeds up to 800 Mega Hz. Very high
speed bus is used in this.

DD RAM: It is the short name for Double Data Dynamic Random Access
Memory. It almost doubles the RAM capacity as data is transferred from both sides of
the system bus.

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Static RAM: Any information or data in static RAM can be retained in memory as
long as the power supply is received to the S RAM Chip. S RAM does not need to be Notes
refreshed as often as D RAM. S RAM transfers data much faster than D RAM and is
also more expensive than D RAM. Flip - Flops technology is commonly used to store
information in S RAM.

Read Only Memory: Read Only Memory is also abbreviated as ROM. ROM is
the memory in which data is pre-loaded and can only be read. That data cannot be
changed. In fact, only some necessary programs and data are written in the ROM chip,
which are permanent. Even when the computer power is turned off, the information
stored in the ROM chip remains secure.

A simple ROM chip is shown in Figure 1.1.10.

Fig. 1.1.25 R.O.M. [9]

Such information is usually stored in ROM which is permanent and important.

Apart from this, programs are also stored in ROM that do not need to be changed. For
example, any computer booting program, in personal computers, also stores the BIOS
i.e., Basic Input Output System in ROM, which allows the computer to keep information
about the input and output devices connected to it. Like RAM, there are several types of
ROM memory which are as follows

●● P ROM
●● EP ROM →
●● EEP ROM
P ROM: P ROM is an abbreviation for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a
memory in which information is stored permanently with the help of programs. While
building the computer, this memory is inserted into the C.P.U. and no changes are
possible in the future.

EP ROM: EP ROM is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This

memory is also inserted into the computer while building the computer, but it can be
erased later with ultraviolet light.

EEP ROM: It is an electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. We

need ultraviolet light to erase the EP ROM, and it is also relatively complex and difficult
to erase, but EEP ROM can be erased easily only by electric current.

Cache Memory: This is a special type of memory that resides as a buffer between
the processor and the RAM. New instructions and its data are kept in Cache memory

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only. When needed, the C.P.U. first looks at the cache memory. Cache Memory allows
Notes any C.P.U. to work more quickly and the efficiency of the computer is also greatly
increased by its use.

1.1.8.2 Secondary Memory

This is the memory to be inserted into the computer as an external device. Large
amounts of data can be stored in these devices and they can be easily transported from
one place to another.

Because this type of memory is outside the computer, Hence, it is also called
external memory and since the information in it is inserted after the primary memory.
Hence it is also called secondary memory. The devices under secondary memory can
be divided into the following classes.

●● Magnetic disk
●● Magnetic tape
●● Optical disk
Magnetic Disk: Magnetic Disk is the best way to store data. The following Disks
come under Magnetic Disc.

●● Floppy Disk
●● Hard Disk
Floppy Disk: Just as songs can be moved from one place to another by storing
songs in the tape recorder’s cassette. In the same way floppy disks perform the work of
transferring data and information in a computer. With the help of floppy disk, information
can be moved from one place to another or from one computer to another. Floppy disk
is available in two sizes 5.25 ‘’ and 3.5 ‘’, but nowadays the trend of floppy disk has
almost stopped.

In Figure 1.1.11 and 1.1.12, both types of Floppy Disk and Drives are shown.

Fig. 1.1.26 Floppy Disk [2]

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Notes

Fig. 1.1.27 Hard Disk [2]

Hard disk: A hard disk is similar to a floppy disk, but it is large and fast in size. It is
permanently installed in the computer. So, it cannot be moved around like a floppy disk.
Hence, they are also called fixed disks.

Nowadays the capacity of modern hard disks is up to 200 GHz.

Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is used to securely store data inserted in a

computer. This lace is usually a 1 inch long joint of plastic strip with a magnetic layer
over it. This strip is called magnetic tape.

Optical Disk: Optical Disk converts data into machine language before it is stored.
The transformed form is then stored on the layer of disk with the help of a laser beam.
The diameter of this disk is about 4.5 inches. It is silver or golden color. It can have a
capacity of storing data up to 700 MB. Laser beam performs the work of writing and
reading facts on this disk.

There are three types of optical disks.

CD ROM: The data stored in it is permanent. These can be read only so this
compact disk (CD) is called Read Only Memory (ROM).

A Compact Disk (CD) is shown in Figure 1.1.13.

Fig. 1.1.28 C.D. R.O.M. [8]

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Worm Disk: It is written only once, but can be read many times. It is not possible
Notes to amend the facts collected in it.

Magneto Optical Disk: It uses both optical and magnetic techniques.

Solid-State Drive: An SSD is a storage medium that uses non-volatile memory to

hold and access data. Unlike a hard drive, an SSD has no moving parts, which gives it
disadvantages, such as faster access time, noiseless operation, higher reliability and
lower power consumption.

Fig. 1.1.29 Solid State Drive [2]

Smart card: A smart card is a special type of card like device which contains an
integrated circuit chip embedded on it. The IC chip can be microprocessor with memory
or just simple memory circuit. A smart card is connected to the host computer or
controller via a card reader which gets information to the host computer or controller.

Fig. 1.1.30 Smart card [2]

Online and Cloud storage: Clouding is systematically model for storing data
in computer and in which entire data are stored in logically nature. Those clouding
systems are managed by other hosting companies. With the help of online clouding,
all data can be access by couples of users anytime and anywhere. Big advantages are
not place limitation as well as no need carry any storage device. Google drive, Jio cloud
etc. are the example of cloud storage.

1.1.8.3 Flash memory

It is a non-volatile computer memory that can be erased and reprogrammed
electrically. This technique is mainly used in flash memory cards in which normal

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storage and transfer of data is done by two computers or other digital products. It is
used more due to its low price. It is a non-volatile memory, i.e., information remains in Notes
it even when there is no electricity. Nowadays this memory is used in abundance. It is
a type of EEP ROM memory. Large blocks in flash memory can be deleted or copied
at a time, while the EEP ROM can be erased or programmed only by one byte. Thus,
it takes less time to write new data to Flash memory. Flash memory is also cheaper
than EEP ROM memory. Pen drives, memory cards used in digital cameras and digital
products, etc. are examples of Flash memory.

Fig. 1.1.31 Pen drive [2]

Fig. 1.1.32 Memory Card [2]

Image sources
[1] - www.sites.google.com
[2] - www.amazon.in
[3] -www.computersciencelab.com
[4] – www.collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk
[5] – www.dokumente.leibnizcentral.de
[6] – www.britannica.com
[7] – www.dell.com
[8] – www.indiamart.com
[9]. – www.javatpoint.com
[10]. – www.uncrate.com
[11]. –. www.bepoz.com
[12]. – www.wisegeeks.com

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[13]. – www.wikiwand.com
Notes
[14]. – www.cpu-world.com
[15]. – www.newsroom.intel.com

Summary:
●● A computer is an electronic device that takes raw data like input and
processes it and gives proper and useful information as output.
●● Abacus is a frame of wire. Small balls are threaded in these wires. This
machine was used to add, subtract, multiply and divide digits.
●● The Scottish mathematician John Napier made some rectangular strips, with
which multiplication could be done quickly.
●● John Napier invented the logarithm method of calculations. In this method
product of two numbers, division of two numbers, square root of number, etc.
are drawn by adding or subtracting the exponents of a chosen number.
●● Germany’s Professors Leibnitz following the Pascal and made his own device
in 1677. In which some parts of the calculator could move to the right or left.
●● In 1823, Charles Babbage developed a device based on modern computers.
It was named ‘Difference Engine’. It could accurately calculate the value of
various algebraic functions to 20 decimal places.
●● After the success of his difference engine, Charles Babbage developed
‘Analytical Engine’. There were some arrangements for input, output, control,
calculation and memory.
●● Until the 1980s, all calculating machines were basically mechanical. Around
this time IBM built MARK- I computer in 1943 in collaboration with Dr. Howard
Ekins and Grace Hopper of Harvard University.
●● First generation computers were very large and based on vacuum tubes and
electric valves.
●● Second generation computers, vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors
and the second generation of computers came into existence.
●● Third Generation Computers were came into existence to be between 1901
and 1970. Integrated circuits (IC) began to be used in computers of this
generation. IC i.e., an integrated circuit is a complete electronic circuit that
was built on a small silicon chip.
●● Fourth generation computers are considered to be from 1970 to 1985. In
1970, there was a significant increase in the efficiency of computers. In 1971
the first micro-processor came on the market, due to which the power of the
computer was greatly increased.
●● ULSI technology was used in place of VLSI in fifth generation computers and
millions of transistors were installed on one chip.
●● The Central Processing Unit is really the main part of any computer.
It can also be called the brain of any computer system. In short, a Central
Processing Unit is often called a C.P.U.
●● The Main memory stores all the data or programs that come into the computer
for the process.
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●● Arithmetic and Logic unit abbreviated to A.L.U. All types of arithmetic

operations (such as adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing, etc.) and Notes
logical operations for the CPU (such as comparing small and large numbers in
two numbers, i.e., whether the numbers are equal or which of them is small or
large etc.).
●● The main function of a control unit is actually to control the various
components of the computer. It monitors the parts of the computer.
●● Primary memory is also called as Internal Memory or Main Memory since
any data in memory is stored as Bytes. There are millions of Bytes in it, each
Bytes is made of eight.
●● The combination of 8 Bits is called a Byte and the Combination of 4 Bits is
known as NIBBLE.
●● Random Access Memory is also called RAM. RAM is called Random Access
Memory because this memory is organized in such a way that any memory
location can be accessed directly and anytime without accessing the location
prior to that location.
●● Read Only Memory is also abbreviated as ROM. ROM is the memory in which
data is pre-loaded and can only be read.
●● Secondary memory is the memory to be inserted into the computer as an
external device. Large amounts of data can be stored in these devices and
they can be easily transported from one place to another.
●● With the help of floppy disk, information can be moved from one place to
another or from one computer to another. Floppy disk is available in two sizes
5.25 ‘’ and 3.5 ‘’.
●● A hard disk is similar to a floppy disk, but it is large and fast in size. It is
permanently installed in the computer. So, it cannot be moved around like a
floppy disk.
●● It is a non-volatile computer memory that can be erased and reprogrammed
electrically. This technique is mainly used in flash memory cards in which
normal storage and transfer of data is done by two computers or other digital
products.

Exercise

Check your progress

1. The main parts of the computer are
(a) 6
(b) 7
(c) 8
(d) 9
2. Processed data is known as
(a) Data
(b) Information

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(c) Knowledge
Notes
(d) Analysis
3. The main purpose of software is to convert data into
(a) Website
(b) Information
(c) Program
(d) Object
4. The four basic tasks performed by CPU are fetch, ……, manipulate and output.
(a) Design
(b) Decode
(c) Display
(d) Regulate
5. MIPS stands for
(a) Marginal Input Storage
(b) Memory Image Processing State
(c) Micro Information Processing Storage
(d) Million Instruction per Second
6. Which of the following is not a component of Central Processing Unit?
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(b) Control Unit
(c) Registers
(d) Random Access Memory
7. Which of the following memories is directly accessible by the CPU?
(a) RAM
(b) Hard Disk
(c) Magnetic Tape
(d) DVD
8. High power microprocessors are
(a) Pentium, Pentium pro
(b) Pentium II and III
(c) Pentium II
(d) All of these

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9. Which of the following transmits different commands or control signals from one
component to another component of a computer system? Notes
(a) Data Bus
(b) Address Bus
(c) Both Data and Address Bus
(d) Control Bus
10. Which of the following basic operations are performed by a computer?
(a) Arithmetic operation
(b) Logical Operation
(c) Storage and Retrieval
(d) All of these
11. What name has been given to the first super computer made in India?
(a) Akash
(b) Param
(c) Arjun
(d) Siddharth
12. A mouse, trackball and joystick are example of
(a) Pointing devices
(b) Pen input devices
(c) Data collection devices
(d) Multimedia devices
13. OCR stands for
(a) Optical Character Recognition
(b) Optical CPU Recognition
(c) Optimal character Rendesing
(d) Other character Recognition
14. A keyboard is used
(a) to enter text and numbers and send commands to the computer
(b) to create new keys to use with your computer
(c) to open the computer
(d) all of these
15. How many keys are there on keyboard for alphabet?
(a) 24
(b) 25

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(c) 26
Notes
(d) 27
16. Ctrl, shift and alt are called
(a) Adjustment keys
(b) Function keys
(c) Modifier keys
(d) Alphanumeric keys
17. The blinking symbol on the computer screen is called
(a) Mouse
(b) Hand
(c) Cursor
(d) Logo
18. Which of the following is used by banking industry for faster processing of large
volume of cheques?
(a) Bar-code Reader
(b) OCR
(c) MICR
(d) OMR
19. OMR stands for
(a) Optical Mark Reader
(b) Optical Marked Reading
(c) Optical Moon Right
(d) Optical Me Right
20. An automatic machine that is made to perform routine human tasks is
(a) Computer
(b) Robot
(c) Tanker
(d) None of these
21. Computer network is a
(a) A distributed data processing system
(b) Multiple computers are linked together for the purpose of data communication
and resource sharing
(c) Both (a) and (b) are false
(d) Both (a) and (b) are true

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22. A storage device where the access time is effectively independent of the location
of the data is referred as Notes
(a) Direct access
(b) Secondary storage
(c) Primary Storage
(d) None of these
23. The primary memory of a Personal Computer consists
(a) ROM only
(b) RAM only
(c) Both ROM and RAM
(d) Memory Module
24. Which of the following is input/output device?
(a) Monitors
(b) Punched Cards
(c) Optical Scanners
(d) All of these
25. Magnetic tape can serve as
(a) Input media
(b) Output media
(c) Secondary-storage media
(d) All of these
26. A semiconductor memory which allows the eraser of the information stared in it so
that new information can be stared in it is referred as
(a) EPROM
(b) ROM
(c) RAM
(d) None of these
27. Audio response is
(a) Output medium
(b) Produce verbal responses from the computer system
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these

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28. Computer output which is displayed on the screen of a terminal without a

Notes permanent copy is called
(a) Soft copy
(b) Hard copy
(c) Hardware
(d) None of these
29. Speech recognition is
(a) Ability to input data directly into computer system by speaking to it
(b) Ability to output data directly from a computer system by speaking
(c) Processing of voice in computer systems
(d) None of these
30. Which of the following is not true of a magnetic disk?
(a) Users can update records by writing over the old data
(b) It provides sequential access to stored data
(c) It is slow relative to magnetic tape
(d) All of the above are true.

Answer Key:
1-a
2-b
3-b
4-b
5-d
6-d
7-a
8-d
9-d
10-d
11-b
12-a
13-a
14-a
15-c
16-c
17-c

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18-c
Notes
19-a
20-b
21-d
22-a
23-c
24-d
25-d
26-a
27-c
28-a
29-a
30-b

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Module - II
Notes
Course Contents:
●● Introduction to Number Systems – Binary, Hexadecimal, Octal, BCD
●● Conversion between Number Systems
●● One’s Complement
●● Two’s Complement
●● Boolean Algebra and Laws

Key Learning Objectives:

At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Various Types of Number Systems
2. Conversion between Number Systems
3. Define One’s Complement
4. Define Two’s Complement
5. Describe Boolean Algebra

Structure:
Unit 2.1: Introduction to Number Systems
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Decimal Number System
2.1.3 Binary Number System
2.1.4 Hexadecimal Number System
2.1.5 Octal Number System
2.1.6 Binary Coded Decimal
2.1.7 Decimal to Binary Conversion
2.1.8 Decimal to Octal Conversion
2.1.9 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
2.1.10 Binary to Decimal Conversion
2.1.11 Octal to Decimal Conversion
2.1.12 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
2.1.13 BCD to Binary Conversion
2.1.14 Binary to BCD Conversion
2.1.15 1’s Complement
2.1.16 2’s Complement
Unit 2.2: Boolean Algebra and Laws

2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Boolean Algebra
2.2.3 Boolean Laws
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Unit - 2.1: Introduction to Number Systems

Notes
Unit Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, you will learn

1. Define various types of Number Systems

2. Conversion between Number Systems
3. Define 1’s Complement
4. Define 2’s Complement

2.1.1 Introduction
The study of number systems is very important from the point of view of
understanding how data are represented before they will be processed by any digital
system including a computing device. It’s a basis for counting various items. Modern
or digital computers communicate and operate with binary numbers which use only the
digits 0 and 1. Here, we are going to study all of those numbers systems.

In this unit we are going to discuss about the varied sorts of number systems,
conversion between number systems, 1’s complement and 2’s complement.

2.1.2 Decimal Number System

In decimal number system we will express any decimal numbers in units, tens,
hundreds, thousands and so on. After we write a decimal number say, 1234.5, we all
know it is represented as
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4 + 0.5 =
1234.5
The decimal number 1234.5 can even be written as, where the ten subscript
indicates the radix or base.

In the power of 10, we are able to write as

1 × 103 + 2 × 102 + 3 × 101 + 4 × 100 + 5 × 10 −1 =

1234.5
This say, that the position of a digit with regard to the decimal point determines
its value/ weight. The sum of all the digits/bits multiplied by their weights give the total
number being represented. The leftmost digit/bit, which has the greatest weight is called
the Most Significant Bit (MSB) and the rightmost digit/bit, which has the least weight, is
called the Least Significant Bit (LSB).

2.1.3 Binary Number System

We know that decimal number system with its ten digits is a base-ten system.
Similarly, binary system with its two digits/bits is a base two system. The two binary bits
are 1 and 0. Like decimal system, in binary system each binary digit commonly known
as bit, has its own value or weight. However, in binary system weight is represented as
a power of 2.

Example 2.1.1 5 is written to 0101 in the binary number system.

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2.1.3 Hexadecimal Number System

Notes
The hexadecimal number system has a base of 16 having 16 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. The place value or weights of different digits in a mixed
hexadecimal number are 160,161,162 and so on (for the integral part) and 16–1,16–2,16–3
and so on (for the fractional part). The decimal equivalent of hexadecimal digits A, B, C,
D, E and F are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively.

2.1.4 Octal Number System

The octal number system has a radix of 8 and therefore has eight distinct digits.
The independent digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

The place values for the different digits in the octal number system are 80,81,82 and
so on (for the integral part) and 8–1,8–2,8–3 and so on (for the fractional part).

2.1.5 Binary Coded Decimal

The binary coded decimal (BCD) is a type of binary code that is used to represent
a given decimal number in an equivalent binary form. BCD to decimal and decimal to
BCD conversion are very easy and straightforward.

The BCD equivalent of a decimal number is written by replacing each decimal digit
in the integer and fractional parts with its four-bit binary equivalent. As an example, the
BCD equivalent of (23.15)10 is written as (0010 0011.0001 0101)BCD .The BCD code
described above is more precisely known as the 8421 BCD code, with 8, 4, 2 and
1 showing the weights of different bits in the four-bit groups, starting from MSB and
proceeding towards LSB. This feature makes it’s a weighted code, which means that
each bit in the four-bit group representing a given decimal digit has an assigned weight.

2.1.6 Decimal to Binary Conversion

Suppose we have to give a decimal number. So, we will first separate the integral
and fractional part of it.

For the integral part, the binary equivalent can be found by successively dividing
the integer part of the number by 2 and recording the remainders until the quotient
becomes 0. The remainders written in reverse order that constitute the binary
equivalent.

For the fractional part, it is obtained by successively multiplying the fractional part
of the decimal number by 2 and recording the carry until the result of multiplication is
0. The carry sequence written in forward order constitutes the binary equivalent of the
fractional part of decimal number. If the result of multiplication does not seem to be
heading towards zero in the case of fractional part, the process may be continued only
until the requisite number of equivalent bits has been obtained.

Example 2.1.2 Convert decimal number12 to binary number.

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Solution:
2 12 R
Notes
2 6 0 (LSB)

2 3 0

2 1 1

0 1(MSB)

Therefore, (12)10=(1100)2

2.1.7 Decimal to Octal Conversion

The process of decimal to octal conversion is analogous to that of decimal to binary
conversion. The progressive division with in the case of the integer part and therefore
the progressive multiplication while working on the fractional part here are by 8 which
is the radix of the octal number system. Again, the integer and fractional parts of the
decimal number are treated separately.

Example 2.1.3 Convert decimal number 359 to octal number.

Solution:
8 359 R

8 44 7 (LSB)

8 5 4

0 5 (MSB)

Therefore, (359)10=(547)8

2.1.8 Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

The process of decimal to hexadecimal conversion is also analogous. Since
the hexadecimal number system has a base of 16, the progressive division and
multiplication factor in this case is also 16.

Example 2.1.4 Convert decimal number 650 to hexadecimal number.

Solution:
16 650 R

16 40 10 = A (LSB)

16 2 8

0 2 (MSB)

Therefore, (650)10=(28A)16

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2.1.9 Binary to Decimal Conversion

Notes
The value of a given binary number in terms of its decimal equivalent can be
determined by adding the products of each bit and its weight. The right-most bit is the
least significant bit (LSB) in a binary number and has a weight of 20=1. The weights
increase by a power of two for each bit from right to left.

Example 2.1.5 Convert (1101101)2 to decimal number.

Solution: Decimal Number

= 1 × 26 + 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= 1 × 64 + 1 × 32 + 0 × 16 + 1 × 8 + 1 × 4 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 1
= 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 109

2.1.10 Octal to Decimal Conversion

Since the octal number system contains a base of eight, each successive digit
position is an increasing power of eight, beginning within the right most column with 80.
The estimation of an octal number in terms of its decimal equivalent is accomplished by
multiplying each digit by its weight and summing the products.

Example 2.1.6 Convert (0.325)8 to decimal number.

Solution: Decimal Number = 3 × 8 −1 + 2 × 8 −2 + 5 × 8 −3

= 3 × 0.125 + 2 × 0.015625 + 5 × 0.001953
= 0.416015

2.1.12 Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

To convert a hexadecimal number to its decimal equivalent is by multiplying each
hexadecimal digit by its weight and then taking the sum of these products.

Example 2.1.7 Convert (A85)16 to decimal number.

Solution: Hexadecimal Number (A85)16

Equivalent Binary Number (101010000101)2

Equivalent Decimal Number

= 1 × 211 + 1 × 29 + 1 × 27 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 20
= 2048 + 512 + 128 + 4 + 1
= 2693

2.1.13 BCD to Binary Conversion

A given BCD number is converted into an equivalent binary number by first writing
its decimal equivalent and then converting it into its binary equivalent.

Example 2.1.8 Find the Binary equivalent of the following BCD number 0010
1001.0111 0101.

Solution: BCD number = 0010 1001.0111 0101

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Corresponding decimal number = 29.75

Notes
The Binary equivalent of 29.75 can be determined to be 11101 for the integral part
and .11 for the fractional part.

Therefore, (0010 1001.0111 0101)BCD=(11101.11)2

2.1.14 Binary to BCD Conversion

The process of binary to BCD conversion is that the same as the process of
BCD to binary conversion executed in reverse order. A given binary number can be
converted into an equivalent BCD number by first determining its decimal equivalent
and then writing the corresponding BCD equivalent.

Example 2.1.9 Find the BCD equivalent of the following binary number
10101011.101.

Solution: Decimal equivalent = 171.625

So, BCD equivalent = 0001 0111. 0001.0110 0010 0101

2.1.15 1’s Complement

The 1’s complement in the binary number system is similar to 9’s complement in
the decimal system. To obtain 1’s complement of a binary number each bit of the binary
number is subtracted from 1. For Example, the 1’s complement of the binary number
010 is 101. The 1’s complement of 1110 is 0001. Thus 1’s complement of a binary
number may be formed by simply changing each 1 to a 0 and each 0 to a 1.

2.1.16 2’s Complement

The 2’s complement in the binary number system is similar to 10’s complement in
the decimal number system. The 2’s complement of a binary number is equal to the 1’s
complement of the number plus one.

For example, The 2’s complement of 0101 = 1010 + 1 = 1011

Summary:
●● In decimal number system we can express any decimal numbers in units,
tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.
●● The leftmost digit, which has the greatest weight is called the Most Significant
Bit (MSB) and the rightmost digit, which has the least weight, is called the
Least Significant Bit (LSB).
●● The two binary digits/ bits are 1 and 0. Like decimal system, in binary system
each binary digit commonly known as bit, has its own value or weight.
●● The hexadecimal number system has a base of 16 having 16 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F.
●● The octal number system has a radix of 8 and therefore has eight distinct
digits. The independent digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
●● The binary coded decimal (BCD) is a type of binary code that is used to
represent a given decimal number in an equivalent binary form.
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●● To obtain 1’s complement of a binary number each bit of the binary number is
Notes subtracted from 1.
●● The 2’s complement in the binary number system is similar to 10’s
complement in the decimal number system. The 2’s complement of a binary
number is equal to the 1’s complement of the number plus one.
Solved Examples

Ex-2.1 Convert decimal number15 to binary number.

Solution:
2 15 R

2 7 1 (LSB)

2 3 1

2 1 1

0 1(MSB)

Therefore, (15)10=(1111)2

Ex-2.2 Convert decimal number 25 to binary number.

Solution:
2 25 R

2 12 1(LSB)

2 6 0

2 3 0

2 1 1

0 1(MSB)
Therefore, (25)10=(11001)2

Ex-2.3 Convert decimal number 100 to octal number.

Solution:
8 100 R

8 12 4(LSB)

8 1 4

0 1(MSB)
Therefore, (100)10=(144)8

Ex-2.4 Convert decimal number 150 to octal number.

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Solution:
Notes
8 150 R

8 18 6(LSB)

8 2 2

0 2(MSB)
Therefore, (150)10=(226)8

Example 2.5 Convert decimal number 80 to hexadecimal number.

Solution:
16 100 R

16 6 4(LSB)

16 0 6(MSB)
Therefore, (100)10=(64)16

Example 2.6 Convert decimal number 250 to hexadecimal number.

Solution:
16 250 R

16 15 10 = A(LSB)

16 0 15 = F(MSB)
Therefore, (250)10=(FA)16

Example 2.7 Convert (1101)2 to decimal number.

Solution: Decimal Number = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20

= 1× 8 + 1× 4 + 0 × 2 + 1× 1
= 8 + 4 + 0 +1
= 13
Example 2.8 Convert (11111)2 to decimal number.

Solution: Decimal Number = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20

= 1 × 16 + 1 × 8 + 1 × 4 + 1 × 2 + 1 × 1
= 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 31
Example 2.9 Convert (1.325)8 to decimal number.

Solution: Decimal Number = 1 × 80 + 3 × 8 −1 + 2 × 8 −2 + 5 × 8 −3

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= 1 + 3 × 0.125 + 2 × 0.015625 + 5 × 0.001953

Notes = 1.416015
Example 2.10 Convert (325)8 to decimal number.

Solution: Decimal Number = 3 × 82 + 2 × 81 + 5 × 80

= 3 × 64 + 2 × 8 + 5 × 1
= 213
Example 2.11 Convert (B86)16 to decimal number.

Solution: Hexadecimal Number = (B86)16

Equivalent Binary Number = (101110000110)2

Equivalent Decimal Number

= 1 × 211 + 1 × 29 + 1 × 28 + 1 × 27 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 21
= 2048 + 512 + 256 + 128 + 4 + 2
= 2950
Example 2.12 Convert (A8)16 to decimal number.

Solution: Hexadecimal Number = (A8)16

Equivalent Binary Number = (10101000)2

Equivalent Decimal Number

= 1 × 27 + 1 × 25 + 1 × 23
= 128 + 32 + 8
= 168
Example 2.13 Find the Binary equivalent of the following BCD number 1000
1001.0111 0101

Solution: BCD number =1000 1001.01110101

Corresponding decimal number = 89.75

The Binary equivalent of 89.75 can be determined to be 1011001 for the integral
part and .11 for the fractional part.

Therefore, (0010 1001.0111 0101)BCD=(101001.11)2

Ex-2.14 Find the BCD equivalent of the following binary number 1001011.101.

Solution: Decimal equivalent = 75.625

So, BCD equivalent =0111. 0101.0110 0010 0101

Ex-2.15 Find the 1’s complement of binary number 110010.

Solution: To find the 1’s complement of a binary number, simply invert the given
number.

So, the 1’s complement of 110010 = 001101

Ex-2.16 Find the 1’s complement of binary number 110011.

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Solution: To find the 1’s complement of a binary number, simply invert the given
number. Notes
So, the 1’s complement of 110011 = 001100

Ex-2.17 Find the 2’s complement of binary number 110010.

Solution: To find the 2’s complement of a binary number, simply add 1 to 1’s
complement of the given number.

So, the 1’s complement of 110010 = 001101

2’s complement of 110010 = 001101 + 1 = 001110

Ex-2.18 Find the 2’s complement of binary number 10010.

Solution: To find the 2’s complement of a binary number, simply add 1 to 1’s
complement of the given number.

So, the 1’s complement of 10010 = 01101

2’s complement of 10010 = 01101 + 1 = 01110

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Unit - 2.2: Boolean Algebra and Laws

Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:

(a) Various types of Number Systems

(b) Conversion between Number. Systems
(c) One’s Complement
(d) Two’s Complement

Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn

1. Describe Boolean Algebra and Laws

2.2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we studied about the various types of number systems,
conversion between number systems, one’s complement and two’s complement.

In this unit we will discuss about Boolean algebra and laws.

2.2.2 Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is an algebra of logic. It is one of the most basic tools to analyse
and design logic circuits. It is named after George Boole who developed it in 1854.
The original purpose of this algebra was to simplify logical statements and solve
logic problems. It had no utilization until 1939 when Shannon applied it to telephone
switching circuits. Shannon’s work gave an idea that Boolean algebra could be applied
to computer electronics. Today it is back bone design and analysis of computer and
other digital circuits.

2.2.3 Boolean laws

1. Law of Union
A+0= A
A +1=1
2. Law of Intersection
A.0 = 0
A.1 = A
3. Law of Tautology
A+ A= A
A.A = A
4. Law of Complements

1
A+ A=
A.A = 0

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5. Law of Double Complements

Notes
A=A
6. Law of Commutation
A+B =B+ A
AB = BA
7. Law of Association

A + (B + C ) = ( A + B) + C
A ( BC ) = ( AB ) C
8. Law of Distribution

A ( B + C ) = AB + AC
( A + B )(C + D ) = AC + AD + BC + BD
9. Law of Absorption

A ( A + B) =
A
A + AB =
A
(
A A+B =
AB )
AB + B = A + B
AB + B = A + B
10. De Morgan’s Theorem

A+B =A.B
A.B= A + B

Summary:
●● Boolean algebra is an algebra of logic.
●● George Boole (1815 – 1864) is known as the father of Boolean algebra.

Further Reading:
6. Anil K. Maini, “Digital Electronics”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
7. A. P. Godse, D. A. Godse, “Digital Electronics”, Technical Publications, Pune.
8. B. Ram, “Computer Fundamentals – Architecture and Organisation”, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers.

Exercise:

Check your progress:

1. Find the 2’s complement of binary number is
(a) (01101)2
(b) (01110)2
(c) (01100)2
(d) (11100)2

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2. The decimal equivalent of the Hexadecimal number is

Notes
(a) (28)10
(b) (18)10
(c) (38)10
(d) (48)10
3. Hexadecimal equivalent of binary number (1100101001010111)2 is
(a) CB57
(b) CB67
(c) CA57
(d) DA57
4. The (100110)2 is numerically equivalent to
(a) (26)16
(b) (36)16
(c) (46)16
(d) (38)16
5. The (100110)2 is numerically equivalent to
(a) (26)8
(b) (36)8
(c) (46)8
(d) (38)8
6. The (100110)2 is numerically equivalent to
(a) (26)10
(b) (36)10
(c) (46)10
(d) (38)10
7. The base of the hexadecimal number system is
(a) 6
(b) 8
(c) 16
(d) 10
8. The number of digits in a binary number system are
(a) 10
(b) 2
(c) 4

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(d) 6
Notes
9. The number system, which uses alphabets as well as numerals is
(a) Binary Number System
(b) Octal Number System
(c) Decimal Number System
(d) Hexadecimal Number System
10. The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by changing
(a) Each ‘1’ to a ‘0’
(b) Each ‘0’ to a ‘1’
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
11. The number of bits in one nibble are
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 8
(d) 16
12. The equivalent decimal number of a maximum binary number of length one byte is
(a) 8
(b) 64
(c) 255
(d) 256
13. The equivalent decimal number of a maximum binary number of length half byte is
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 8
(d) 15
14. Which out of the following binary numbers is equivalent to decimal number 24
(a) 1101111
(b) 11000
(c) 111111
(d) 11001
15. Simplified form of Boolean expression AB + A + AB is
(a) A
(b) B
(c) 1
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(d) A+B
Notes
( )
16. Simplified form of Boolean expression AB + A B + C + B ( B + C ) is
(a) A + BC
(b) C + AB
(c) B + AC
(d) B + AC

( (
17. The simplified form of a logic function Y =A B + C AB + AC )) is
(a) AB
(b) AB
(c) AB
(d) AB

18. Simplified form of Boolean expression AB + A ( B + C ) + B ( B + C ) is

(a) A + BC

(b) B + AC

(c) C + AB
(d) AC

19. Simplified form of Boolean expression BC + B + B ( B + A) is

(a) A + BC

(b) B + AC

(c) C + AB

(d) B +C
20. Simplify the Boolean function
Y = ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD
(a) BD
(b) BD + AC

(c) BD + ACD
(d) BD + ACD

Answer Key:
1-b
2-a
3-c
4-a
5-c
6-d
7-c
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8-b
Notes
9-d
10-c
11-b
12-c
13-d
14-b
15-c
16-a
17-b
18-b
19-d
20-b

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Module - III
Notes
Course Contents:
●● Introduction to IT
●● Need of IT
●● Introduction to information storage and processing
●● Role and Applications of IT
●● Internet
●● WWW
●● Different Type of software
●● Introduction to information systems
●● Business data processing

Key Learning Objectives:

At the end of this block, you will be able to:

1. Define IT
2. Describe the need of IT
3. Define Information storage and processing
4. Describe the role and applications of IT
5. Define Internet
6. Define WWW
7. Describe the different Type of software
8. Describe the information systems
9. Define business data processing

Structure:
Unit 3.1: Introduction to Information System

3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Introduction to IT
3.1.3 Need of IT
3.1.4 Introduction to information storage and processing
3.1.5 Role and Application of IT
3.1.6 Internet
3.1.7 WWW
3.1.8 Different types of Software
3.1.9 Introduction to Information system
3.1.10 Business data processing

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Unit - 3.1: Introduction to Information System

Notes
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn

1. Define IT
2. Describe the need of IT
3. Define Information storage and processing
4. Describe the role and applications of IT
5. Define Internet
6. Define WWW
7. Describe the different Type of software
8. Describe the information systems
9. Define business data processing

3.1.1 Introduction
In this unit we will studied about, introduction to IT, need of IT, information storage
and processing, the role and applications of IT, Internet, WWW, the different type of
software, the information systems and business data processing.

3.1.2 Introduction to IT
Information technology (IT) is a combination of telecommunications and computing
to obtain, process, store transmit and output information in the form of the voice,
pictures or text. It includes the following:

●● Software applications and operating systems

●● Web based information and applications such as distance learning
●● Telephones and means of telecommunications
●● Video equipment and multimedia products
●● World Wide web (WWW)
●● Electronic devices such as photocopiers
The components of information technology include hardware, software, data and
people. These components are essential for the proper functioning of a system in the IT
and are as follows:

●● Hardware: It consists of physical components that form a computer system or

any other electronic gadget. To run a computer, both hardware and software
are required. Examples of hardware include monitor, keyboard, mouse, mobile
phone and television, which are the popular inventions in the field of IT.
●● Software: It is a set of instructions in the forms of programs, which control the
sequence of tasks. It runs along with the hardware on the digital systems. For
example, the software present in the mobile phones allows users to perform

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various functions like sending messages, recording a person’s voice and

Notes taking photographs.
●● Data: They are an unprocessed collections or representations of raw facts,
concepts, or instructions in manner suitable for communication, interpretation,
and processing by humans or by automatic means. They include constants,
variables, arrays, and character strings, they can be meaningful or
meaningless. They are gathered for the purpose of communication,
interpretation, or processing of tasks.
●● People: They play an important role in IT. They perform various functions with the
help of the hardware and software to produce the desired output using the IT.

3.1.3 Need of IT
The present era is the era of information technology. Information technology
is prominent among the amazing achievements made by innovators in the fields of
science, which have made mankind prosperous. Today, sitting in any corner of the
world, we can get any information from anywhere with the help of scientific instruments.
This facility of receiving information has ended the distance of countries. Now it seems
that the whole world has shrunk in our grasp. The concept of “globalization” and
“Vashudhaiva Kutumbakam” seems to be flourishing rapidly in this era of scientific
progress.

Today, let us remember the era when there was no proper system for sending
mail. Information was exchange was messengers. This work took a long time. It is
not easy to estimate how difficult life must have been that time. Time took a turn and
new innovations were being made in the field of information. Post telegram, telephone
telegram. were arranged. Messages started reaching through letters. Life got
momentum and radio as well as television took steps in the direction. With the access
of computer, revolution started in the information field. After the development of the
internet, all computers were interconnected and instant communication became easier.
New changes are coming in the information world and new information is available
is immediately. Today human being can easily advertise any of their product in the
world. He can fight war without fighting conventional weapons. Computer and internet
facilities are available in almost all homes and offices today with the help of it, tickets for
aeroplane, rail, bus and cinema etc. can be easily booked Reservation status system
can be obtained. The condition of road traffic can be ascertained. Today everything can
be obtained sitting at home through internet on mobile. It is really the cheapest means
of communication and information communication.

3.1.4 Information Storage and Processing

All information or data stored on the storage media, whether it is stored in hard
disk drives (HDDs), solid state drives (SSDs), external hard drives, USB flash drives,
SD cards, etc., can be converted into strings of bits. It is also known as binary digit. The
value of these binary digits is 1 or 0. A byte is the most common unit of storage and is
equal to 8 bits.

All of the computer’s data is stored as a binary number. For example, letters
become binary numbers, photographs are converted into a set of binary numbers that
indicate the location, color, and brightness of each pixel. While convention numbers
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use ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), binary numbers use two digits to represent all
possible values. Convention numbers 0-9 translate into binary numbers: 0, 1, 10, 11, Notes
100, 101, 110, 111, 1000 and 1001.With binary numbers, any information can be stored
as a series of 1’s and 0’s where 1 means true and 0 means false.

Binary data is primarily stored on the hard disk drive (HDD). The device is made
up of a spinning disk (or disks) with magnetic coatings and heads that can both read
and write information in the form of magnetic patterns. In addition to hard disk drives,
floppy disks and tapes also store data magnetically. Newer laptops, as well as mobile
phones, tablets, USB flash drives and SD cards, use solid state (or flash) storage. With
this storage medium, the binary numbers are instead stored as a series of electrical
charges within the NAND flash chips. Because all data is made up of a string of binary
numbers, just one number out of place can cause a file to become corrupt.

Data is stored as lots of binary numbers, by magnetism, electronics or optics. While

the computer is operating, data is also stored in many temporary locations. Software is
responsible for organizing, moving and processing all those numbers. The computer’s
BIOS contains simple instructions, stored as data in electronic memory, to move data
in and out of different storage locations and around the computer for processing. The
computer’s operating system, for example, contains instructions for organizing data into
files and folders, managing temporary data storage, and sending data to application
programs and devices such as printers. Finally, application programs process the data.

Data processing refers to the use of data and converting it to the desired form.
This conversion or “processing” is done manually or automatically using a predefined
sequence of operations. Most of the processing is done using a computer and is thus
done automatically. Output or “processed” data can be obtained in various forms.
Examples of these forms include image, graph, table, vector file, audio, chart, or any
other desired format. The form received depends on the software or method of data
processing. When done manually it is called automatic data processing. The data
center is the major component as it enables the processing of data, data storage, data
access, data sharing and data analysis, etc.

3.1.5 Role and Application of IT

Information technology is being used in the following areas:

Business: IT plays an important role in the business environment as every

organization adopts it in some form or the other to perform the tasks in effective
manner. In the past few years, the rapid development in IT, particularly in
communications, electronic service net- works, and multimedia have opened up new
opportunities for corporates. All these are contributing towards new and effective ways
of processing business transactions, integrating business processes, transferring
payments, and delivering services electronically. Electronic commerce (also known as
e-commerce) refers to the electronic means to conduct commerce between business
communications and transactions over the Internet. It includes buying and selling over
the Internet, electronic fund transfers, smart cards, digital cash, and all other ways of
doing business over digital networks. E-commerce websites are critical to the industry
for increasing e-commerce sales, improving productivity, and lowering costs and user
grievances. IT can provide the company a significant competitive advantage. The
e-business approach consolidates a company’s position by opening up new business
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opportunities and improving financial status. It has affected business in many ways.
Notes Some of them are as follows:

Competitiveness: E-business offers a reliable and cost-effective means of doing

business. Routine tasks can be automated. The customers can be provided support
round the clock, that is, 24 hours a day. With advancement in the IT sector, corporates
are spreading business around the world, thus increasing their presence and entering
new markets.

Security: With growth of IT in business, there is more insecurity of the data and
important computer programs. Due to this factor, almost every organization has
some security programs to avoid the illegal access of the company’s information by
unauthorized persons. The three fundamental attributes of a security program are
confidentiality, integrity, and availability, which allow access to only authorized persons
in an organization.

Cost benefit: The extensive availability of Internet-based information means that

companies have a wider choice of suppliers, which leads to a more competitive pricing.
Due to the presence of Internet, the role of the middleman becomes less important as
companies can sell their product or services directly to the customer.

Marketing: Corporates engaged in e-business can take the help of their respective
web- sites to create brand awareness of their products, thus creating new avenues of
promotion of their products. In addition, companies’ websites can also provide better
services such as after-sales service to the customer.

Mobile Computing: It is a technology of wireless networking that uses common

frequencies for transmission to permit networked devices move freely within the
broadcast coverage area yet remain connected to the network, it enables people to
access network services any- time and anywhere and allows the transmission of data,
with the help of computers. This is done by integrating the cellular telephone technology
with the portable computers having cabled network. Mobile voice communication
has been established throughout the world and has seen an increase in the number
of subscribers to the various cellular networks. An extension of this technology is the
ability to send and receive data across the cellular networks, which is the principle
of mobile computing. Similarly, mobile data communication has become a rapid
technology as it allows the users to transmit data from one remote location to another
remote location. Thus, technology mobility has proved to be the solution to the biggest
problem of business for the people on the more. The mobile data communications
have a significant difference when compared with the mobile voice communications. In
the voice communication, mobile phones allow a user to move around and talk at the
same time. One of the latest technologies used in mobile computing is general packet
radio service (GPRS), which is a packet-based data transfer technology that provides
increased capacity and higher data rates for access to the mobile Internet. It allows full
mobility and wide area coverage as information is sent and received across a mobile
network. A cellular network consists of a number of mobile units that are linked together
to the switching equipment. The switching equipment interconnects the different parts of
the network and allows access to the fixed public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Every base station covers a given area. A number of adjacent cells grouped together
form an area. Due to this reason, it is called cellular communication. The corresponding
base stations communicate through a mobile switching center (MSC), which is
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responsible for routing or switching calls from the originator to the destination. Mobile
computing is used in many fields such as in emergency services, stock information Notes
control, credit card verification, and e-mail It relieves the users from working on desk
and provides them access to information they need, in addition, it provides a better
lifestyle through improved communication and personal data management.

IT in manufacturing: Corporates are developing a manufacturing society to

provide manufacturers, distributors, and researchers with structured methods and
practices for implementing technologies in manufacturing environments. Initial
implementations of this collaborator-enhanced research in robotics are welding, which
requires asynchronous and synchronous support and the use of diverse data formats
(such as video, audio, and image annotations). Using IT, simulation systems have been
developed, which enable manufacturers to virtually prepare prototype plant layouts,
optimize raw material usage, and assess ergonomic factors prior to investing in plant
redesigns or new factories. Corporates are investigating ways to augment commercial
modelling and simulation software systems with programmable human modelling
capabilities to harness manufacturing resources. Researchers are developing natural
language interfaces that can help simulate human tasks in a manufacturing operations
environment.

IT in public sector: In recognition of the serious staffing and equipment

situation in the public sector, there is currently a great deal of activity in outsourcing
of information services. In countries where public sector is still developing, and is
under the control of government, there is a great requirement to automate services
such as booking of railway tickets and payment of electricity bills. The IT sector has
become a boon for public sector companies by helping them to increase their output
and efficiency. In addition, IT has enabled the Com companies to have a greater quality
control so that they are able to meet the laid standards. This has been possible as IT
has been able to do the following

1. Minimize duplication and sharing of scarce resources.

2. Promote and ensure that IT solutions are cost-effective, efficient, and business-
driven.
3. Promote transparency and accountability in the public service by facilitating the
availability, accessibility, and sharing of information
IT in defense services: Today, military operators are restricted in their access
to information. Most often, military operators use voice over radio or formatted text
messages to communicate during crisis. To help the military improve readiness and
response, more flexible, timely, and dependable access to information is needed. Key
research areas in this field include dialogue management, context tracking, language
generation, input language understanding, and hands-free and eyes-free interaction.
New IT capability allows military personnel to literally converse with computers to
create, access, and manage information and solve problems. The presence of IT
helps to gain relevant information in an organized and integrated manner that is readily
usable by military personnel equipped with smart information devices. For example,
pilot-less warplanes have been developed to combat enemies at the time of war. This
has been possible by gathering information and converting it into technology through
means of research and development (R&D). Thus, the battlefield of the future will
include weapons, unmanned combat vehicles, and communication systems that can
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navigate, reconfigure, and cooperate autonomously to accomplish time-critical military

Notes operations.

3.1.6 Internet
Internet is an interconnection between several computers of different types
belonging to various networks across the world. It is a network of networks. Millions of
people use the internet to search and share information and ideas, etc. it has grown into
an important infrastructure supporting a widespread, multidisciplinary community. This
community now consists of students, scientists and researchers, large corporations,
non-profit organisations, government agencies and individual consumers.

The internet is an immensely complex combination of thousands of technologies

and dozens of services used by millions of people around the world each day. The
internet links thousands of computers network. Every network and every computer in
this network exchange information according to certain rules called protocols. These
different computer and networks are united with the common thread of two protocols,
i.e., Internet Protocol (IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

3.1.7 WWW
The WWW is a huge collection of hypertext pages on the Internet. The concept of
WWW was developed in Switzerland at the European Particle Research Centre (known
as CERN), in the year 1989. The first text-based prototype was operational in 1991.
In the month of December 1991, a public demonstration was given at Hypertext 91
conference in San Antonio, Texas (USA). In the year 1993, the first graphical interface
software package called Mosaic was released. The mosaic became so popular that a
year later, the author of Mosaic, namely, Marc Andreessen left the national centre for
Supercomputing Applications, where Mosaic was developed, forming a company called
Netscape Communications.

The web is the most popular internet service next to e-mail. If accesses a larger
quantity and greater variety of data than any other service on the internet. The WWW is
an Internet based global information system. It makes available multimedia information
from over 4 million computers around the world. The Web offers video, interactive
multimedia and live audio, in addition to more basic data types, such as text documents
and still photographs.

3.1.8 Different Types of Software

Software fall into two categories: system software and application software.

The software that we see and work with is the application software. The system
software, like behind-the-scene people in films, stays in the background, though it has
very important work to do.

System Software: System software is a collection of complex programs related

to coordinating computer operations. It plays a central role in all interactions with the
computer and can be put into three categories.

1. Operating system

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2. Language processor
Notes
3. Utilities
1. Operating system The operating system forms the basis of the kind of work
a computer can do. It is a type of software that acts as a supervisor for all
applications, games or other types of software. It manages all hardware and
software, input, output and processing activities within the computer system,
the flow of information to and from the processor, sets priorities for handling
different tasks, and so on. For instance, when we command the system to say,
CUT, PASTE, what inside the computer and the system actually cuts, or pastes
the selected matter. Operating system is the one that decides on “how to”,
when to”, “what to” of all the commands to spare the user of all such stuff, by
acting like his/her secretary. The term system software is sometimes used for
operating system, but system software actually includes operating system. it
that goes MS-DOS.
2. Language processor: A computer understands only the machine language, the
language of 0s and 1s. Writing programs in machine language is very difficult.
Programmers, being humans, can work better and faster with meaningful words
and figures. They prefer writing programs in languages using regular English
words. Such languages are called high-level languages. High and low-level
languages have been described in greater detail later in this lesson. Some
examples of high-level languages are COBOL, BASIC, Pascal and C++. To
make the computer understand the program written in such a language, a
software is needed to translate it to machine language. Such a software is
called language processor. “C compiler”, a language • processor, converts
programs written in C language into machine language.
3. Utilities: The job of utility programs is to keep the computer system running
smoothly. They perform many standard chores like copying a file, sorting a file,
or merging two files into one. Antivirus program is also a utility program that
checks the computer system for computer viruses.
Application Software: Application software is a set of programs developed to
carry out complete operations for a specific purpose. For instance, a set of programs
developed for reserving railway tickets carries out all the operations that may be
required for this purpose, like availability of seats, alternatives available, actual booking,
waiting list status, cancellations, amount due for refund/deductions. So, ‘railway
reservation software is an application software. Other examples of application software
are “payroll processing software’, “electricity billing software’, ‘examination results
processing software’.

3.1.9. Introduction to Information System

The past decade has witnessed tremendous growth in the information innovation
and application In- formation Technology has become a vital component for the
success of business because most of the organizations require fast dissemination of
information, information processing, storage and retrieval of data. Today management
of an organization involved in the business requires high speed processing of huge
amount of data, fact and figures. High speed communication between organization,
customers, clients etc. is also playing an important role to achieve high business goal.
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These requirements of modem business led to development of a business information

Notes system which provides appropriate information to appropriate person in desired format
and at correct time. The timely processing of data also helps and enable management
to take important decision at earliest possible time. Information System may be
defined as organized collection of human, software, hardware and communication
equipment and database, in which the person controls, process and communicate
the information. The overall objective of the Information System is to gather the data,
processing of data communicating the information to the user of the system. User group
includes the person from all level i.e. top, middle and operational level. The information
obtained from the information system allows the different persons to take decisions.
To provide the appropriate information to user, it is necessary to collect the data,
process and output of the data. Information System may include feedback mechanism
under which processed data or output are fed back to the system to make changes in
processing activities. For example, sales, inventory report generated may he fed back
to appropriate managers to take appropriate decision in time. Therefore, the high-end
information systems are designed around feedback and control mechanism, based
on user-based criteria to produce and communicate the information for planning and
control of business. Information System may be broadly categorized into two categories
(i) Manual (i) Computer Based Information System (CBIS), As discussed before, the
major objective of the information system is to collect, process and disseminate the
data to appropriate user. Traditionally, the business analyst in the organization study the
pattern of investment, expenditure, sales etc., to evaluate the performance and to take
decision for future. These analyst used to collect the data and prepare the report in the
form of chart, table, graph etc., to analyze the business, Now-a-days, the requirement
of a business analyst may he programmed and a computer based system may be
developed to study and analyze these reports, These Information System are called
Computer based Information System. For example, in earlier days the rail reservation
system was manual. Traveler used to fill application form and allotment of seat in
different quota on different train. These reservations used to be on the basis of certain
well-defined rule. After the introduction of the computer, these rules and guidelines have
been programmed in computer along with the required software that has emerged as
reservation agent.

3.1.10 Business Data Processing

Data processing, as distinct from word processing, image processing, or music and
speech processing, refers to the use of computer to record, store, retrieve, analyze,
and communicate data. That data will often be in numerical form, but will include textual
data such as names, addresses, product codes, and so on.

Data processing may include Scientific and engineering number crunching

applications, but it mainly refers to the processing of business transactions, such
as sales and purchases. The term transaction processing is sometimes used to
distinguished the latter from scientific number crunching.

In small businesses, data processing will normally be carried out on PCs, using off
the shelf applications packages and accounts packages.

In a complete data processing operation, you should note what is happening in the
five different business data processing steps:

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Editing - What data do you really need? To obtain useful results, you must come
out and edit the relevant data. Notes
Coding - This step is also known as bucketing or netting and it aligns the data in a
systematic way that can be understood by computer systems.

Data Entry - Entering data into software is an essential step that can be done
efficiently by data entry professionals.

Validation - After a “cleansing” step, validating the data involves checking for the
desired quality level.

Tabulation - arranging data in a way that facilitates further use and analysis.

Image Source:

●● [1] – www.indiamart.com
●● [2]. – www.javatpoint.com
●● [3] - www.amazon.in

Further Reading/ Reference:

1. V. Rajaraman, “Introduction to Information technology”, PHI Learning Private
Limited, Delhi – 110092
2. R. Jayaprakash Reddy, “Business Data Processing”, A P H Publishing
Corporation, New Delhi

Summary:
●● Information technology (IT) is a combination of telecommunications and
computing to obtain, process, store transmit and output information in the form
of the voice, pictures or text.
●● There is a system to store information and instructions in any computer, this
arrangement is called computer memory.
●● The computer memory can be divided into two parts which are as follows
 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory
●● RAM is called Random Access Memory because this memory is organized in
such a way that any memory location can be accessed directly and anytime
without accessing the location prior to that location.
●● A capacitor is used to store information or data in D RAM.
●● D RAM is mainly divided into the following parts.
 SD RAM
 RD RAM
 DD RAM
●● ROM is the memory in which data is pre-loaded and can only be read. Such
information is usually stored in ROM which is permanent and important.
●● There are several types of ROM memory which are as follows

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 P ROM
Notes
 EP ROM →
 EEP ROM
●● The devices under secondary memory can be divided into the following
classes.
 Magnetic disk
 Magnetic tape
 Optical disk
●● Internet is an interconnection between several computers of different types
belonging to various networks across the world. It is a network of networks.
●● The WWW is a huge collection of hypertext pages on the Internet.
●● The WWW is an Internet based global information system. It makes available
multimedia information from over 4 million computers around the world.
●● System software is a collection of complex programs related to coordinating
computer operations. It plays a central role in all interactions. It plays a central
role in all interactions with the computer and can be put into three categories.
 Operating system
 Language processor
 Utilities
●● Application software is a set of programs developed to carry out complete
operations for a specific purpose.
●● Data processing, as distinct from word processing, image processing, or
music and speech processing, refers to the use of computer to record, store,
retrieve, analyze, and communicate data.

Exercise

Check your understanding

1. Semiconductor memory device in which stored data will remain permanently
stored as long as power is supplied is
(a) Static memory device
(b) Flash device
(c) Storage device
(d) Dynamic memory device
2. Computer word size is a multiple of
(a) 1024 bits
(b) 10 bits
(c) 4 bits
(d) 16 bits

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3. Type of computer memory in which access time is not constant but varies
depending on the address location is known as Notes
(a) RAM
(b) SAM
(c) RWM
(d) ROM
4. Computer general- purpose software is basically a
(a) System software
(b) Package software
(c) Data base software
(d) Application software
5. In computer, testing of a program’s component is called
(a) Pilot testing
(b) Isolation testing
(c) System testing
(d) Unit testing
6. Information in computer read only memory is stored by
(a) Engineer
(b) Programmer
(c) Manufacturer
(d) User
7. Form of information which is written as a phrase or sentence is termed as
(a) Data
(b) Text
(c) Character
(d) Message
8. Computer memory is measured in terms of
(a) Bits
(b) Cells
(c) Bytes
(d) Units
9. Memory of a computer which is volatile is
(a) RAM
(b) EEPROM

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(c) ROM
Notes
(d) CMOS
10. Computer memory in which user cannot write new information or instructions is
(a) RWM
(b) ROM
(c) CMOS
(d) RAM
11. Which of the following is an attribute of information?
(a) Timeliness
(b) Accuracy
(c) Relevancy
(d) All of these
12. Information is needed for
(a) Communication
(b) Decision- making
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
13. Which of the following tool is used to provide online learning experience to
students?
(a) WebCT
(b) Enspire
(c) WebEx
(d) All of these
14. With the emerging role of IT, which of the following option has been affected?
(a) Cost benefits
(b) Marketing
(c) Security
(d) All of these
15. One of the latest technologies used in mobile computing is
(a) PSTN
(b) Multimedia
(c) GPRS
(d) None of these
16. With the advancement of IT in business, it has affected
(a) Cost and competition

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(b) Marketing and security

Notes
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
17. Types of system programs are
(a) Logical programs
(b) Application programs
(c) Replicate programs
(d) Both (b) and (c)
18. Set of programs which consists of full set of documentations is termed as
(a) Database packages
(b) File packages
(c) Software packages
(d) Bus packages
19. Examples of system programs includes
(a) Operating system of computer
(b) Trace program
(c) Compiler
(d) All of the above
20. Protocol which assigns IP address to the client connected in the internet is
(a) DHCP
(b) IP
(c) RPC
(d) HTML
21. WWW stands for
(a) World Wide Women’s
(b) World Wide Web
(c) World Wide Wildlife
(d) None of these
22. Several programs run at the same time and storage is shared especially in
(a) Mainframe computer
(b) Inquiry computer
(c) Dump computer
(d) Microcomputer

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Answer key:
Notes
1-a
2-d
3-b
4-d
5-c
6-d
7-c
8-a
9-b
10-d
11-c
12-d
13-d
14-d
15-c
16-c
17-d
18-c
19-d
20-a
21-b
22-a

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Module - IV
Notes
Course Contents:
●● Operating system – Definition and Use
●● Types of OS – Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-tasking, Multiprocessing
●● Data Communication

Key Learning Objectives:

At the end of this block, you will be able to:

1. Define Operating Systems

2. Describe the uses of Operating system
3. Define the types of Operating System
4. Define the Data Communication

Structure:
Unit 4.1: Operating System

4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Definition of Operating System
4.1.3 Uses of Operating System
4.1.3.1 Operating System as a User Interface
4.1.3.2 Operating System Service
4.1.3.1 Operating system as Resource Manager
4.1.4 History of Operating System
4.1.5 Types of OS
4.1.5.1 Batch System
4.1.5.2 Spooling
4.1.5.3 Multiprogramming System
4.1.5.4 Time sharing or Multi-Tasking System
4.1.5.5 Multiprocessing System
4.1.6 Data Communication
4.1.6.1 Data Communication System
4.1.6.2 Direction of data flow

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Notes
Unit - 4.1: Operating System

Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn

1. Define Operating Systems

2. Describe the uses of Operating system
3. Define the types of Operating System
4. Define the Data Communication

4.1.1 Introduction
Operating system is a system software that manages the resources of computer
software and hardware and provides common service. The operating system also
manages the memory and processing of the computer. No computer can run without
an OS because the operating system is the most important program of the computer
to understand all the simple and important tasks likes Keys being inputted by the
keyboard, sending the output to the monitor screen, files and directories on the hard
disk, managing and communicating with all parts of all computers. So, in this unit we
are going to discuss about the definition of operating system, uses of operating system,
types of operating system and the data communication.

4.1.2 Definition of Operating System

An operating system is a program that controls the execution of an application
program and acts as an interface between the user of the computer and the computer
hardware.

The operating system performs three functions:

1. Convenience: An OS provides a more convenient form for a computer to use.

2. Efficiency: An OS allows to use the computer’s resources in an efficient
manner.
3. Ability to develop: An OS should be constructed in such a way that effective
development, testing and new system functions can be initiated simultaneously
at the same time without interfering.

4.1.3 Uses of Operating System

4.1.3.1 Operating System as a User Interface

For every general-purpose computer, there are hardware, operating systems,
system programs, application programs. Hardware consists of CPU, ALU, I/O device,
peripheral device and storage device. The system program consists of compiler, loader,
editor, OS etc. The application program consists of business programs and database
programs.

Fig. 4.1.1 depicts the conceptual landscape of a computer system.

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Notes

Fig. 4.1.1 Conceptual view of computer system

Each computer must have an operating system to run other programs. The
operating system serves to control and instruct the use of hardware between different
system programs and application programs for different users. It simply provides an
environment within which other programs can function usefully.

The operating system is a set of special programs that run on a computer system
that allows it to function properly. It performs basic functions such as identifying input
from the keyboard, tracking files and directories on disk, sending output to the display
screen, and controlling peripheral devices.

The OS is designed for two basic purposes:

1. It controls the allocation and use of resources of computing systems between

different users and functions.
2. It provides an interface between computer hardware and programmer that
makes it easy for coding, creation and debugging of application programs.
The operating system must support the following functions. Its function is

1. Provides an editor with facilities to create and improve programs and data files.
2. Ensures the compiler’s access to the program’s translation from the user’s
high-level language to the machine language.
3. Provides a loader program to transfer the compiled program code to the
computer’s memory for execution.
4. Provide routines that handle the details of I / O programming.

4.1.3.2 Operating System Service

An operating system provides services to programs and users using those
programs. It provides an environment for execution of programs. The services provided
by one operating system are different than those of other operating systems.

The operating system makes programming tasks easier. Common services

provided by the operating system are listed below.

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1. Program execution
Notes
2. I/O Operation
3. File System Manipulation
4. Communication
5. Error detection.
1. Program execution: The operating system loads a program into memory and
executes that program. Programs should be able to terminate its execution,
either normally or abnormally.
2. I/O Operation: I/O means any file or a specific I/O device. Any I/O device may
be required while running the program. Therefore the operating system should
provide the necessary I / O.
3. File system manipulation: The program is required to read a file or write a file.
The operating system grants the permission to the programs for operation on
the file.
4. Communication: Data transfer between two processes is necessary for some
time. Both processes take place on one computer or on different computers
but they are connected through a computer network. Communication can be
implemented in two ways: shared memory and message passing.
5. Error detection: Error may occur in CPU, in I/O device or in the memory
hardware. The operating system must be constantly aware of these possible
errors. Appropriate actions must be taken to ensure correct and consistent
computing. The operating system provides the following services with multiple
users.
1. Resource allocation
2. Accounts
3. Protection
Fig. 4.1.2 Shows the view of OS with components.

Fig. 4.1.2 View of OS with components

The operating system is a low-level software on which users run programs. The
OS is built directly on the hardware interface and provides an interface between the

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hardware and the user program. It shares properties with both software and hardware.
Notes
We can view an operating system as a resource allocator. The OS monitors the
status of each resource and decides who gets the resources, by when, and at what time.
The OS ensures that different programs and users are running at the same time, but do
not interfere with each other. It is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized
users do not use the system. The primary purpose of an operating system is to increase
the productivity of a processing resource, such as computer hardware or users.

The operating system is the first program to run on the computer when the
computer boots. The services of the OS are implemented with a system call directive
that is used just like any other hardware instruction.

Some operating systems are named as DOS, Windows 95, Windows NT / 2000,
Unix, Linux etc.

4.1.3.3 Operating System Resource Manager

A computer is a set of resources for the circulation, storage and processing of
data and for the control of these functions. The OS is responsible for managing these
resources.

Fig. 4.1.3 shows the OS as a resource manager.

Fig. 4.1.3 OS as a resource manager

A part of the operating system is in main memory. This includes the kernel, which
includes the most frequently used functions in the operating system and at the same
time, other parts of the OS are also in use.

The remaining part of the main memory contains other user programs and data.
The allocation of main memory is controlled jointly by the OS and memory management
hardware in the processor.
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The operating system decides when a program can use an I/O device in the
Notes execution process and access and control files. The processor is a resource in itself,
and the operating system must determine how much time to devote to the processor for
the execution of a particular user program.

4.1.4 History of Operating System

The operating system has been evolving over the years. The following table shows
the history of the OS.

Generation Year Electronic devices Types of OS and

used devices
First 1945-1955 Vacuum tubes Plug boards
Second 1955-1965 Transistors Batch system
Third 1965-1980 Integrated circuit Multiprogramming
Fourth Since 1980 Large scale integration PC

Table 4.1.1 History of the OS

4.1.5 Types of Operating System

4.1.5.1 Batch System

Some computer systems could carry only one information at a time. They had a
list of instructions to carry and could be carried one after the other. It is also called a
serial system. Mechanics for the development and preparation of programs in such
environments are quite slow and many manual operations are also involved in this
process.

A batch operating system is one where programs and data are collected together
in a batch before processing begins. A job is a predefined sequence of commands,
programs and data that are combined into a single entity called a job.

Fig. 4.1.4 shows the memory layout for a simple batch system. Memory
management in batch systems is very simple. Memory is usually divided into two areas:
the operating system and the user program area.

Fig. 4.1.4 Memory layout for a simple batch system

Scheduling is also simple in batch systems. Jobs are processed in order of

submission i.e. first come first served.

When a job completes execution, its memory is released and the job’s output is
copied to the output spool for later printing.
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Spooling an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operation on line. Uses the

spooling disk as a large buffer for the output of data from printers and other devices. It Notes
can also be used for input, but is typically used for output. Its main use is to prevent two
users from moving from an alternate printing line to a line printer on the same page, so
that their output is fully coupled. It also helps in reducing idle time and overlapped I/O
and CPU.

Batch systems often provide a simple form of file management. Access -to file in
serial. Batch systems do not require any time significant device management.

The batch system is inconvenient for users because users cannot interact with their
jobs to fix the problems. Long-term changes may also occur. Generating monthly bank
statements is a simple example of this system.

4.1.5.2 Spooling
Spooling acronym for simultaneously peripheral operation on line. Spooling refers
to working in a buffer, a particular area in memory or on a disk where the device can
access them when ready.

Spooling is useful because the device access data from different rates. Buffer
provides a waiting station where the data can rest until the slow device does not hold it.

Fig 4.1.5 shows the spooling.

Fig. 4.1.5 Spooling

Computer can perform I/O in parallel with computation, it is possible when the
computer was calculating, it reads the deck of the card from tape, drum or disk and to
write out to a tape printer. This process is called spooling.

The most common spooling application is print spooling. In print spooling, documents
are loaded in a buffer and then the printer pulls them from buffer to its own rate.

Spooling is also used to process data on remote locations. CPU sends data to a
remote printer through communication path. Spooling also overlaps a JOB’s I/O with the
calculation of other jobs.

One difficulty with the simple batch system is that the computer still needs to read
the deck of the card, before he starts to perform the job. This means that during the
relatively slow operation, the CPU is inactive.

Spooling batch system is the first and the simplest multiprogramming system.

Advantage of Spooling
1. The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

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2. Spooling is also able to overlap the I / O operation of a job, though with processor
Notes operations for other work.

Advantages of batch systems

1. Move much of the work of the operator to the computer.
2. To increase the performance related to starting the job as soon as the previous
work is over.

Disadvantages of Batch system

1. Turn around time can be large from user standpoint.

2. Difficult to debug program.

3. A job could enter an infinite loop.

4. A job could corrupt the monitor, thus affecting pending jobs.

5. Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

4.1.5.3 Multiprogramming Operating System

When two or more programs are in memory at the same time, the processor being
shared is called a multiprogramming operating system. Multiprogramming considers it
to be a single processor that is being shared. It increases the usability of the CPU by
organizing the jobs so that the CPU always executes one job at a time.

Fig. 4.1.6 shows the memory layout for the system.

Fig. 4.1.6 Memory layout for a Multiprogramming System

The operating system keeps many jobs in memory at one time. This set of jobs
is a subset of jobs placed in the job pool. The operating system picks up and starts
executing one of the jobs in memory.

Multiprogrammed systems provide an environment in which different systems can

use resources effectively, but they do not provide user interaction with computer systems.

Jobs entering into the system are kept into the memory. The operating system
selects the jobs and starts executing one of the jobs in memory. Having several
programs in memory at the same time requires some form of memory management.

The multiprogramming operating system monitors the status of all active jobs and
system resources and ensures that the CPU is never idle until there is no job remaining.

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Advantages
Notes
1. High CPU utilization.
2. It appears that many programs are allocated CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages
1. CPU scheduling is required.
2. To accommodate multiple jobs in memory, memory management is required.

4.1.5.4 Time Sharing or Multitasking System

The time-sharing system supports interactive users. Time sharing is also called
multitasking. This is a logical extension of multiprogramming. The time-sharing system
uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide affordable interactive systems
for two or more users.

In the time-sharing system, each user is given a time-slice to perform their job in a
round-robin fashion. The job continues until the time-slice ends.

Time sharing systems are more complex than multiprogramming operating

systems. Memory management in a time management system provides isolation and
protection of co-resident programs.

Time sharing uses medium-term scheduling such as round-robin for the

foreground. The background may use a different scheduling technique.

The time-sharing system can run multiple programs at the same time, so it is also
a multiprogramming system. But multiprogramming operating system is not a time-
sharing system.

The difference between both the systems is that, time sharing systems allow for
more frequent context switches. This assures each user that the entire computer is
dedicated to its use. A context switch in a multiprogramming system only occurs when
the currently executed process stalls for some reason.

4.1.5.5 Multiprocessor Systems

Multiprocessor systems have more than one processor for the communication
process. They also share computer buses, system clock and input-output devices, and
sometimes memory. In multiprocessing systems, it is possible to run two processes in
parallel.

There are two types of multiprocessor systems: symmetric multiprocessing and

asymmetric multiprocessing.

In symmetric multiprocessing, each processor runs an identical copy of the

operating system and they communicate with each other as needed. All CPUs share
the same memory.

Fig 4.1.7 shows the symmetric multiprocessing system.

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Notes

Fig. 4.1.7 Symmetric Multiprocessing System

In asymmetric multiprocessing, each processor is assigned a specific task. It uses

the master-slave relationship. A master processor controls the system. The master
processor allocates schedules and tasks to the slave processors.

Fig 4.1.8 shows asymmetric multiprocessor.

Fig. 4.1.8 Asymmetric Multiprocessing System

Features of Multiprocessor System

1. If one processor fails, another processor must retake the interrupted process
state so that execution of the process can continue.
2. The processor must support efficient context switching operation.
3. Multiprocessor system supports large physical address space and large virtual
address space.
4. The IPC mechanisms should be implemented and implemented in hardware as
it becomes efficient and easy.

4.1.6 Data Communication

Data communications is the exchange of data between two devices by means of
any transmission medium. The effectiveness of data communication system depends
on three fundamental characteristics delivery, accuracy and timeliness.

1. Delivery
The data must be delivered to the intended device or user.
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2. Accuracy
Notes
The data must be delivered accurately i.e., without alteration.

3. Timeliness
The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

4.1.6.1 Data Communication System

A data communication system consists of five components.

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Medium
5. Protocol
Fig.4.1.9 shows the components of data communication system.

Fig.4.1.9 Data communication components

1. Message
The message is data or information to be communicated. It can be any format like
text, image, numbers, audio and video.

2. Sender
The sender is device that sends data. Various device can be used to send the data.

3. Receiver
The receiver receives the message/information transmitted by sender.

4. Medium
It is a physical path through which message passes from sender to receiver. The
transmission medium can be twisted-pair cable, co-axial cable, optical-fibre cable or
radio waves.

5. Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. Protocol is a
predecided terms for communications.

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4.1.6.2 Direction of data flow

Notes
Communication between two devices i.e. sender and receiver can be of three
types:

1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex

1. Simplex
In simplex mode of communication, data can flow in one direction only
(unidirectional). One device can transmit data and other device accepts the data and
works accordingly. Fig.4.1.10 shows simplex communication mode.

Fig.4.1.10 Simplex Communication

Typical example of simplex communication is a computer system, data from flow

from CPU to monitor or from keyboard to monitor in one direction only.

2. Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode of communication each station can transmit or receive the
message (data). Fig.4.1.11 shows half-duplex communication mode.

Fig.4.1.11 Half-duplex Communication

An important condition in half-duplex mode is that both devices cannot transmit at a

time. The entire channel capacity is used by any device transmitting at that time.

3.Full-duplex
In full-duplex mode, both stations may transmit and receive data simultaneously.
Fig 4.1.12 shows full-duplex mode of communication.

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Notes

Fig.4.1.12 Full-duplex Communication

In full-duplex mode of communication, data flow in both directions share the

channel capacity. A common example of full-duplex communication is telephone
network. Subscriber at both ends can talk and listen at the same time.

Further Reading:
1. I.A. Dhotre, “Operating Systems”, Technical Publication Pune.
2. Harry Chaudhary, “Hands on Operating Systems 1500 MCQ”, I.T. Exam Guruji
Publications.

Summary:
●● An operating system is a program that controls the execution of an application
program and acts as an interface between the user of the computer and the
computer hardware.
●● The operating system performs three functions:
(a) Convenience: An OS provides a more convenient form for a computer to use.
(b) Efficiency: An OS allows to use the computer’s resources in an efficient
manner.
(c) Ability to develop: An OS should be constructed in such a way that
effective development, testing and new system functions can be initiated
simultaneously at the same time without interfering.
●● The OS is designed for two basic purposes:
(a) It controls the allocation and use of resources of computing systems
between different users and functions.
(b) It provides an interface between computer hardware and programmer that
makes it easy for coding, creation and debugging of application programs.
●● The operating system must support the following functions. Its function is
(a) Provides an editor with facilities to create and improve programs and data
files.
(b) Ensures the compiler’s access to the program’s translation from the user’s
high-level language to the machine language.
(c) Provides a loader program to transfer the compiled program code to the
computer’s memory for execution.
(d) Provide routines that handle the details of I / O programming.

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●● The operating system makes programming tasks easier. Common services

Notes provided by the operating system are listed below.
(a) Program execution
(b) I/O Operation
(c) File System Manipulation
(d) Communication
(e) Error detection
●● A batch operating system is one where programs and data are collected
together in a batch before processing begins.
●● The batch system is inconvenient for users because users cannot interact with
their jobs to fix the problems.
●● Spooling refers to working in a buffer, a particular area in memory or on a disk
where the device can access them when ready.
●● When two or more programs are in memory at the same time, the processor
being shared is called a multiprogramming operating system.
●● Multiprogrammed systems provide an environment in which different systems
can use resources effectively, but they do not provide user interaction with
computer systems.
●● In the time-sharing system, each user is given a time-slice to perform their job
in a round-robin fashion. The job continues until the time-slice ends.
●● The time-sharing system can run multiple programs at the same time, so it is
also a multiprogramming system.
●● Multiprocessor systems have more than one processor for the communication
process.
●● In multiprocessing systems, it is possible to run two processes in parallel.
●● There are two types of multiprocessor systems: symmetric multiprocessing
and asymmetric multiprocessing.
●● In symmetric multiprocessing, each processor runs an identical copy of the
operating system and they communicate with each other as needed.
●● In asymmetric multiprocessing, each processor is get to a specific task. It uses
the master-slave relationship. A master processor controls the system. The
master processor allocates schedules and tasks to the slave processors.
●● Data communications is the exchange of data between two devices by means
of any transmission medium.
●● A data communication system consists of five components.
(a) Message
(b) Sender
(c) Receiver
(d) Medium
(e) Protocol

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●● Communication between two devices i.e. sender and receiver can be of three
types: Notes
a) Simplex
b) Half-Duplex
c) Full-Duplex

Exercise

Check your progress

1. Which of the following shutdown methods is often called warm boot?
(a) Shut down
(b) Restart
(c) Sleep
(d) Hibernate
2. What is operating system?
(a) Collection of programs that manage hardware resources
(b) System service provider to the application programs
(c) Link to interface the hardware and application programs
(d) All of the above
3. To access the services of OS, the interface is provided by the
(a) System calls
(b) API
(c) Library
(d) Assembly instruction
4. Which one of the following is not true?
(a) Kernel is the program that constitutes the central core of the operating system
(b) Kernel is the first part of operating system to load into memory during booting
(c) Kernel is made up of various modules which cannot be loaded in running
operating system
(d) Kernel remains in the memory during the entire computer session
5. Which one of the following error will be handle by the operating system?
(a) Power failure
(b) Lack of paper in printer
(c) Connection failure in the network
(d) All of the above

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6. The main function of the command interpreter is

Notes
(a) to get and execute the next user-specified command
(b) to provide the interface between the API and application program
(c) to handle the files in operating system
(d) none of these
7. By operating system, the resource management can be done via
(a) time division multiplexing
(b) space division multiplexing
(c) both time and space division multiplexing
(d) none of these
8. If a process fails, most operating system write the error information to a _____
(a) log file
(b) another running process
(c) new file
(d) none of these
9. Which one of the following is not a real-time operating system?
(a) VxWorks
(b) Windows CE
(c) RT Linux
(d) Palm OS
10. The OS X has ________
(a) Monolithic kernel
(b) Hybrid kernel
(c) Microkernel
(d) Monolithic kernel with modules
11. The systems which allows only one process execution at a time, are called
(a) Uniprogramming system
(b) Uniprocessing system
(c) Unitasking system
(d) None of these
12. In operating system, each process has its own
(a) Address space and global variables
(b) Open files
(c) Pending alarms, signals and signal handlers
(d) All of the above
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13. A process can be terminated due to

Notes
(a) Normal exit
(b) Fatal error
(c) Killed by another process
(d) All of the above
14. What is interprocess communication?
(a) Communication within the process
(b) Communication between two processes
(c) Communication between two threads of same process
(d) None of these
15. The number of process completed per unit time is known as
(a) Output
(b) Throughput
(c) Efficiency
(d) Capacity
16. The degree of multiprogramming is
(a) The number of processes executed per unit time
(b) The number of process in the ready queue
(c) The number of processes in the I/O queue
(d) The number of processes in memory
17. A single thread of control allows the process to perform
(a) Only one task at a time
(b) Multiple tasks at a time
(c) Only two tasks at a time
(d) All of the above
18. The objective of multiprogramming is to
(a) Have some process running at all times
(b) Have multiple programs waiting in a queue ready to run
(c) To minimize CPU utilization
(d) None of these
19. When the process issues an I/O request
(a) It is placed in an I/O queue
(b) It is placed in a waiting queue
(c) It is placed in the ready queue
(d) It is placed in the job queue
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20. When a process terminates

Notes
(a) It is removed from all queues
(b) It is removed from all, but the job queue
(c) Its process control block is de-allocated
(d) Its process control block is never de-allocated
21. Co- processor
(a) is relatively easy to support in software
(b) causes all processor to function equally
(c) works with any application
(d) is quite common in modern computer
22. Microsoft windows is
(a) Operating system
(b) Graphics program
(c) Word processing
(d) Database program
23. Which of the following is not an application software?
(a) Windows NT
(b) Page Maker
(c) Win-word XP
(d) Photoshop
24. Which of the following windows version supports 64-bit processor
(a) Windows 98
(b) Windows 2000
(c) Windows XP
(d) Windows 95
25. Which of the following windows has not start button?
(a) Windows 3.1
(b) Windows 3.11
(c) Windows 95
(d) Windows 98

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Answer Key
Notes
1-b
2-d
3-a
4-c
5-d
6-a
7-c
8-a
9-d
10-b
11-b
12-b
13-d
14-b
15-b
16-d
17-a
18-a
19-a
20-a
21-a
22-a
23-a
24-c
25-c

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Module - V
Notes
Course Contents:
●● Introduction to programming concepts – Define program
●● Process of programming
●● Algorithms
●● Introduction to flow charts
●● Basic symbols and drawing of flow charts
●● Advantage and limitations of flow charts
●● Pseudocodes – Sequence logic, Selection logic, Iteration logic
●● Advantage and disadvantage of Pseudocode

Key Learning Objectives:

At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Program
2. Describe the process of Programming
3. Define Algorithm
4. Define flowchart, basic symbols of flowchart and drawing of flowcharts
5. Describe advantages and limitations of flowcharts
6. Define pseudocodes, sequence logic, selection logic and iteration logic
7. Define advantages and disadvantages of pseudocodes

Structure:
Unit 5.1: Introduction to Program, Flowchart and Pseudocode
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Program
5.1.3 Process of programming
5.1.4 Algorithms
5.1.5 Introduction to flow charts
5.1.6 Basic symbols of flow charts
5.1.7 Rules for drawing flow charts
5.1.8 Advantage of flow charts
5.1.9 Limitations of flow charts
5.1.10 Pseudocodes
5.1.11 Sequence logic
5.1.12 Selection logic
5.1.13 Iteration logic
5.1.14 Advantage of Pseudocode
5.1.15 Disadvantage of Pseudocode

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Unit - 5.1: Introduction to Program,

Notes
Flowchart and Pseudocode

Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn

1. Define Program
2. Describe the process of Programming
3. Define Algorithm
4. Define flowchart, basic symbols of flowchart and drawing of flowcharts
5. Describe advantages and limitations of flowcharts
6. Define pseudocodes, sequence logic, selection logic and iteration logic
7. Define advantages and disadvantages of pseudocodes

5.1.1 Introduction
The computer can solve the problem by executing a program fed to it. The
programmer has to write this program for solving the given problem. Before starting
the process of writing program, the programmer has to determine the problem. The
programmer must know the problem exactly. After understanding the problem clearly,
he/she must start writing a program or coding. The different techniques are developed
to solve the problems. In most of the cases, it is necessary to break the problem into a
series of smaller steps.

In this unit we will studied about, definition of program, the process of

programming, algorithm, flowchart, basic symbols of flowchart and drawing of
flowcharts, advantages and limitations of flowcharts, pseudocodes, sequence logic,
selection logic and iteration logic and advantages and disadvantages of pseudocodes.

5.1.2 Program
The computer can perform a variety of tasks, but not by its own. An instruction is
to be given a computer for performing even a simple task. When a set of sequential
instructions is written to perform any task by a computer, it is called a ‘computer
program’. The computer executes the program, i.e., it follows the instructions and
accordingly perform the stepwise operation. Thus, computer performs the specified task
with the help of program.

We, the human beings can use natural languages such as English, Japanese,
French, to communicate. But computer is a machine. It cannot understand human
languages. So, computer user has to communicate with a computer in a language
understood by it. This can be accomplished by providing instructions or program to
a computer understood by it. The different types of languages are developed for this
purpose, called “programming language” or “computer language”.

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5.1.3 Process of the Programming

Notes
The development of a program is the technique which is commonly used for
solving problems this technique uses number of steps. However, these steps may vary
from person to person since the steps depend on the approach used by the person
to solve the program. Using this technique, the program development is carried out in
steps. After completing these required steps, new demands may appear and all the
steps are repeated. Thus, often the process runs in a loop. The steps included in the
development cycle are:

1. Analyse or define the problem

An understanding of the problem is an important step. So, firstly the problem is
analysed precisely and completely. After this analysis, the developer comes to know the
scope within which the development of the problem is to be done.

2. Task analysis
After analysing the problem, the developer has to develop different solutions, but
the optimum solution is to be selected. While selecting the solution, easiness and cost
factors are considered.

3. Developing algorithms
After choosing the appropriate solution, next step is developing an algorithm. That
is, logical steps are depicted according to the selected solution. Then, the pictorial
representation of an algorithm, that is flowchart is generated. The pseudocodes of the
program are also obtained in the same step.

4. Testing the algorithm for accuracy

The accuracy of the algorithm should be checked before obtaining the actual code.
During this checking, logical errors are identified. It is very difficult to detect and correct
the logical errors at later stage. S, it is better to do at early stage. The testing also
makes sure that the algorithm is true. It also ensures that the algorithm works for both
normal as well as unusual data.

5. Coding
This step involves actual coding of the program in the selected programming
language. There are different levels of programming languages such as machine
language, assembly language or high-level language. The selection of the language is
done according to the available resources and application area.

6. Testing and debugging

Usually the initial program code contains errors. The syntax errors are found by
a compiler and test data machine – designed by programmer. The result is also
calculated manually. The results obtained are compared with results calculated
manually from the test data. Several rounds of testing may be required. This depends
on the complexity of the program.

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7. Documentation
Notes
After removing all errors in the program, program developer has to make suitable
documentation. These documents should be provided to the program users. This helps
the user to operate the program correctly. It also can be used by other persons as a
guide to understand the program clearly. The others can make corrections or modify the
program if necessary.

8. Implementation
This step involves installing the program on the end user’s machine. The user can
understand the working of the program. When the user uses the program, he comes to
know the short comings or drawbacks of the program if any. The user informs this to the
developer. The programmer can make changes or modify the program based on the
feedback from user. Thus, the implementation can be viewed as the final testing phase.

9. Maintenance and enhancement

After implementation, the developer has to maintain the program properly.
It is the responsibility of the developer to take care of the changing requirements of
the user and system. The improvements in the program are done and it is regularly
enhanced by including additional capabilities. Some of the errors may be missed during
testing phase. Those are detected and corrected in this step. After modifications or
reconstructing the program, again the program is supplied to the use, the feedback is
taken and this cycle of development of program is continued.

Since the developer has to repeat all the steps of the program development to
satisfy the needs of the user, the program development process becomes the cycle.

Fig. 5.1.1 shows the program development cycle.

Fig.5.1.1 Program Development Cycle

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5.1.4 Algorithm
Notes
Algorithm is a finite sequence of explicit and unambiguous steps required to solve
the given problem. When the required input values are provided, it produces an output
and then terminates. The steps may repeat or require decisions as per the requirement.

The same problem can be solved with different methods. So, for solving the same
problem, different algorithms may be accomplished. In these algorithms, the steps,
time, space and efforts may vary more or less. User writes algorithm in his/her own
language. So, it cannot be executed on computer.

Properties of Algorithm
1. The steps used in algorithm must be unambiguous and precisely defined.
2. The uncertainty about the instruction to be executed next, should be avoided.
3. The steps used in algorithm should be finite and the algorithm should be
terminated, that is, it cannot be open – ended.
4. The execution of the algorithm should conclude after a finite number of steps.
5. The algorithm must be general enough to deal with any situation.

5.1.5 Introduction of Flowcharts

A pictorial representation of an algorithm is called a flowchart. In Flowchart,
the steps in the algorithm are represented in the form of different shapes of boxes
and the logical flow is indicated by interconnecting arrows. The boxes are used to
represent different operations and the arrows are used to represent the sequence of
these operations. Since this is a visual way of algorithm representation, it helps the
programmer in understanding the logic of the program. The general procedure to solve
the problem is outlined by the flowchart. It is always not necessary to include all the
steps in detail.

5.1.6 Basic Symbols of Flowchart

Flowcharts have only a few symbols of different sizes and shapes for showing
necessary operations. Each symbol has specific meaning and function in a flowchart.
These symbols have been standardized by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). The basic rules that a user must keep in mind while using the symbols are:

1. Use the symbols for their specific purposes.

2. Be consistent in the use of symbols.
3. Be clear in drawing the flowchart and the entries in the symbols.
4. Use the annotation symbol when beginning a procedure.
5. Enter and exit the symbols in the same way.
The flowchart symbols along with their purpose are given below:

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Notes

Fig.5.1.2 Standards symbols for flowcharts

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Notes

Fig.5.1.3 Special symbol for flowcharts

5.1.7 Rules for Drawing Flowcharts

1. First consider the main logic, then incorporate the details.
2. Maintain a consistent level of details in a flowchart.
3. Do not include all details in flowchart.
4. Use Meaningful description in the flowchart symbols. These should be easy to
understand.
5. Be consistent in using variables and names in the flowchart.
6. The flow of the flowchart should be from top to bottom and from left to right.
7. For a complex flowchart, use connectors to reduce the number of flow lines. The
crossing of lines should be avoided as far as possible.

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8. If a flowchart is not drawn on a single page, it is recommended to break it at an

input or output point and properly labelled connectors should be used for linking the Notes
portions of the flowchart on separate pages.
9. Avoid duplication so far as possible.

5.1.8 Advantages of Flowcharts

The various advantages of flowcharts are as follows:

Synthesis: Flowcharts are used as working models in designing new programs

and software systems.

Documentation: Program documentation consists of activities, such as collecting,

organizing, storing and maintaining all related records of a program.

Coding: Flowcharts guide the programmer in writing the actual code in a high-level
language, which is supposed to give an error free program developed expeditiously.

Debugging: The errors in a program are detected only after its execution on a
computer. These errors are called bugs and the process pf removing these errors is
called debugging. In the debugging process, a flowchart acts as an important tool in
detecting, Locating and removing bugs from a program.

Communication: A flowchart is a pictorial representation of a program. Therefore,

it is an excellent communication technique to explain the logic of a program to other
programmers/people.

Analysis: Effective analysis of a logical problem can be easily done with the help
of a related flowchart.

Testing: A flowchart is an important tool in the hands of a programmer, which helps

him in designing the test data for systematic testing of programs.

5.1.9 Limitation of Flowcharts

The various limitations of flowcharts are as follows:

1. The developing of a flowchart is a very time-consuming process and laborious

especially for large, complex problems.
2. The redrawing of flowcharts is even more difficult and time consuming. It is
very difficult to include any new step in the existing flowchart, redrawing of the
flowchart is the only solution.
3. There are no standards, which specify the detail that should be included in any
flowchart.
4. If an algorithm has complex branches and loops, flowcharts become very
difficult to draw.
5. Sometimes flowcharts are not as detailed as desired.

5.1.10 Pseudocode
Pseudocode is a kind of structured English for describing algorithms. It is made
up of two words: Pseudo and code. Pseudo means imitation and code refers to

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instructions, written in a programming language. As the name suggests, pseudocode

Notes generally does not actually obey the syntax rules of any particular language. Thus,
it is not a real programming code. It allows the designer to focus on the logic of the
algorithm without being distracted by details of language syntax. At the same time, the
pseudocode needs to be complete. I describe the entire logic of the algorithm so that
implementation becomes a mechanical task of translating line by line into source code.

In the text and lectures, algorithms are often being expressed in pseudocode.
It uses plain English statements rather than symbols, to processes of a computer
program. It strikes a sometimes-precarious balance between the understandability and
informality of English and the precision of code. If we write an algorithm in English, the
description may be at so high a level that it is difficult to analyse the algorithm and to
transform it into code. If instead we write the algorithm in code, we have invested a lot
of time in determining the details of an algorithm we may not choose to implement. The
goal of writing pseudocode, then, is to provide a high – level description of an algorithm
which facilitates analysis and eventual coding, but at the same time suppresses any of
the details that are insignificant.

5.1.11 Sequence Logic

The steps in an algorithm can be divided into three categories.

The steps described in the algorithm are performed successively one by one
without skipping any step. The sequence of steps defined in the algorithm should be
simple and easy to understand. Each instruction of such an algorithm, because no
selection procedure or conditional branching exists in a sequence algorithm. Fig.5.1.4
represents the sequence of steps for a telephonic conversation with your friend.

Consider an example described in the topic “Algorithm”.

1. Dial the phone number.

2. Phone rings at the called friend.
3. You wait for the response.
4. Called friend picks up the phone.
5. The conversation begins between both of you.
6. Release of connection.

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Notes

Fig. 5.1.4. Sequence algorithm

The above is a sequence algorithm and all the above six instructions are followed
by the system. In case some problem occurs, for example, after step 1, after dialling if
the line is busy, there is no alternative operation defined in the sequence to either exit
or redial. In such a case, remaining instructions will not be followed. This problem can
be overcome by using selection method.

5.1.12 Selection logic

We understood that the algorithms written in sequence fashion are not reliable.
There must be a procedure to handle operation failure occurring during execution. The
selection statements can be shown in fig. 5.1.5.

Fig.5.1.5 Selection statements

In case the operation is unsuccessful, the sequence of algorithm should be

changed/corrected in such a way that the system will re-execute until the operation is
successful. The above sequence of algorithm can be modified as follows so that the
system responds.

1. Dial the phone number

If line is busy
Go to step 1

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2. Phone rings at the called friend.

Notes
3. You wait for the response.
4. Called friend picks up the phone.
5. The conversation begins between both of you.
6. Release of connection.

Fig. 5.1.6 Selection Logic

5.1.13. Iteration
In a program, sometimes, it is very necessary to perform the same action for a
number of times. If the same statement is written repetitively, it will increase the
program code. To avoid this problem, iteration mechanism is applied. The statement
written in iteration block is executed for a given number of times based on certain
conditions.

Consider an example in the form of “Algorithm”.

1. The test condition is evaluated and if it is true, the body of the loop is executed.
2. On execution of the body test condition is repetitively checked and if it is true
the body is executed.
3. The process of execution of the body will be continued till the test condition
becomes false.

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4. The control is transferred out of the loop.

Notes
The flow chart of the iteration is

Fig.5.1.7 Iteration

5.1.14 Advantages of Pseudocode

The advantages of pseudocode are

1. It allows the designer to focus on the logic of the algorithm without being
distracted by details of language syntax.
2. Since it is language independent, it can be translated to any computer language
code.
3. It allows designer to express the design in plain natural language.
4. It is easier for designer to develop a program from a pseudocode than with a
flowchart.
5. Less experienced programmers can also do the translation of pseudocode into
a programming language.
6. Unlike flowcharts, pseudocodes are concise, more readable and easier to
modify.

5.1.15 Limitations of Pseudocode

Some of the common limitations of pseudocode are:

1. It does not provide visual representation of the program’s logic.

2. There are no accepted standards for writing pseudocodes. Designers use their
own style of writing pseudocode.
3. Pseudocode cannot be complied not executed hence its correctness cannot be
verified by the computer.

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Further Reading/References
Notes
1. Ashok N. Kamthane, “Programming and Data structures”, Pearson.
2. D.A. Godse, A.P. Godse, “Fundamental of programming”,

Summary:
●● When a set of sequential instructions is written to perform any task by a
computer, it is called a ‘computer program’.
●● Algorithm is a finite sequence of explicit and unambiguous steps required
to solve the given problem. When the required input values are provided, it
produces an output and then terminates.
●● Properties of Algorithm
 The steps used in algorithm must be unambiguous and precisely defined.
 The uncertainty about the instruction to be executed next, should be
avoided.
 The steps used in algorithm should be finite and the algorithm should be
terminated, that is, it cannot be open – ended.
 The execution of the algorithm should conclude after a finite number of
steps.
 The algorithm must be general enough to deal with any situation.
●● A pictorial representation of an algorithm is called a flowchart. In Flowchart,
the steps in the algorithm are represented in the form of different shapes of
boxes and the logical flow is indicated by interconnecting arrows.
●● The basic rules that a user must keep in mind while using the symbols are:
 Use the symbols for their specific purposes.
 Be consistent in the use of symbols.
 Be clear in drawing the flowchart and the entries in the symbols.
 Use the annotation symbol when beginning a procedure.
 Enter and exit the symbols in the same way.
●● Rules for Drawing Flowcharts
 First consider the main logic, then incorporate the details.
 Maintain a consistent level of details in a flowchart.
 Do not include all details in flowchart.
 Use Meaningful description in the flowchart symbols. These should be
easy to understand.
 Be consistent in using variables and names in the flowchart.
 The flow of the flowchart should be from top to bottom and from left to
right.
 For a complex flowchart, use connectors to reduce the number of flow
lines. The crossing of lines should be avoided as far as possible.

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 If a flowchart is not drawn on a single page, it is recommended to break

it at an input or output point and properly labelled connectors should be Notes
used for linking the portions of the flowchart on separate pages.
 Avoid duplication so far as possible.
●● The various advantages of flowcharts are as follows:
 Synthesis
 Documentation
 Coding
 Debugging
 Communication
 Analysis
 Testing
●● The various limitations of flowcharts are as follows:
 The developing of a flowchart is a very time-consuming process and
laborious especially for large, complex problems.
 The redrawing of flowcharts is even more difficult and time consuming. It
is very difficult to include any new step in the existing flowchart, redrawing
of the flowchart is the only solution.
 There are no standards, which specify the detail that should be included
in any flowchart.
 If an algorithm has complex branches and loops, flowcharts become very
difficult to draw.
 Sometimes flowcharts are not as detailed as desired.
●● Pseudocode is a kind of structured English for describing algorithms. It is
made up of two words: Pseudo and code.
●● Pseudo means imitation and code refers to instructions, written in a
programming language.
●● In a program, sometimes, it is very necessary to perform the same action for
a number of times. If the same statement is written repetitively, it will increase
the program code. To avoid this problem, iteration mechanism is applied.
●● The advantages of pseudocode are
 It allows the designer to focus on the logic of the algorithm without being
distracted by details of language syntax.
 Since it is language independent, it can be translated to any computer
language code.
 It allows designer to express the design in plain natural language.
 It is easier for designer to develop a program from a pseudocode than with
a flowchart.
 Less experienced programmers can also do the translation of pseudocode
into a programming language.

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 Unlike flowcharts, pseudocodes are concise, more readable and easier

Notes to modify.
●● The limitations of pseudocode are:
 It does not provide visual representation of the program’s logic.
 There are no accepted standards for writing pseudocodes. Designers use
their own style of writing pseudocode.
 Pseudocode cannot be complied not executed hence its correctness
cannot be verified by the computer.

Solved Examples:
Ex-5.1. Construct a flowchart for the following program:

“Find the sum of 512 and 256”

Solution: Flowchart for a given program is

Ex-5.2. Construct a flowchart for the following program:

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“Find the profit/loss when the selling price of a commodity is 1000 rupees and the
cost price is 800 rupees” Notes
Solution: Flowchart for a given program is

Exercise:

Check your understanding

1. Method which uses a list of well-defined instructions to complete a task starting
from a given initial state to end state is calls as

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(a) Program
Notes
(b) Flowchart
(c) Algorithm
(d) Both (a) and (b)
2. Which of the following structures are used in computer programs?
(a) Sequential
(b) Decision
(c) Timesharing
(d) None
3. Execution of two or more programs by a single CPU is known as
(a) Multiprogramming
(b) Multiprocessing
(c) Timesharing
(d) None of these
4. In structure charts modules are described as
(a) Circle
(b) Triangles
(c) Rectangles
(d) Ellipse
5. Flowcharts and Algorithms are used for
(a) Better programming
(b) Easy testing and Debugging
(c) Efficient Coding
(d) All
6. The chart that contains only function flow and no code is called as
(a) Flowchart
(b) Structure chart
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None
7. Which of the following is a program planning tool?
(a) Sequential
(b) Pseudo code
(c) Decision
(d) Both (b) and (c)

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8. A structured chart is
Notes
(a) A document of what has to be accomplished
(b) Beginners all purpose
(c) A statement of information processing requirements
(d) A hierarchical partitioning of the program
9. The sequence logic will not be used while
(a) Accepting input from user
(b) Comparing two sets of data
(c) Giving output to the user
(d) Adding two numbers
10. An algorithm represented in the form of programming languages is
(a) Program
(b) Pseudocode
(c) Flowchart
(d) None of these
11. Which of the following is not a basic control structure?
(a) The decision
(b) The sequential
(c) The prog
(d) The loop
12. Which of the following is not a principle of good programming style?
(a) Use descriptive variable names
(b) Test the program
(c) Provide a welcome message
(d) Identify using text the numbers that are output
13. Which of the following is a pictorial representation of an algorithm?
(a) Flowchart
(b) Algorithm
(c) Pseudocode
(d) Program
14. A flowchart that outlines with all detail is called as
(a) Micro flowchart
(b) Flowchart
(c) Algorithm
(d) Macro flowchart

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15. Selection logic also called as

Notes
(a) Decision logic
(b) Iteration logic
(c) Sequence logic
(d) Looping logic
16. In which of the following pseudocode instructions are written in the order or
sequence in which they are to be performed>
(a) Looping logic
(b) Iteration logic
(c) Selection logic
(d) Sequence logic
17. Pseudocode is also known as
(a) Hardware language
(b) Program design language
(c) Algorithm
(d) Software language
18. A flowchart that outlines the main segments of program is called as
(a) Macro flowcharts
(b) Flowchart
(c) Algorithm
(d) Micro flowchart
19. Pseudocode emphasizes on
(a) Development
(b) Coding
(c) Design
(d) Debugging
20. Which of the following can be replaced by if?
(a) While
(b) For
(c) Continue
(d) Switch
21. The functions get called when the function name is followed by
(a) Colon
(b) Bracket
(c) Semicolon
(d) Statement

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22. The mechanism used to convey information to the function is the

Notes
(a) Loops
(b) Statements
(c) Commands
(d) Argument
23. The condition being tested within the loop may be relational or logical operations
(a) While
(b) Switch
(c) Break
(d) Continue
24. Algorithm is
(a) Object file
(b) Source file
(c) Step by step execution of program
(d) Executable file
25. Go to statement is
(a) Used to jump the control of program
(b) Same as switch case statement
(c) Used for user defined iteration
(d) None of above

Answer key
1-c
2-d
3-b
4-b
5-d
6-b
7-d
8-d
9-c
10-a
11-c
12c
13-a

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14-a
Notes
15-a
16-d
17-b
18-a
19-c
20-d
21-c
22-d
23-a
24-b
25-a

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