Classical Mechanics

An introductory course

Richard Fitzpatrick
Associate Professor of Physics
The University of Texas at Austin
Contents

1 Introduction 7

1.1 Major sources: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 What is classical mechanics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3 mks units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 Standard prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.5 Other units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.6 Precision and significant figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.7 Dimensional analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Motion in 1 dimension 18

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2 Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.3 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.4 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.5 Motion with constant velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.6 Motion with constant acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.7 Free-fall under gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Motion in 3 dimensions 32

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.2 Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.3 Vector displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.4 Vector addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.5 Vector magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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 3.6 Scalar multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.7 Diagonals of a parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.8 Vector velocity and vector acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.9 Motion with constant velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.10 Motion with constant acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.11 Projectile motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.12 Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4 Newton’s laws of motion 53

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.2 Newton’s first law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.3 Newton’s second law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.4 Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.5 Newton’s third law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.6 Mass and weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4.8 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.9 Frames of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5 Conservation of energy 78

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5.2 Energy conservation during free-fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5.3 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.4 Conservative and non-conservative force-fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.5 Potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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 5.6 Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.7 Motion in a general 1-dimensional potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.8 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

6 Conservation of momentum 107

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

6.2 Two-component systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

6.3 Multi-component systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6.4 Rocket science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6.5 Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

7 Circular motion 136

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7.2 Uniform circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7.3 Centripetal acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

7.4 The conical pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

7.5 Non-uniform circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

7.6 The vertical pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

7.7 Motion on curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

8 Rotational motion 160

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

8.2 Rigid body rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

8.3 Is rotation a vector? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

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 8.4 The vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

8.5 Centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

8.6 Moment of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

8.7 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8.8 Power and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

8.9 Translational motion versus rotational motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

8.10 The physics of baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

9 Angular momentum 204

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

9.2 Angular momentum of a point particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

9.3 Angular momentum of an extended object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

10 Statics 217

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

10.2 The principles of statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

10.3 Equilibrium of a laminar object in a gravitational field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

10.4 Rods and cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

10.5 Ladders and walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

10.6 Jointed rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

11 Oscillatory motion 237

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

11.2 Simple harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

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 11.3 The torsion pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

11.4 The simple pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

11.5 The compound pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

11.6 Uniform circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

12 Orbital motion 253

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

12.2 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

12.3 Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

12.4 Gravitational potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

12.5 Satellite orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

12.6 Planetary orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

13 Wave motion 279

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

13.2 Waves on a stretched string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

13.3 General waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

13.4 Wave-pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

13.5 Standing waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

13.6 The Doppler effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

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1 INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction

1.1 Major sources:

The sources which I consulted most frequently whilst developing this course are:

Analytical Mechanics: G.R. Fowles, Third edition (Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New
York NY, 1977).
Physics: R. Resnick, D. Halliday, and K.S. Krane, Fourth edition, Vol. 1 (John Wiley
& Sons, New York NY, 1992).
Encyclopædia Brittanica: Fifteenth edition (Encyclopædia Brittanica, Chicago IL,
1994).
Physics for scientists and engineers: R.A. Serway, and R.J. Beichner, Fifth edition,
Vol. 1 (Saunders College Publishing, Orlando FL, 2000).

1.2 What is classical mechanics?

Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of bodies (including the special
case in which bodies remain at rest) in accordance with the general principles
first enunciated by Sir Isaac Newton in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Math-
ematica (1687), commonly known as the Principia. Classical mechanics was the
first branch of Physics to be discovered, and is the foundation upon which all
other branches of Physics are built. Moreover, classical mechanics has many im-
portant applications in other areas of science, such as Astronomy (e.g., celestial
mechanics), Chemistry (e.g., the dynamics of molecular collisions), Geology (e.g.,
the propagation of seismic waves, generated by earthquakes, through the Earth’s
crust), and Engineering (e.g., the equilibrium and stability of structures). Classi-
cal mechanics is also of great significance outside the realm of science. After all,
the sequence of events leading to the discovery of classical mechanics—starting
with the ground-breaking work of Copernicus, continuing with the researches of
Galileo, Kepler, and Descartes, and culminating in the monumental achievements

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1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 What is classical mechanics?

of Newton—involved the complete overthrow of the Aristotelian picture of the

Universe, which had previously prevailed for more than a millennium, and its
replacement by a recognizably modern picture in which humankind no longer
played a privileged role.

In our investigation of classical mechanics we shall study many different types

of motion, including:

Translational motion—motion by which a body shifts from one point in space to

another (e.g., the motion of a bullet fired from a gun).
Rotational motion—motion by which an extended body changes orientation, with
respect to other bodies in space, without changing position (e.g., the motion
of a spinning top).
Oscillatory motion—motion which continually repeats in time with a fixed period
(e.g., the motion of a pendulum in a grandfather clock).
Circular motion—motion by which a body executes a circular orbit about another
fixed body [e.g., the (approximate) motion of the Earth about the Sun].

Of course, these different types of motion can be combined: for instance, the
motion of a properly bowled bowling ball consists of a combination of trans-
lational and rotational motion, whereas wave propagation is a combination of
translational and oscillatory motion. Furthermore, the above mentioned types of
motion are not entirely distinct: e.g., circular motion contains elements of both
rotational and oscillatory motion. We shall also study statics: i.e., the subdivision
of mechanics which is concerned with the forces that act on bodies at rest and
in equilibrium. Statics is obviously of great importance in civil engineering: for
instance, the principles of statics were used to design the building in which this
lecture is taking place, so as to ensure that it does not collapse.

8
1 INTRODUCTION 1.3 mks units

1.3 mks units

The first principle of any exact science is measurement. In mechanics there are
three fundamental quantities which are subject to measurement:

1. Intervals in space: i.e., lengths.

2. Quantities of inertia, or mass, possessed by various bodies.
3. Intervals in time.

Any other type of measurement in mechanics can be reduced to some combina-

tion of measurements of these three quantities.

Each of the three fundamental quantities—length, mass, and time—is mea-

sured with respect to some convenient standard. The system of units currently
used by all scientists, and most engineers, is called the mks system—after the first
initials of the names of the units of length, mass, and time, respectively, in this
system: i.e., the meter, the kilogram, and the second.

The mks unit of length is the meter (symbol m), which was formerly the dis-
tance between two scratches on a platinum-iridium alloy bar kept at the Inter-
national Bureau of Metric Standard in Sèvres, France, but is now defined as the
distance occupied by 1, 650, 763.73 wavelengths of light of the orange-red spectral
line of the isotope Krypton 86 in vacuum.

The mks unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol kg), which is defined as the mass
of a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Metric
Standard in Sèvres, France.

The mks unit of time is the second (symbol s), which was formerly defined in
terms of the Earth’s rotation, but is now defined as the time for 9, 192, 631, 770
oscillations associated with the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the isotope Cesium 133.

In addition to the three fundamental quantities, classical mechanics also deals

with derived quantities, such as velocity, acceleration, momentum, angular mo-

9
1 INTRODUCTION 1.4 Standard prefixes

mentum, etc. Each of these derived quantities can be reduced to some particular
combination of length, mass, and time. The mks units of these derived quantities
are, therefore, the corresponding combinations of the mks units of length, mass,
and time. For instance, a velocity can be reduced to a length divided by a time.
Hence, the mks units of velocity are meters per second:
[L]
[v] = = m s−1 . (1.1)
[T ]
Here, v stands for a velocity, L for a length, and T for a time, whereas the operator
[· · ·] represents the units, or dimensions, of the quantity contained within the
brackets. Momentum can be reduced to a mass times a velocity. Hence, the mks
units of momentum are kilogram-meters per second:
[M][L]
[p] = [M][v] = = kg m s−1 . (1.2)
[T ]
Here, p stands for a momentum, and M for a mass. In this manner, the mks units
of all derived quantities appearing in classical dynamics can easily be obtained.

1.4 Standard prefixes

mks units are specifically designed to conveniently describe those motions which
occur in everyday life. Unfortunately, mks units tend to become rather unwieldy
when dealing with motions on very small scales (e.g., the motions of molecules)
or very large scales (e.g., the motion of stars in the Galaxy). In order to help
cope with this problem, a set of standard prefixes has been devised, which allow
the mks units of length, mass, and time to be modified so as to deal more easily
with very small and very large quantities: these prefixes are specified in Tab. 1.
Thus, a kilometer (km) represents 103 m, a nanometer (nm) represents 10−9 m,
and a femtosecond (fs) represents 10−15 s. The standard prefixes can also be used
to modify the units of derived quantities.

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1 INTRODUCTION 1.5 Other units

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1018 exa- E 10−1 deci- d
1015 peta- P 10−2 centi- c
1012 tera- T 10−3 milli- m
109 giga- G 10−6 micro- µ
106 mega- M 10−9 nano- n
103 kilo- k 10−12 pico- p
102 hecto- h 10−15 femto- f
101 deka- da 10−18 atto- a

Table 1: Standard prefixes

1.5 Other units

The mks system is not the only system of units in existence. Unfortunately, the
obsolete cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system and the even more obsolete fps
(foot-pound-second) system are still in use today, although their continued em-
ployment is now strongly discouraged in science and engineering (except in the
US!). Conversion between different systems of units is, in principle, perfectly
straightforward, but, in practice, a frequent source of error. Witness, for ex-
ample, the recent loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter because the engineers who
designed its rocket engine used fps units whereas the NASA mission controllers
employed mks units. Table 2 specifies the various conversion factors between
mks, cgs, and fps units. Note that, rather confusingly (unless you are an engineer
in the US!), a pound is a unit of force, rather than mass. Additional non-standard
units of length include the inch (1 ft = 12 in), the yard (1 ya = 3 ft), and the
mile (1 mi = 5, 280 ft). Additional non-standard units of mass include the ton
(in the US, 1 ton = 2, 000 lb; in the UK, 1 ton = 2, 240 lb), and the metric ton
(1 tonne = 1, 000 kg). Finally, additional non-standard units of time include the
minute (1 min = 60 s), the hour (1 hr = 3, 600 s), the day (1 da = 86, 400 s), and
the year (1 yr = 365.26 da = 31, 558, 464 s).

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1 INTRODUCTION 1.6 Precision and significant figures

1 cm = 10−2 m
1g = 10−3 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 lb = 4.448 N
1 slug = 14.59 kg

Table 2: Conversion factors

1.6 Precision and significant figures

In this course, you are expected to perform calculations to a relative accuracy

of 1%: i.e., to three significant figures. Since rounding errors tend to accumulate
during lengthy calculations, the easiest way in which to achieve this accuracy is to
perform all intermediate calculations to four significant figures, and then to round
the final result down to three significant figures. If one of the quantities in your
calculation turns out to the the small difference between two much larger num-
bers, then you may need to keep more than four significant figures. Incidentally,
you are strongly urged to use scientific notation in all of your calculations: the
use of non-scientific notation is generally a major source of error in this course.
If your calculators are capable of operating in a mode in which all numbers (not
just very small or very large numbers) are displayed in scientific form then you
are advised to perform your calculations in this mode.

1.7 Dimensional analysis

As we have already mentioned, length, mass, and time are three fundamentally
different quantities which are measured in three completely independent units. It,
therefore, makes no sense for a prospective law of physics to express an equality
between (say) a length and a mass. In other words, the example law

m = l, (1.3)

where m is a mass and l is a length, cannot possibly be correct. One easy way of
seeing that Eq. (1.3) is invalid (as a law of physics), is to note that this equation is
dependent on the adopted system of units: i.e., if m = l in mks units, then m 6= l

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1 INTRODUCTION 1.7 Dimensional analysis

in fps units, because the conversion factors which must be applied to the left- and
right-hand sides differ. Physicists hold very strongly to the assumption that the
laws of physics possess objective reality: in other words, the laws of physics are
the same for all observers. One immediate consequence of this assumption is that
a law of physics must take the same form in all possible systems of units that a
prospective observer might choose to employ. The only way in which this can be
the case is if all laws of physics are dimensionally consistent: i.e., the quantities
on the left- and right-hand sides of the equality sign in any given law of physics
must have the same dimensions (i.e., the same combinations of length, mass, and
time). A dimensionally consistent equation naturally takes the same form in all
possible systems of units, since the same conversion factors are applied to both
sides of the equation when transforming from one system to another.

As an example, let us consider what is probably the most famous equation in

physics:
E = m c2 . (1.4)
Here, E is the energy of a body, m is its mass, and c is the velocity of light
in vacuum. The dimensions of energy are [M][L2 ]/[T 2 ], and the dimensions of
velocity are [L]/[T ]. Hence, the dimensions of the left-hand side are [M][L 2 ]/[T 2 ],
whereas the dimensions of the right-hand side are [M] ([L]/[T ]) 2 = [M][L2 ]/[T 2 ].
It follows that Eq. (1.4) is indeed dimensionally consistent. Thus, E = m c2
holds good in mks units, in cgs units, in fps units, and in any other sensible set
of units. Had Einstein proposed E = m c, or E = m c3 , then his error would
have been immediately apparent to other physicists, since these prospective laws
are not dimensionally consistent. In fact, E = m c2 represents the only simple,
dimensionally consistent way of combining an energy, a mass, and the velocity of
light in a law of physics.

The last comment leads naturally to the subject of dimensional analysis: i.e.,
the use of the idea of dimensional consistency to guess the forms of simple laws
of physics. It should be noted that dimensional analysis is of fairly limited appli-
cability, and is a poor substitute for analysis employing the actual laws of physics;
nevertheless, it is occasionally useful. Suppose that a special effects studio wants
to film a scene in which the Leaning Tower of Pisa topples to the ground. In
order to achieve this, the studio might make a scale model of the tower, which

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1 INTRODUCTION 1.7 Dimensional analysis

h g

Figure 1: The Leaning Tower of Pisa

is (say) 1 m tall, and then film the model falling over. The only problem is that
the resulting footage would look completely unrealistic, because the model tower
would fall over too quickly. The studio could easily fix this problem by slowing
the film down. The question is by what factor should the film be slowed down in
order to make it look realistic?

Although, at this stage, we do not know how to apply the laws of physics to
the problem of a tower falling over, we can, at least, make some educated guesses
as to what factors the time tf required for this process to occur depends on. In
fact, it seems reasonable to suppose that tf depends principally on the mass of
the tower, m, the height of the tower, h, and the acceleration due to gravity, g.
See Fig. 1. In other words,
t f = C m x h y gz , (1.5)
where C is a dimensionless constant, and x, y, and z are unknown exponents.
The exponents x, y, and z can be determined by the requirement that the above
equation be dimensionally consistent. Incidentally, the dimensions of an acceler-
ation are [L]/[T 2 ]. Hence, equating the dimensions of both sides of Eq. (1.5), we
obtain  z
[L]
[T ] = [M]x [L]y  2  . (1.6)
[T ]

14
1 INTRODUCTION 1.7 Dimensional analysis

We can now compare the exponents of [L], [M], and [T ] on either side of the
above expression: these exponents must all match in order for Eq. (1.5) to be
dimensionally consistent. Thus,
0 = y + z, (1.7)
0 = x, (1.8)
1 = −2 z. (1.9)
It immediately follows that x = 0, y = 1/2, and z = −1/2. Hence,
v
uh
u
tf = C t . (1.10)
g
Now, √the actual tower of Pisa is approximately 100 m tall. It follows that since
tf ∝ h (g is the same for both the real q
and the model tower) then the 1 m
high model tower falls over a factor of 100/1 = 10 times faster than the real
tower. Thus, the film must be slowed down by a factor 10 in order to make it
look realistic.

Worked example 1.1: Conversion of units

Question: Farmer Jones has recently brought a 40 acre field and wishes to replace
the fence surrounding it. Given that the field is square, what length of fencing (in
meters) should Farmer Jones purchase? Incidentally, 1 acre equals 43,560 square
feet.

Answer: If 1 acre equals 43,560 ft2 and 1 ft equals 0.3048 m (see Tab. 2) then
1 acre = 43560 × (0.3048)2 = 4.047 × 103 m2 .
Thus, the area of the field in mks units is
A = 40 × 4.047 × 103 = 1.619 × 105 m2 .
2
Now, a square field with
√ sides of length l has an area A = l and a circumference
D = 4l. Hence, D = 4 A. It follows that the length of the fence is
q
D = 4 × 1.619 × 105 = 1.609 × 103 m.

15
1 INTRODUCTION 1.7 Dimensional analysis

Worked example 1.2: Tire pressure

Question: The recommended tire pressure in a Honda Civic is 28 psi (pounds per
square inch). What is this pressure in atmospheres (1 atmosphere is 105 N m−2 )?

Answer: First, 28 pounds per square inch is the same as 28 × (12)2 = 4032 pounds
per square foot (the standard fps unit of pressure). Now, 1 pound equals 4.448
Newtons (the standard SI unit of force), and 1 foot equals 0.3048 m (see Tab. 2).
Hence,
P = 4032 × (4.448)/(0.3048)2 = 1.93 × 105 Nm−2 .
It follows that 28 psi is equivalent to 1.93 atmospheres.

Worked example 1.3: Dimensional analysis

Question: The speed of sound v in a gas might plausibly depend on the pressure p,
the density ρ, and the volume V of the gas. Use dimensional analysis to determine
the exponents x, y, and z in the formula

v = C p x ρy V z ,

where C is a dimensionless constant. Incidentally, the mks units of pressure are

kilograms per meter per second squared.

Answer: Equating the dimensions of both sides of the above equation, we ob-
tain  x  y
[L]  [M]   [M]  3 z
= [L ] .
[T ] [T 2 ][L] [L3 ]
A comparison of the exponents of [L], [M], and [T ] on either side of the above
expression yields

1 = −x − 3y + 3z,
0 = x + y,
−1 = −2x.

16
1 INTRODUCTION 1.7 Dimensional analysis

The third equation immediately gives x = 1/2; the second equation then yields
y = −1/2; finally, the first equation gives z = 0. Hence,
v
up
u
v= Ct .
ρ

17
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION

2 Motion in 1 dimension

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of this section is to introduce the concepts of displacement, velocity,

and acceleration. For the sake of simplicity, we shall restrict our attention to 1-
dimensional motion.

2.2 Displacement

Consider a body moving in 1 dimension: e.g., a train traveling down a straight

railroad track, or a truck driving down an interstate in Kansas. Suppose that we
have a team of observers who continually report the location of this body to us
as time progresses. To be more exact, our observers report the distance x of the
body from some arbitrarily chosen reference point located on the track on which
it is constrained to move. This point is known as the origin of our coordinate
system. A positive x value implies that the body is located x meters to the right of
the origin, whereas a negative x value implies that the body is located |x| meters
to the left of the origin. Here, x is termed the displacement of the body from the
origin. See Fig. 2. Of course, if the body is extended then our observers will have
to report the displacement x of some conveniently chosen reference point on the
body (e.g., its centre of mass) from the origin.

Our information regarding the body’s motion consists of a set of data points,
each specifying the displacement x of the body at some time t. It is usually
illuminating to graph these points. Figure 3 shows an example of such a graph.
As is often the case, it is possible to fit the data points appearing in this graph
using a relatively simple analytic curve. Indeed, the curve associated with Fig. 3
is
t2 t4
x=1+t+ − . (2.1)
2 4

18
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.3 Velocity

2.3 Velocity

Both Fig. 3 and formula (2.1) effectively specify the location of the body whose
motion we are studying as time progresses. Let us now consider how we can use
this information to determine the body’s instantaneous velocity as a function of
time. The conventional definition of velocity is as follows:

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time.

This definition implies that

∆x
v=, (2.2)
∆t
where v is the body’s velocity at time t, and ∆x is the change in displacement of
the body between times t and t + ∆t.

How should we choose the time interval ∆t appearing in Eq. (2.2)? Obviously,
in the simple case in which the body is moving with constant velocity, we can
make ∆t as large or small as we like, and it will not affect the value of v. Suppose,
however, that v is constantly changing in time, as is generally the case. In this
situation, ∆t must be kept sufficiently small that the body’s velocity does not
change appreciably between times t and t + ∆t. If ∆t is made too large then
formula (2.2) becomes invalid.

Suppose that we require a general expression for instantaneous velocity which

is valid irrespective of how rapidly or slowly the body’s velocity changes in time.
We can achieve this goal by taking the limit of Eq. (2.2) as ∆t approaches zero.
This ensures that no matter how rapidly v varies with time, the velocity of the

track origin displacement body

x

x=0
Figure 2: Motion in 1 dimension

19
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.3 Velocity

Figure 3: Graph of displacement versus time

body is always approximately constant in the interval t to t + ∆t. Thus,

∆x dx
v = lim = , (2.3)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
where dx/dt represents the derivative of x with respect to t. The above definition
is particularly useful if we can represent x(t) as an analytic function, because it
allows us to immediately evaluate the instantaneous velocity v(t) via the rules of
calculus. Thus, if x(t) is given by formula (2.1) then
dx
v= = 1 + t − t3 . (2.4)
dt
Figure 4 shows the graph of v versus t obtained from the above expression. Note
that when v is positive the body is moving to the right (i.e., x is increasing in
time). Likewise, when v is negative the body is moving to the left (i.e., x is
decreasing in time). Finally, when v = 0 the body is instantaneously at rest.

The terms velocity and speed are often confused with one another. A velocity
can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of motion. The
conventional definition of speed is that it is the magnitude of velocity (i.e., it is v
with the sign stripped off). It follows that a body can never possess a negative
speed.

20
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.4 Acceleration

Figure 4: Graph of instantaneous velocity versus time associated with the motion specified in Fig. 3

2.4 Acceleration

The conventional definition of acceleration is as follows:

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.

This definition implies that

∆v
a=
, (2.5)
∆t
where a is the body’s acceleration at time t, and ∆v is the change in velocity of
the body between times t and t + ∆t.

How should we choose the time interval ∆t appearing in Eq. (2.5)? Again,
in the simple case in which the body is moving with constant acceleration, we
can make ∆t as large or small as we like, and it will not affect the value of a.
Suppose, however, that a is constantly changing in time, as is generally the case.
In this situation, ∆t must be kept sufficiently small that the body’s acceleration
does not change appreciably between times t and t + ∆t.

A general expression for instantaneous acceleration, which is valid irrespective

of how rapidly or slowly the body’s acceleration changes in time, can be obtained

21
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.4 Acceleration

Figure 5: Graph of instantaneous acceleration versus time associated with the motion specified in
Fig. 3

by taking the limit of Eq. (2.5) as ∆t approaches zero:

∆v dv d2 x
a = lim = = 2. (2.6)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt
The above definition is particularly useful if we can represent x(t) as an analytic
function, because it allows us to immediately evaluate the instantaneous acceler-
ation a(t) via the rules of calculus. Thus, if x(t) is given by formula (2.1) then
d2 x
a = 2 = 1 − 3t2 . (2.7)
dt
Figure 5 shows the graph of a versus time obtained from the above expression.
Note that when a is positive the body is accelerating to the right (i.e., v is in-
creasing in time). Likewise, when a is negative the body is decelerating (i.e., v is
decreasing in time).

Fortunately, it is generally not necessary to evaluate the rate of change of ac-

celeration with time, since this quantity does not appear in Newton’s laws of
motion.

22
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.5 Motion with constant velocity

x ∆x

∆t
x0

0
0 t
Figure 6: Graph of displacement versus time for a body moving with constant velocity

2.5 Motion with constant velocity

The simplest type of motion (excluding the trivial case in which the body under
investigation remains at rest) consists of motion with constant velocity. This type
of motion occurs in everyday life whenever an object slides over a horizontal, low
friction surface: e.g., a puck sliding across a hockey rink.

Fig. 6 shows the graph of displacement versus time for a body moving with
constant velocity. It can be seen that the graph consists of a straight-line. This
line can be represented algebraically as

x = x0 + v t. (2.8)

Here, x0 is the displacement at time t = 0: this quantity can be determined from

the graph as the intercept of the straight-line with the x-axis. Likewise, v = dx/dt
is the constant velocity of the body: this quantity can be determined from the
graph as the gradient of the straight-line (i.e., the ratio ∆x/∆t, as shown). Note
that a = d2 x/dt2 = 0, as expected.

Fig. 7 shows a displacement versus time graph for a slightly more complicated
case of motion with constant velocity. The body in question moves to the right

23
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.6 Motion with constant acceleration

0
A B C
t D E
Figure 7: Graph of displacement versus time

(since x is clearly increasing with t) with a constant velocity (since the graph is a
straight-line) between times A and B. The body then moves to the right (since x is
still increasing in time) with a somewhat larger constant velocity (since the graph
is again a straight line, but possesses a larger gradient than before) between times
B and C. The body remains at rest (since the graph is horizontal) between times
C and D. Finally, the body moves to the left (since x is decreasing with t) with a
constant velocity (since the graph is a straight-line) between times D and E.

2.6 Motion with constant acceleration

Motion with constant acceleration occurs in everyday life whenever an object is

dropped: the object moves downward with the constant acceleration 9.81 m s −2 ,
under the influence of gravity.

Fig. 8 shows the graphs of displacement versus time and velocity versus time
for a body moving with constant acceleration. It can be seen that the displacement-
time graph consists of a curved-line whose gradient (slope) is increasing in time.

24
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.6 Motion with constant acceleration

x0

0
0 t

v ∆v

∆t
v0

0
0 t

Figure 8: Graphs of displacement versus time and velocity versus time for a body moving with con-
stant acceleration

This line can be represented algebraically as

1 2
x = x0 + v0 t + at . (2.9)
2
Here, x0 is the displacement at time t = 0: this quantity can be determined from
the graph as the intercept of the curved-line with the x-axis. Likewise, v 0 is the
body’s instantaneous velocity at time t = 0.

The velocity-time graph consists of a straight-line which can be represented

algebraically as
dx
v= = v0 + a t. (2.10)
dt
25
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.7 Free-fall under gravity

The quantity v0 is determined from the graph as the intercept of the straight-
line with the x-axis. The quantity a is the constant acceleration: this can be
determined graphically as the gradient of the straight-line (i.e., the ratio ∆v/∆t,
as shown). Note that dv/dt = a, as expected.

Equations (2.9) and (2.10) can be rearranged to give the following set of three
useful formulae which characterize motion with constant acceleration:
1 2
s = v0 t + at , (2.11)
2
v = v0 + a t, (2.12)
v2 = v02 + 2 a s. (2.13)

Here, s = x − x0 is the net distance traveled after t seconds.

Fig. 9 shows a displacement versus time graph for a slightly more complicated
case of accelerated motion. The body in question accelerates to the right [since
the gradient (slope) of the graph is increasing in time] between times A and B.
The body then moves to the right (since x is increasing in time) with a constant
velocity (since the graph is a straight line) between times B and C. Finally, the
body decelerates [since the gradient (slope) of the graph is decreasing in time]
between times C and D.

2.7 Free-fall under gravity

Galileo Galilei was the first scientist to appreciate that, neglecting the effect of air
resistance, all bodies in free-fall close to the Earth’s surface accelerate vertically
downwards with the same acceleration: namely, g = 9.81 m s−2 .1 The neglect of
air resistance is a fairly good approximation for large objects which travel rela-
tively slowly (e.g., a shot-putt, or a basketball), but becomes a poor approxima-
tion for small objects which travel relatively rapidly (e.g., a golf-ball, or a bullet
fired from a pistol).
1
Actually, the acceleration due to gravity varies slightly over the Earth’s surface because of the combined effects
of the Earth’s rotation and the Earth’s slightly flattened shape. The acceleration at the poles is about 9.834 m s −2 ,
whereas the acceleration at the equator is only 9.780 m s−2 . The average acceleration is 9.81 m s−2 .

26
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.7 Free-fall under gravity

0
t
A B C D
Figure 9: Graph of displacement versus time

Equations (2.11)–(2.13) can easily be modified to deal with the special case
of an object free-falling under gravity:
1 2
s = v0 t − gt , (2.14)
2
v = v0 − g t, (2.15)
v2 = v02 − 2 g s. (2.16)
Here, g = 9.81 m s−2 is the downward acceleration due to gravity, s is the distance
the object has moved vertically between times t = 0 and t (if s > 0 then the object
has risen s meters, else if s < 0 then the object has fallen |s| meters), and v0 is
the object’s instantaneous velocity at t = 0. Finally, v is the object’s instantaneous
velocity at time t.

Let us illustrate the use of Eqs. (2.14)–(2.16). Suppose that a ball is released
from rest and allowed to fall under the influence of gravity. How long does it take
the ball to fall h meters? Well, according to Eq. (2.14) [with v0 = 0 (since the
ball is released from rest), and s = −h (since we wish the ball to fall h meters)],
h = g t2 /2, so the time of fall is
v
u2 h
u
t= t . (2.17)
g
27
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.7 Free-fall under gravity

Suppose that a ball is thrown vertically upwards from ground level with veloc-
ity u. To what height does the ball rise, how long does it remain in the air, and
with what velocity does it strike the ground? The ball attains its maximum height
when it is momentarily at rest (i.e., when v = 0). According to Eq. (2.15) (with
v0 = u), this occurs at time t = u/g. It follows from Eq. (2.14) (with v0 = u, and
t = u/g) that the maximum height of the ball is given by
u2
h= . (2.18)
2g
When the ball strikes the ground it has traveled zero net meters vertically, so
s = 0. It follows from Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16) (with v0 = u and t > 0) that v = −u.
In other words, the ball hits the ground with an equal and opposite velocity to
that with which it was thrown into the air. Since the ascent and decent phases of
the ball’s trajectory are clearly symmetric, the ball’s time of flight is simply twice
the time required for the ball to attain its maximum height: i.e.,
2u
t= . (2.19)
g

Worked example 2.1: Velocity-time graph

8
v (m/s)

0
0 4 8 12 16
t (s)

28
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.7 Free-fall under gravity

Question: Consider the motion of the object whose velocity-time graph is given
in the diagram.

1. What is the acceleration of the object between times t = 0 and t = 2?

2. What is the acceleration of the object between times t = 10 and t = 12?
3. What is the net displacement of the object between times t = 0 and t = 16?

Answer:

1. The v-t graph is a straight-line between t = 0 and t = 2, indicating constant

acceleration during this time period. Hence,
∆v v(t = 2) − v(t = 0) 8 − 0
a= = = = 4 m s−2 .
∆t 2−0 2

2. The v-t graph is a straight-line between t = 10 and t = 12, indicating con-

stant acceleration during this time period. Hence,
∆v v(t = 12) − v(t = 10) 4 − 8
a= = = = −2 m s−2 .
∆t 12 − 10 2
The negative sign indicates that the object is decelerating.
3. Now, v = dx/dt, so
Z 16
x(16) − x(0) = v(t) dt.
0
In other words, the net displacement between times t = 0 and t = 16 equals
the area under the v-t curve, evaluated between these two times. Recalling
that the area of a triangle is half its width times its height, the number of
grid-squares under the v-t curve is 25. The area of each grid-square is 2×2 =
4 m. Hence,
x(16) − x(0) = 4 × 25 = 100 m.

29
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.7 Free-fall under gravity

Worked example 2.2: Speed trap

Question: In a speed trap, two pressure-activated strips are placed 120 m apart on
a highway on which the speed limit is 85 km/h. A driver going 110 km/h notices
a police car just as he/she activates the first strip, and immediately slows down.
What deceleration is needed so that the car’s average speed is within the speed
limit when the car crosses the second strip?

Answer: Let v1 = 110 km/h be the speed of the car at the first strip. Let ∆x =
120 m be the distance between the two strips, and let ∆t be the time taken by the
car to travel from one strip to the other. The average velocity of the car is
∆x
v̄ = .
∆t
We need this velocity to be 85 km/h. Hence, we require
∆x 120
∆t = = = 5.082 s.
v̄ 85 × (1000/3600)
Here, we have changed units from km/h to m/s. Now, assuming that the accel-
eration a of the car is uniform, we have
1
∆x = v1 ∆t + a (∆t)2 ,
2
which can be rearranged to give
2 (∆x − v1 ∆t) 2 (120 − 110 × (1000/3600) × 5.082)
a= 2
= 2
= −2.73 m s−2 .
(∆t) (5.082)
Hence, the required deceleration is 2.73 m s−2 .

Worked example 2.3: The Brooklyn bridge

Question: In 1886, Steve Brodie achieved notoriety by allegedly jumping off the
recently completed Brooklyn bridge, for a bet, and surviving. Given that the

30
2 MOTION IN 1 DIMENSION 2.7 Free-fall under gravity

bridge rises 135 ft over the East River, how long would Mr. Brodie have been in
the air, and with what speed would he have struck the water? Give all answers
in mks units. You may neglect air resistance.

Answer: Mr. Brodie’s net vertical displacement was h = −135×0.3048 = −41.15 m.

Assuming that his initial velocity was zero,
1
h = − g t2 ,
2
where t was his time of flight. Hence,
v v
u −2 h u2 × 41.15
u u
t= t = t
= 2.896 s.
g 9.81
His final velocity was

v = −g t = −9.81 × 2.896 = −28.41 m s−1 .

Thus, the speed with which he plunged into the East River was 28.41 m s−1 , or
63.6 mi/h ! Clearly, Mr. Brodie’s story should be taken with a pinch of salt.

31
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS

3 Motion in 3 dimensions

3.1 Introduction

The purpose of this section is to generalize the previously introduced concepts of

displacement, velocity, and acceleration in order to deal with motion in 3 dimen-
sions.

3.2 Cartesian coordinates

Our first task, when dealing with 3-dimensional motion, is to set up a suitable
coordinate system. The most straight-forward type of coordinate system is called
a Cartesian system, after René Descartes. A Cartesian coordinate system consists
of three mutually perpendicular axes, the x-, y-, and z-axes (say). By convention,
the orientation of these axes is such that when the index finger, the middle finger,
and the thumb of the right-hand are configured so as to be mutually perpendic-
ular, the index finger, the middle finger, and the thumb can be aligned along the
x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively. Such a coordinate system is termed right-handed.
See Fig. 10. The point of intersection of the three coordinate axes is termed the
origin of the coordinate system.
z
(thumb)

(middle finger)
y

x
(index finger)

Figure 10: A right-handed Cartesian coordinate system

32
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.3 Vector displacement

x
O

Figure 11: A vector displacement

3.3 Vector displacement

Consider the motion of a body moving in 3 dimensions. The body’s instantaneous

position is most conveniently specified by giving its displacement from the origin
of our coordinate system. Note, however, that in 3 dimensions such a displace-
ment possesses both magnitude and direction. In other words, we not only have
to specify how far the body is situated from the origin, we also have to specify
in which direction it lies. A quantity which possesses both magnitude and direc-
tion is termed a vector. By contrast, a quantity which possesses only magnitude
is termed a scalar. Mass and time are scalar quantities. However, in general,
displacement is a vector.

The vector displacement r of some point R from the origin O can be visualized
as an arrow running from point O to point R. See Fig. 11. Note that in typeset
documents vector quantities are conventionally written in a bold-faced font (e.g.,
r) to distinguish them from scalar quantities. In free-hand notation, vectors are
usually under-lined (e.g., r).

The vector displacement r can also be specified in terms of its coordinates:

r = (x, y, z). (3.1)

The above expression is interpreted as follows: in order to get from point O to

point R, first move x meters along the x-axis (perpendicular to both the y- and
z-axes), then move y meters along the y-axis (perpendicular to both the x- and

33
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.4 Vector addition

S
r2
R

r1

Figure 12: Vector addition

z-axes), finally move z meters along the z-axis (perpendicular to both the x- and
y-axes). Note that a positive x value is interpreted as an instruction to move x
meters along the x-axis in the direction of increasing x, whereas a negative x value
is interpreted as an instruction to move |x| meters along the x-axis in the opposite
direction, and so on.

3.4 Vector addition

Suppose that the vector displacement r of some point R from the origin O is
specified as follows:
r = r 1 + r2 . (3.2)
Figure 12 illustrates how this expression is interpreted diagrammatically: in order
to get from point O to point R, we first move from point O to point S along vector
r1 , and we then move from point S to point R along vector r2 . The net result is the
same as if we had moved from point O directly to point R along vector r. Vector
r is termed the resultant of adding vectors r1 and r2 .

Note that we have two ways of specifying the vector displacement of point
S from the origin: we can either write r1 or r − r2 . The expression r − r2 is
interpreted as follows: starting at the origin, move along vector r in the direction
of the arrow, then move along vector r2 in the opposite direction to the arrow.
In other words, a minus sign in front of a vector indicates that we should move
along that vector in the opposite direction to its arrow.

34
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.5 Vector magnitude

Suppose that the components of vectors r1 and r2 are (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ),
respectively. As is easily demonstrated, the components (x, y, z) of the resultant
vector r = r1 + r2 are
x = x1 + x2 , (3.3)
y = y1 + y2 , (3.4)
z = z 1 + z2 . (3.5)
In other words, the components of the sum of two vectors are simply the algebraic
sums of the components of the individual vectors.

3.5 Vector magnitude

If r = (x, y, z) represents the vector displacement of point R from the origin, what
is the distance between these two points? In other words, what is the length, or
magnitude, r = |r|, of vector r. It follows from a 3-dimensional generalization of
Pythagoras’ theorem that q
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . (3.6)

Note that if r = r1 + r2 then

|r| ≤ |r1 | + |r2 |. (3.7)
In other words, the magnitudes of vectors cannot, in general, be added alge-
braically. The only exception to this rule (represented by the equality sign in the
above expression) occurs when the vectors in question all point in the same di-
rection. According to inequality (3.7), if we move 1 m to the North (say) and
next move 1 m to the West (say) then, although we have moved a total distance
of 2 m, our net distance from the starting point is less than 2 m—of course, this
is just common sense.

3.6 Scalar multiplication

Suppose that s = λ r. This expression is interpreted as follows: vector s points

in the same direction as vector r, but the length of the former vector is λ times

35
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.7 Diagonals of a parallelogram

B b C

X c
a a
d
A D
b

Figure 13: A parallelogram

that of the latter. Note that if λ is negative then vector s points in the opposite
direction to vector r, and the length of the former vector is |λ| times that of the
latter. In terms of components:

s = λ (x, y, z) = (λ x, λ y, λ z). (3.8)

In other words, when we multiply a vector by a scalar then the components of

the resultant vector are obtained by multiplying all the components of the original
vector by the scalar.

3.7 Diagonals of a parallelogram

The use of vectors is very well illustrated by the following rather famous proof
that the diagonals of a parallelogram mutually bisect one another.

Suppose that the quadrilateral ABCD in Fig. 13 is a parallelogram. It follows

that the opposite sides of ABCD can be represented by the same vectors, a and
b: this merely indicates that these sides are of equal length and are parallel (i.e.,
they point in the same direction). Note that Fig. 13 illustrates an important point
regarding vectors. Although vectors possess both a magnitude (length) and a
direction, they possess no intrinsic position information. Thus, since sides AB
and DC are parallel and of equal length, they can be represented by the same
vector a, despite the fact that they are in different places on the diagram.

The diagonal BD in Fig. 13 can be represented vectorially as d = b − a. Like-

wise, the diagonal AC can be written c = a + b. The displacement x (say) of the

36
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.8 Vector velocity and vector acceleration

centroid X from point A can be written in one of two different ways:

x = a + λ d, (3.9)
x = b + a − µ c. (3.10)
Equation (3.9) is interpreted as follows: in order to get from point A to point
X, first move to point B (along vector a), then move along diagonal BD (along
vector d) for an unknown fraction λ of its length. Equation (3.10) is interpreted
as follows: in order to get from point A to point X, first move to point D (along
vector b), then move to point C (along vector a), finally move along diagonal CA
(along vector −c) for an unknown fraction µ of its length. Since X represents the
same point in Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10), we can equate these two expressions to give
a + λ (b − a) = b + a − µ (a + b). (3.11)
Now vectors a and b point in different directions, so the only way in which the
above expression can be satisfied, in general, is if the coefficients of a and b
match on either side of the equality sign. Thus, equating coefficients of a and b,
we obtain
1 − λ = 1 − µ, (3.12)
λ = 1 − µ. (3.13)
It follows that λ = µ = 1/2. In other words, the centroid X is located at the
halfway points of diagonals BD and AC: i.e., the diagonals mutually bisect one
another.

3.8 Vector velocity and vector acceleration

Consider a body moving in 3 dimensions. Suppose that we know the Cartesian

coordinates, x, y, and z, of this body as time, t, progresses. Let us consider how
we can use this information to determine the body’s instantaneous velocity and
acceleration as functions of time.

The vector displacement of the body is given by

r(t) = [x(t), y(t), z(t)]. (3.14)

37
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.8 Vector velocity and vector acceleration

By analogy with the 1-dimensional equation (2.3), the body’s vector velocity v =
(vx , vy , vz ) is simply the derivative of r with respect to t. In other words,
r(t + ∆t) − r(t) dr
v(t) = lim = . (3.15)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
When written in component form, the above definition yields
dx
vx = , (3.16)
dt
dy
vy = , (3.17)
dt
dz
vz = . (3.18)
dt
Thus, the x-component of velocity is simply the time derivative of the x-coordinate,
and so on.

By analogy with the 1-dimensional equation (2.6), the body’s vector acceler-
ation a = (ax , ay , az ) is simply the derivative of v with respect to t. In other
words,
v(t + ∆t) − v(t) dv d2 r
a(t) = lim = = 2. (3.19)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt
When written in component form, the above definition yields
dvx d2 x
ax = = 2, (3.20)
dt dt
dvy d2 y
ay = = 2, (3.21)
dt dt
dvz d2 z
az = = 2. (3.22)
dt dt
Thus, the x-component of acceleration is simply the time derivative of the x-
component of velocity, and so on.

As an example, suppose that the coordinates of the body are given by

x = sin t, (3.23)
y = cos t, (3.24)
z = 3 t. (3.25)

38
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.9 Motion with constant velocity

The corresponding components of the body’s velocity are then simply

dx
vx = = cos t, (3.26)
dt
dy
vy = = − sin t, (3.27)
dt
dz
vz = = 3, (3.28)
dt
whilst the components of the body’s acceleration are given by
dvx
ax = = − sin t, (3.29)
dt
dvy
ay = = − cos t, (3.30)
dt
dvz
az = = 0. (3.31)
dt

3.9 Motion with constant velocity

An object moving in 3 dimensions with constant velocity v possesses a vector

displacement of the form
r(t) = r0 + v t, (3.32)
where the constant vector r0 is the displacement at time t = 0. Note that dr/dt =
v and d2 r/dt2 = 0, as expected. As illustrated in Fig. 14, the object’s trajectory
is a straight-line which passes through point r0 at time t = 0 and runs parallel to
vector v.

3.10 Motion with constant acceleration

An object moving in 3 dimensions with constant acceleration a possesses a vector

displacement of the form
1 2
r(t) = r0 + v0 t + at . (3.33)
2

39
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.10 Motion with constant acceleration

v
t=t
trajectory

t=0
r

r0

Figure 14: Motion with constant velocity

Hence, the object’s velocity is given by

dr
v(t) = = v0 + a t. (3.34)
dt
Note that dv/dt = a, as expected. In the above, the constant vectors r 0 and v0
are the object’s displacement and velocity at time t = 0, respectively.

As is easily demonstrated, the vector equivalents of Eqs. (2.11)–(2.13) are:

1 2
s = v0 t + at , (3.35)
2
v = v0 + a t, (3.36)
v2 = v02 + 2 a·s. (3.37)
These equation fully characterize 3-dimensional motion with constant accelera-
tion. Here, s = r − r0 is the net displacement of the object between times t = 0
and t.

The quantity a·s, appearing in Eq. (3.37), is termed the scalar product of vectors
a and s, and is defined
a·s = ax sx + ay sy + az sz . (3.38)
The above formula has a simple geometric interpretation, which is illustrated in
Fig. 15. If |a| is the magnitude (or length) of vector a, |s| is the magnitude of

40
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.11 Projectile motion

|s| a . s = |a| |s| cos θ

θ
a
|a|

|s| cos θ

Figure 15: The scalar product

vector s, and θ is the angle subtended between these two vectors, then
a·s = |a| |s| cos θ. (3.39)
In other words, the scalar product of vectors a and s equals the product of the
length of vector a times the length of that component of vector s which lies in the
same direction as vector a. It immediately follows that if two vectors are mutually
perpendicular (i.e., θ = 90◦ ) then their scalar product is zero. Furthermore, the
scalar product of a vector with itself is simply the magnitude squared of that
vector [this is immediately apparent from Eq. (3.38)]:
a·a = |a|2 = a2 . (3.40)
It is also apparent from Eq. (3.38) that a· s = s· a, and a·(b + c) = a·b + a·c, and
a·(λs) = λ(a· s).

Incidentally, Eq. (3.37) is obtained by taking the scalar product of Eq. (3.36)
with itself, taking the scalar product of Eq. (3.35) with a, and then eliminating t.

3.11 Projectile motion

As a simple illustration of the concepts introduced in the previous subsections, let

us examine the following problem. Suppose that a projectile is launched upward
from ground level, with speed v0 , making an angle θ with the horizontal. Neglect-
ing the effect of air resistance, what is the subsequent trajectory of the projectile?

41
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.11 Projectile motion

v0
v0

v0 sin θ
θ
x
v0 cos θ

Figure 16: Coordinates for the projectile problem

Our first task is to set up a suitable Cartesian coordinate system. A conve-

nient system is illustrated in Fig. 16. The z-axis points vertically upwards (this
is a standard convention), whereas the x-axis points along the projectile’s initial
direction of horizontal motion. Furthermore, the origin of our coordinate system
corresponds to the launch point. Thus, z = 0 corresponds to ground level.

Neglecting air resistance, the projectile is subject to a constant acceleration

g = 9.81 m s−1 , due to gravity, which is directed vertically downwards. Thus, the
projectile’s vector acceleration is written

a = (0, 0, −g). (3.41)

Here, the minus sign indicates that the acceleration is in the minus z-direction
(i.e., downwards), as opposed to the plus z-direction (i.e., upwards).

What is the initial vector velocity v0 with which the projectile is launched into
the air at (say) t = 0? As illustrated in Fig. 16, given that the magnitude of
this velocity is v0 , its horizontal component is directed along the x-axis, and its
direction subtends an angle θ with this axis, the components of v0 take the form

v0 = (v0 cos θ, 0, v0 sin θ). (3.42)

Note that v0 has zero component along the y-axis, which points into the paper in
Fig. 16.

Since the projectile moves with constant acceleration, its vector displacement

42
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.11 Projectile motion

s = (x, y, z) from its launch point satisfies [see Eq. (3.35)]

1 2
at .
s = v0 t + (3.43)
2
Making use of Eqs. (3.41) and (3.42), the x-, y-, and z-components of the above
equation are written
x = v0 cos θ t, (3.44)
y = 0, (3.45)
1 2
z = v0 sin θ t − gt , (3.46)
2
respectively. Note that the projectile moves with constant velocity, v x = dx/dt =
v0 cos θ, in the x-direction (i.e., horizontally). This is hardly surprising, since
there is zero component of the projectile’s acceleration along the x-axis. Note,
further, that since there is zero component of the projectile’s acceleration along
the y-axis, and the projectile’s initial velocity also has zero component along this
axis, the projectile never moves in the y-direction. In other words, the projectile’s
trajectory is 2-dimensional, lying entirely within the x-z plane. Note, finally, that
the projectile’s vertical motion is entirely decoupled from its horizontal motion.
In other words, the projectile’s vertical motion is identical to that of a second pro-
jectile launched vertically upwards, at t = 0, with the initial velocity v 0 sin θ (i.e.,
the initial vertical velocity component of the first projectile)—both projectiles will
reach the same maximum altitude at the same time, and will subsequently strike
the ground simultaneously.

Equations (3.44) and (3.46) can be rearranged to give

1 g x2
z = x tan θ − sec2 θ. (3.47)
2 v02
As was first pointed out by Galileo, and is illustrated in Fig. 17, this is the equa-
tion of a parabola. The horizontal range R of the projectile corresponds to its
x-coordinate when it strikes the ground (i.e., when z = 0). It follows from the
above expression (neglecting the trivial result x = 0) that
2 v02 v02
R= sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ. (3.48)
g g
43
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

h
z
θ
x
R
Figure 17: The parabolic trajectory of a projectile

Note that the range attains its maximum value,

v02
Rmax = , (3.49)
g
when θ = 45◦ . In other words, neglecting air resistance, a projectile travels
furthest when it is launched into the air at 45◦ to the horizontal.

The maximum altitude h of the projectile is attained when vz = dz/dt = 0

(i.e., when the projectile has just stopped rising and is about to start falling). It
follows from Eq. (3.46) that the maximum altitude occurs at time t0 = v0 sin θ/g.
Hence,
v02
h = z(t0 ) = sin2 θ. (3.50)
2g
Obviously, the largest value of h,
v02
hmax = , (3.51)
2g
is obtained when the projectile is launched vertically upwards (i.e., θ = 90 ◦ ).

3.12 Relative velocity

Suppose that, on a windy day, an airplane moves with constant velocity v a with
respect to the air, and that the air moves with constant velocity u with respect

44
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

vg u

va

Figure 18: Relative velocity

to the ground. What is the vector velocity vg of the plane with respect to the
ground? In principle, the answer to this question is very simple:
vg = va + u. (3.52)
In other words, the velocity of the plane with respect to the ground is the vector
sum of the plane’s velocity relative to the air and the air’s velocity relative to the
ground. See Fig. 18. Note that, in general, vg is parallel to neither va nor u. Let
us now consider how we might implement Eq. (3.52) in practice.

As always, our first task is to set up a suitable Cartesian coordinate system. A

convenient system for dealing with 2-dimensional motion parallel to the Earth’s
surface is illustrated in Fig. 19. The x-axis points northward, whereas the y-axis
points eastward. In this coordinate system, it is conventional to specify a vector r
in term of its magnitude, r, and its compass bearing, φ. As illustrated in Fig. 20, a
compass bearing is the angle subtended between the direction of a vector and the
direction to the North pole: i.e., the x-direction. By convention, compass bearings
run from 0◦ to 360◦ . Furthermore, the compass bearings of North, East, South,
and West are 0◦ , 90◦ , 180◦ , and 270◦ , respectively.

According to Fig. 20, the components of a general vector r, whose magnitude

is r and whose compass bearing is φ, are simply
r = (x, y) = (r cos φ, r sin φ). (3.53)
Note that we have suppressed the z-component of r (which is zero), for ease of
notation. Although, strictly speaking, Fig. 20 only justifies the above expression
for φ in the range 0◦ to 90◦ , it turns out that this expression is generally valid:
i.e., it is valid for φ in the full range 0◦ to 360◦ .

45
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

W E
y

Figure 19: Coordinates for relative velocity problem

x
r cos φ

r
φ

E
y
r sinφ

Figure 20: A compass bearing

46
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

As an illustration, suppose that the plane’s velocity relative to the air is 300 km/h,
at a compass bearing of 120◦ , and the air’s velocity relative to the ground is
85 km/h, at a compass bearing of 225◦ . It follows that the components of va
and u (measured in units of km/h) are

va = (300 cos 120◦ , 300 sin 120◦ ) = (−1.500 × 102 , 2.598 × 102 ), (3.54)
u = (85 cos 225◦ , 85 sin 225◦ ) = (−6.010 × 101 , −6.010 × 101 ). (3.55)

According to Eq. (3.52), the components of the plane’s velocity vg relative to the
ground are simply the algebraic sums of the corresponding components of va and
u. Hence,

vg = (−1.500 × 102 − 6.010 × 101 , 2.598 × 102 − 6.010 × 101 )

= (−2.101 × 102 , 1.997 × 102 ). (3.56)

Our final task is to reconstruct the magnitude and compass bearing of vector
vg , given its components (vg x , vg y ). The magnitude of vg follows from Pythagoras’
theorem [see Eq. (3.6)]:
q
vg = (vg x )2 + (vg y )2
q
= (−2.101 × 102 )2 + (1.997 × 102 )2 = 289.9 km/h. (3.57)

In principle, the compass bearing of vg is given by the following formula:

 
vg y 
φ = tan−1  . (3.58)
vg x
This follows because vg x = vg cos φ and vg y = vg sin φ [see Eq. (3.53)]. Un-
fortunately, the above expression becomes a little difficult to interpret if v g x is
negative. An unambiguous pair of expressions for φ is given below:
 
vg y 
φ = tan−1  , (3.59)
vg x
if vg x ≥ 0; or  
vg y 
φ = 180◦ − tan−1  , (3.60)
|vg x |
47
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

if vg x < 0. These expressions can be derived from simple trigonometry. For the
case in hand, Eq. (3.60) is the relevant expression, hence
1.997 × 102 
 

φ = 180◦ − tan−1  2
= 136.5◦ . (3.61)
2.101 × 10
Thus, the plane’s velocity relative to the ground is 289.9 km/h at a compass bear-
ing of 136.5◦ .

Worked example 3.1: Broken play

Question: Major Applewhite receives the snap at the line of scrimmage, takes
a seven step drop (i.e., runs backwards 9 yards), but is then flushed out of the
pocket by a blitzing linebacker. Major subsequently runs parallel to the line of
scrimmage for 12 yards and then gets off a forward pass, 36 yards straight down-
field, to Roy Williams, just prior to being creamed by the linebacker. What is the
magnitude of the football’s resultant displacement (in yards)?

Answer: As illustrated in the diagram, the resultant displacement r of the football

is the sum of vectors a, b, and c, which correspond to the seven step drop, the
run parallel to the line of scrimmage, and the forward pass, respectively. Using
upfield

x r
c 36 yd

y line of scrimmage

9 yd a
b

12 yd

the coordinate system indicated in the diagram, the components of vectors a, b,

and c (measured in yards) are

a = (−9, 0),

48
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

b = (0, 12),
c = (36, 0),
respectively. Hence the components of r are given by
r = (x, y) = (−9 + 0 + 36, 0 + 12 + 0) = (27, 12).
It follows that the magnitude of the football’s resultant displacement is
q q
r= x2 + y2 = 272 + 122 = 29.55 yd.

Worked example 3.2: Gallileo’s experiment

Question: Legend has it that Gallileo tested out his newly developed theory of
projectile motion by throwing weights from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
(No wonder he eventually got into trouble with the authorities!) Suppose that,
one day, Gallileo simultaneously threw two equal weights off the tower from a
height of 100 m above the ground. Suppose, further, that he dropped the first
weight straight down, whereas he threw the second weight horizontally with a
velocity of 5 m/s. Which weight struck the ground first? How long, after it was
thrown, did it take to do this? Finally, what horizontal distance was traveled by
the second weight before it hit the ground? Neglect the effect of air resistance.

Answer: Since both weights start off traveling with the same initial velocities
in the vertical direction (i.e., zero), and both accelerate vertically downwards at
the same rate, it follows that both weights strike the ground simultaneously. The
time of flight of each weight is simply the time taken to fall h = 100 m, starting
from rest, under the influence of gravity. From Eq. (2.17), this time is given by
v v
u2 h × 100 u2
u u
t= t = = 4.515 s.
t
g 9.81
The horizontal distance R traveled by the second weight is simply the distance
traveled by a body moving at a constant velocity u = 5 m/s (recall that gravita-
tional acceleration does not affect horizontal motion) during the time taken by
the weight to drop 100 m. Thus,
R = u t = 5 × 4.515 = 22.58 m.

49
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

Worked example 3.3: Cannon shot

Question: A cannon placed on a 50 m high cliff fires a cannonball over the edge
of the cliff at v = 200 m/s making an angle of θ = 30◦ to the horizontal. How
long is the cannonball in the air? Neglect air resistance.

Answer: In order to answer this question we need only consider the cannon-
ball’s vertical motion. At t = 0 (i.e., the time of firing) the cannonball’s height
off the ground is z0 = 50 m and its velocity component in the vertical direction is
v0 = v sin θ = 200 × sin 30◦ = 100 m/s. Moreover, the cannonball is accelerating
vertically downwards at g = 9.91 m/s2 . The equation of vertical motion of the
cannonball is written
1
z = z 0 + v 0 t − g t2 ,
2
where z is the cannonball’s height off the ground at time t. The time of flight of
the cannonball corresponds to the time t at which z = 0. In other words, the time
of flight is the solution of the quadratic equation
1 2
0 = z0 + v0 t − gt .
2
Hence, q
v0 + v02 + 2 g z0
t= = 20.88 s.
g
Here, we have neglected the unphysical negative root of our quadratic equation.

Worked example 3.4: Hail Mary pass

Question: The Longhorns are down by 4 points with 5 s left in the fourth quarter.
Chris Simms launches a Hail Mary pass into the end-zone, 60 yards away, where
B.J. Johnson is waiting to make the catch. Suppose that Chris throws the ball at
55 miles per hour. At what angle to the horizontal must the ball be launched in
order for it to hit the receiver? Neglect the effect of air resistance.

50
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

Answer: The formula for the horizontal range R of a projectile thrown with initial
velocity v0 at an angle θ to the horizontal is [see Eq. (3.48)]:
v02
R= sin 2θ.
g
In this case, R = 60 × 3 × 0.3048 = 54.86 m and v0 = 55 × 5280 × 0.3048/3600 =
24.59 m/s. Hence,
   
1 Rg 1 54.86 × 9.81 
θ = sin−1  2  = sin−1  2
= 31.45◦ .
2 v0 2 (24.59)
Thus, the ball must be launched at 31.45◦ to the horizontal. (Actually, 58.56◦
would work just as well. Why is this?)

Worked example 3.5: Flight UA 589

Question: United Airlines flight UA 589 from Chicago is 20 miles due North of
Austin’s Bergstrom airport. Suppose that the plane is flying at 200 mi/h relative
to the air. Suppose, further, that there is a wind blowing due East at 60 mi/h. To-
wards which compass bearing must the plane steer in order to land at the airport?

Answer: The problem in hand is illustrated in the diagram. The plane’s veloc-

N u
φ
α
vg
va
E

ity vg relative to the ground is the vector sum of its velocity va relative to the
air, and the velocity u of the wind relative to the ground. We know that u is di-
rected due East, and we require vg to be directed due South. We also know that

51
3 MOTION IN 3 DIMENSIONS 3.12 Relative velocity

|va | = 200 mi/h and |u| = 60 mi/h. Now, from simple trigonometry,
|u| 60
cos α = = = 0.3.
|va | 200
Hence,
α = 72.54◦ .
However, it is clear from the diagram that the compass bearing φ of the plane is
given by
φ = 270◦ − α = 270◦ − 72.54◦ = 197.46◦ .
Thus, in order to land at Bergstrom airport the plane must fly towards compass
bearing 197.46◦ .

52
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

4 Newton’s laws of motion

4.1 Introduction

In his Principia, Newton reduced the basic principles of mechanics to three laws:

1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
2. The change of motion of an object is proportional to the force impressed upon it,
and is made in the direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed.
3. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction; or, the mutual actions
of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.

These laws are known as Newton’s first law of motion, Newton’s second law of
motion, and Newton’s third law of motion, respectively. In this section, we shall
examine each of these laws in detail, and then give some simple illustrations of
their use.

4.2 Newton’s first law of motion

Newton’s first law was actually discovered by Galileo and perfected by Descartes
(who added the crucial proviso “in a straight line”). This law states that if the
motion of a given body is not disturbed by external influences then that body
moves with constant velocity. In other words, the displacement r of the body as a
function of time t can be written

r = r0 + v t, (4.1)

where r0 and v are constant vectors. As illustrated in Fig. 14, the body’s trajectory
is a straight-line which passes through point r0 at time t = 0 and runs parallel to
v. In the special case in which v = 0 the body simply remains at rest.

53
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.3 Newton’s second law of motion

Nowadays, Newton’s first law strikes us as almost a statement of the obvious.

However, in Galileo’s time this was far from being the case. From the time of
the ancient Greeks, philosophers—observing that objects set into motion on the
Earth’s surface eventually come to rest—had concluded that the natural state of
motion of objects was that they should remain at rest. Hence, they reasoned,
any object which moves does so under the influence of an external influence, or
force, exerted on it by some other object. It took the genius of Galileo to realize
that an object set into motion on the Earth’s surface eventually comes to rest
under the influence of frictional forces, and that if these forces could somehow
be abstracted from the motion then it would continue forever.

4.3 Newton’s second law of motion

Newton used the word “motion” to mean what we nowadays call momentum.
The momentum p of a body is simply defined as the product of its mass m and
its velocity v: i.e.,
p = m v. (4.2)
Newton’s second law of motion is summed up in the equation
dp
= f, (4.3)
dt
where the vector f represents the net influence, or force, exerted on the object,
whose motion is under investigation, by other objects. For the case of a object
with constant mass, the above law reduces to its more conventional form

f = m a. (4.4)

In other words, the net force exerted on a given object by other objects equals the
product of that object’s mass and its acceleration. Of course, this law is entirely
devoid of content unless we have some independent means of quantifying the
forces exerted between different objects.

54
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.4 Hooke’s law

m
handle
f

∆x
Figure 21: Hooke’s law

4.4 Hooke’s law

One method of quantifying the force exerted on an object is via Hooke’s law. This
law—discovered by the English scientist Robert Hooke in 1660—states that the
force f exerted by a coiled spring is directly proportional to its extension ∆x. The
extension of the spring is the difference between its actual length and its natural
length (i.e., its length when it is exerting no force). The force acts parallel to the
axis of the spring. Obviously, Hooke’s law only holds if the extension of the spring
is sufficiently small. If the extension becomes too large then the spring deforms
permanently, or even breaks. Such behaviour lies beyond the scope of Hooke’s
law.

Figure 21 illustrates how we might use Hooke’s law to quantify the force we
exert on a body of mass m when we pull on the handle of a spring attached to
it. The magnitude f of the force is proportional to the extension of the spring:
twice the extension means twice the force. As shown, the direction of the force is
towards the spring, parallel to its axis (assuming that the extension is positive).
The magnitude of the force can be quantified in terms of the critical extension
required to impart a unit acceleration (i.e., 1 m/s2 ) to a body of unit mass (i.e.,
1 kg). According to Eq. (4.4), the force corresponding to this extension is 1 new-
ton. Here, a newton (symbol N) is equivalent to a kilogram-meter per second-
squared, and is the mks unit of force. Thus, if the critical extension corresponds
to a force of 1 N then half the critical extension corresponds to a force of 0.5 N,
and so on. In this manner, we can quantify both the direction and magnitude of
the force we exert, by means of a spring, on a given body.

55
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.5 Newton’s third law of motion

f
1

f
2 f

f
2

f1

Figure 22: Addition of forces

Suppose that we apply two forces, f1 and f2 (say), acting in different directions,
to a body of mass m by means of two springs. As illustrated in Fig. 22, the body
accelerates as if it were subject to a single force f which is the vector sum of
the individual forces f1 and f2 . It follows that the force f appearing in Newton’s
second law of motion, Eq. (4.4), is the resultant of all the external forces to which
the body whose motion is under investigation is subject.

Suppose that the resultant of all the forces acting on a given body is zero.
In other words, suppose that the forces acting on the body exactly balance one
another. According to Newton’s second law of motion, Eq. (4.4), the body does
not accelerate: i.e., it either remains at rest or moves with uniform velocity in
a straight line. It follows that Newton’s first law of motion applies not only to
bodies which have no forces acting upon them but also to bodies acted upon by
exactly balanced forces.

4.5 Newton’s third law of motion

Suppose, for the sake of argument, that there are only two bodies in the Universe.
Let us label these bodies a and b. Suppose that body b exerts a force fab on body
a. According to to Newton’s third law of motion, body a must exert an equal and
opposite force fba = −fab on body b. See Fig. 22. Thus, if we label fab the “action”

56
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.6 Mass and weight

a
b
fab f
ba

Figure 23: Newton’s third law

then, in Newton’s language, fba is the equal and opposed “reaction”.

Suppose, now, that there are many objects in the Universe (as is, indeed, the
case). According to Newton’s third law, if object j exerts a force fij on object i
then object i must exert an equal and opposite force fji = −fij on object j. It
follows that all of the forces acting in the Universe can ultimately be grouped
into equal and opposite action-reaction pairs. Note, incidentally, that an action
and its associated reaction always act on different bodies.

Why do we need Newton’s third law? Actually, it is almost a matter of common

sense. Suppose that bodies a and b constitute an isolated system. If fba 6= −fab
then this system exerts a non-zero net force f = fab + fba on itself, without the
aid of any external agency. It will, therefore, accelerate forever under its own
steam. We know, from experience, that this sort of behaviour does not occur
in real life. For instance, I cannot grab hold of my shoelaces and, thereby, pick
myself up off the ground. In other words, I cannot self-generate a force which
will spontaneously lift me into the air: I need to exert forces on other objects
around me in order to achieve this. Thus, Newton’s third law essentially acts as
a guarantee against the absurdity of self-generated forces.

4.6 Mass and weight

The terms mass and weight are often confused with one another. However, in
physics their meanings are quite distinct.

A body’s mass is a measure of its inertia: i.e., its reluctance to deviate from
uniform straight-line motion under the influence of external forces. According to
Newton’s second law, Eq. (4.4), if two objects of differing masses are acted upon

57
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.6 Mass and weight

block m
f
R

fg

Earth

f
W

Figure 24: Weight

by forces of the same magnitude then the resulting acceleration of the larger mass
is less than that of the smaller mass. In other words, it is more difficult to force
the larger mass to deviate from its preferred state of uniform motion in a straight
line. Incidentally, the mass of a body is an intrinsic property of that body, and,
therefore, does not change if the body is moved to a different place.

Imagine a block of granite resting on the surface of the Earth. See Fig. 24. The
block experiences a downward force fg due to the gravitational attraction of the
Earth. This force is of magnitude m g, where m is the mass of the block and g
is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the Earth. The block transmits
this force to the ground below it, which is supporting it, and, thereby, preventing
it from accelerating downwards. In other words, the block exerts a downward
force fW , of magnitude m g, on the ground immediately beneath it. We usually
refer to this force (or the magnitude of this force) as the weight of the block.
According to Newton’s third law, the ground below the block exerts an upward
reaction force fR on the block. This force is also of magnitude m g. Thus, the net
force acting on the block is fg + fR = 0, which accounts for the fact that the block
remains stationary.

Where, you might ask, is the equal and opposite reaction to the force of grav-
itational attraction fg exerted by the Earth on the block of granite? It turns out
that this reaction is exerted at the centre of the Earth. In other words, the Earth
attracts the block of granite, and the block of granite attracts the Earth by an
equal amount. However, since the Earth is far more massive than the block, the
force exerted by the granite block at the centre of the Earth has no observable
consequence.

58
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.6 Mass and weight

W
mg

Figure 25: Weight in an elevator

So far, we have established that the weight W of a body is the magnitude of

the downward force it exerts on any object which supports it. Thus, W = m g,
where m is the mass of the body and g is the local acceleration due to gravity.
Since weight is a force, it is measured in newtons. A body’s weight is location
dependent, and is not, therefore, an intrinsic property of that body. For instance,
a body weighing 10 N on the surface of the Earth will only weigh about 3.8 N
on the surface of Mars, due to the weaker surface gravity of Mars relative to the
Earth.

Consider a block of mass m resting on the floor of an elevator, as shown in

Fig. 25. Suppose that the elevator is accelerating upwards with acceleration a.
How does this acceleration affect the weight of the block? Of course, the block
experiences a downward force m g due to gravity. Let W be the weight of the
block: by definition, this is the size of the downward force exerted by the block
on the floor of the elevator. From Newton’s third law, the floor of the elevator
exerts an upward reaction force of magnitude W on the block. Let us apply
Newton’s second law, Eq. (4.4), to the motion of the block. The mass of the block
is m, and its upward acceleration is a. Furthermore, the block is subject to two
forces: a downward force m g due to gravity, and an upward reaction force W.

59
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

Hence,
W − m g = m a. (4.5)
This equation can be rearranged to give
W = m (g + a). (4.6)
Clearly, the upward acceleration of the elevator has the effect of increasing the
weight W of the block: for instance, if the elevator accelerates upwards at g =
9.81 m/s2 then the weight of the block is doubled. Conversely, if the elevator
accelerates downward (i.e., if a becomes negative) then the weight of the block
is reduced: for instance, if the elevator accelerates downward at g/2 then the
weight of the block is halved. Incidentally, these weight changes could easily be
measured by placing some scales between the block and the floor of the elevator.

Suppose that the downward acceleration of the elevator matches the acceler-
ation due to gravity: i.e., a = −g. In this case, W = 0. In other words, the block
becomes weightless! This is the principle behind the so-called “Vomit Comet”
used by NASA’s Johnson Space Centre to train prospective astronauts in the ef-
fects of weightlessness. The “Vomit Comet” is actually a KC-135 (a predecessor of
the Boeing 707 which is typically used for refueling military aircraft). The plane
typically ascends to 30,000 ft and then accelerates downwards at g (i.e., drops
like a stone) for about 20 s, allowing its passengers to feel the effects of weight-
lessness during this period. All of the weightless scenes in the film Apollo 11 were
shot in this manner.

Suppose, finally, that the downward acceleration of the elevator exceeds the
acceleration due to gravity: i.e., a < −g. In this case, the block acquires a
negative weight! What actually happens is that the block flies off the floor of the
elevator and slams into the ceiling: when things have settled down, the block
exerts an upward force (negative weight) |W| on the ceiling of the elevator.

4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

Consider a block of mass m which is suspended from a fixed beam by means of

a string, as shown in Fig. 26. The string is assumed to be light (i.e., its mass

60
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

beam

T string

block m

mg

Figure 26: Block suspended by a string

is negligible compared to that of the block) and inextensible (i.e., its length in-
creases by a negligible amount because of the weight of the block). The string
is clearly being stretched, since it is being pulled at both ends by the block and
the beam. Furthermore, the string must be being pulled by oppositely directed
forces of the same magnitude, otherwise it would accelerate greatly (given that
it has negligible inertia). By Newton’s third law, the string exerts oppositely di-
rected forces of equal magnitude, T (say), on both the block and the beam. These
forces act so as to oppose the stretching of the string: i.e., the beam experiences a
downward force of magnitude T , whereas the block experiences an upward force
of magnitude T . Here, T is termed the tension of the string. Since T is a force,
it is measured in newtons. Note that, unlike a coiled spring, a string can never
possess a negative tension, since this would imply that the string is trying to push
its supports apart, rather than pull them together.

Let us apply Newton’s second law to the block. The mass of the block is m, and
its acceleration is zero, since the block is assumed to be in equilibrium. The block
is subject to two forces, a downward force m g due to gravity, and an upward
force T due to the tension of the string. It follows that
T − m g = 0. (4.7)
In other words, in equilibrium, the tension T of the string equals the weight m g
of the block.

Figure 27 shows a slightly more complicated example in which a block of mass

m is suspended by three strings. The question is what are the tensions, T , T 1 , and

61
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

o o
30 60

T2 T1

mg

Figure 27: Block suspended by three strings

T2 , in these strings, assuming that the block is in equilibrium? Using analogous

arguments to the previous case, we can easily demonstrate that the tension T
in the lowermost string is m g. The tensions in the two uppermost strings are
obtained by applying Newton’s second law of motion to the knot where all three
strings meet. See Fig. 28.

There are three forces acting on the knot: the downward force T due to the
tension in the lower string, and the forces T1 and T2 due to the tensions in the
upper strings. The latter two forces act along their respective strings, as indicate
in the diagram. Since the knot is in equilibrium, the vector sum of all the forces
acting on it must be zero.

Consider the horizontal components of the forces acting on the knot. Let com-
ponents acting to the right be positive, and vice versa. The horizontal component
of tension T is zero, since this tension acts straight down. The horizontal compo-
nent of tension T1 is T1 cos 60◦ = T1 /2, since this force subtends an angle of 60◦
with respect to the horizontal (see
√ Fig. 16). Likewise, the horizontal component
of tension T2 is −T2 cos 30◦ = − 3 T2 /2. Since the knot does not accelerate in the
horizontal direction, we can equate the sum of these components to zero:
√
T1 3 T2
− = 0. (4.8)
2 2

Consider the vertical components of the forces acting on the knot. Let com-
ponents acting upward be positive, and vice versa. The vertical component of

62
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

T1
T
2
o o
30 60

Figure 28: Detail of Fig. 27

tension T is −T = −m g, since this tension

√ acts straight down. The vertical com-
◦
ponent of tension T1 is T1 sin 60 = 3 T1 /2, since this force subtends an angle of
60◦ with respect to the horizontal (see Fig. 16). Likewise, the vertical component
of tension T2 is T2 sin 30◦ = T2 /2. Since the knot does not accelerate in the vertical
direction, we can equate the sum of these components to zero:
√
3 T 1 T2
− mg + + = 0. (4.9)
2 2

Finally, Eqs. (4.8) and (4.9) yield

√
3mg
T1 = , (4.10)
2
mg
T2 = . (4.11)
2

Consider a block of mass m sliding down a smooth frictionless incline which

subtends an angle θ to the horizontal, as shown in Fig 29. The weight m g of
the block is directed vertically downwards. However, this force can be resolved
into components m g cos θ, acting perpendicular (or normal) to the incline, and
m g sin θ, acting parallel to the incline. Note that the reaction of the incline to
the weight of the block acts normal to the incline, and only matches the normal
component of the weight: i.e., it is of magnitude m g cos θ. This is a general
result: the reaction of any unyielding surface is always locally normal to that
surface, directed outwards (away from the surface), and matches the normal

63
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

y
mg cos θ

m
x
mg sin θ

mg cos θ
mg
θ

Figure 29: Block sliding down an incline

component of any inward force applied to the surface. The block is clearly in
equilibrium in the direction normal to the incline, since the normal component of
the block’s weight is balanced by the reaction of the incline. However, the block
is subject to the unbalanced force m g sin θ in the direction parallel to the incline,
and, therefore, accelerates down the slope. Applying Newton’s second law to this
problem (with the coordinates shown in the figure), we obtain
d2 x
m 2 = m g sin θ, (4.12)
dt
which can be solved to give
1
x = x0 + v0 t + g sin θ t2 . (4.13)
2
In other words, the block accelerates down the slope with acceleration g sin θ.
Note that this acceleration is less than the full acceleration due to gravity, g. In
fact, if the incline is fairly gentle (i.e., if θ is small) then the acceleration of the
block can be made much less than g. This was the technique used by Galileo in
his pioneering studies of motion under gravity—by diluting the acceleration due
to gravity, using inclined planes, he was able to obtain motion sufficiently slow
for him to make accurate measurements using the crude time-keeping devices
available in the 17th Century.

Consider two masses, m1 and m2 , connected by a light inextensible string.

Suppose that the first mass slides over a smooth, frictionless, horizontal table,

64
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

whilst the second is suspended over the edge of the table by means of a light fric-
tionless pulley. See Fig. 30. Since the pulley is light, we can neglect its rotational
inertia in our analysis. Moreover, no force is required to turn a frictionless pulley,
so we can assume that the tension T of the string is the same on either side of
the pulley. Let us apply Newton’s second law of motion to each mass in turn. The
first mass is subject to a downward force m1 g, due to gravity. However, this force
is completely canceled out by the upward reaction force due to the table. The
mass m1 is also subject to a horizontal force T , due to the tension in the string,
which causes it to move rightwards with acceleration
T
a= . (4.14)
m1
The second mass is subject to a downward force m2 g, due to gravity, plus an
upward force T due to the tension in the string. These forces cause the mass to
move downwards with acceleration
T
a=g− . (4.15)
m2
Now, the rightward acceleration of the first mass must match the downward ac-
celeration of the second, since the string which connects them is inextensible.
Thus, equating the previous two expressions, we obtain
m1 m2
T = g, (4.16)
m1 + m 2
m2
a = g. (4.17)
m1 + m 2
Note that the acceleration of the two coupled masses is less than the full accel-
eration due to gravity, g, since the first mass contributes to the inertia of the
system, but does not contribute to the downward gravitational force which sets
the system in motion.

Consider two masses, m1 and m2 , connected by a light inextensible string

which is suspended from a light frictionless pulley, as shown in Fig. 31. Let us
again apply Newton’s second law to each mass in turn. Without being given the
values of m1 and m2 , we cannot determine beforehand which mass is going to
move upwards. Let us assume that mass m1 is going to move upwards: if we are

65
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.7 Strings, pulleys, and inclines

m1
T

m
2

m2 g

Figure 30: Block sliding over a smooth table, pulled by a second block

wrong in this assumption then we will simply obtain a negative acceleration for
this mass. The first mass is subject to an upward force T , due to the tension in the
string, and a downward force m1 g, due to gravity. These forces cause the mass
to move upwards with acceleration
T
a= − g. (4.18)
m1
The second mass is subject to a downward force m2 g, due to gravity, and an
upward force T , due to the tension in the string. These forces cause the mass to
move downward with acceleration
T
a=g− . (4.19)
m2
Now, the upward acceleration of the first mass must match the downward accel-
eration of the second, since they are connected by an inextensible string. Hence,
equating the previous two expressions, we obtain
2 m 1 m2
T = g, (4.20)
m1 + m 2
m2 − m 1
a = g. (4.21)
m1 + m 2
As expected, the first mass accelerates upward (i.e., a > 0) if m2 > m1 , and vice
versa. Note that the acceleration of the system is less than the full acceleration
due to gravity, g, since both masses contribute to the inertia of the system, but

66
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.8 Friction

T
T

m2
.
.

m1 m g
2

m1 g

Figure 31: An Atwood machine

their weights partially cancel one another out. In particular, if the two masses are
almost equal then the acceleration of the system becomes very much less than g.

Incidentally, the device pictured in Fig. 31 is called an Atwood machine, after

the eighteenth Century English scientist George Atwood, who used it to “slow
down” free-fall sufficiently to make accurate observations of this phenomena us-
ing the primitive time-keeping devices available in his day.

4.8 Friction

When a body slides over a rough surface a frictional force generally develops
which acts to impede the motion. Friction, when viewed at the microscopic level,
is actually a very complicated phenomenon. Nevertheless, physicists and engi-
neers have managed to develop a relatively simple empirical law of force which
allows the effects of friction to be incorporated into their calculations. This law of
force was first proposed by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and later extended
by Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) (who is more famous for discov-

67
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.8 Friction

ering the law of electrostatic attraction). The frictional force exerted on a body
sliding over a rough surface is proportional to the normal reaction R n at that sur-
face, the constant of proportionality depending on the nature of the surface. In
other words,
f = µ Rn , (4.22)
where µ is termed the coefficient of (dynamical) friction. For ordinary surfaces, µ
is generally of order unity.

Consider a block of mass m being dragged over a horizontal surface, whose

coefficient of friction is µ, by a horizontal force F. See Fig. 32. The weight
W = m g of the block acts vertically downwards, giving rise to a reaction R = m g
acting vertically upwards. The magnitude of the frictional force f, which impedes
the motion of the block, is simply µ times the normal reaction R = m g. Hence,
f = µ m g. The acceleration of the block is, therefore,
F−f F
a= = − µ g, (4.23)
m m
assuming that F > f. What happens if F < f: i.e., if the applied force F is less than
the frictional force f? In this case, common sense suggests that the block simply
remains at rest (it certainly does not accelerate backwards!). Hence, f = µ m g
is actually the maximum force which friction can generate in order to impede
the motion of the block. If the applied force F is less than this maximum value
then the applied force is canceled out by an equal and opposite frictional force,
and the block remains stationary. Only if the applied force exceeds the maximum
frictional force does the block start to move.

Consider a block of mass m sliding down a rough incline (coefficient of friction

µ) which subtends an angle θ to the horizontal, as shown in Fig 33. The weight
m g of the block can be resolved into components m g cos θ, acting normal to the
incline, and m g sin θ, acting parallel to the incline. The reaction of the incline
to the weight of the block acts normally outwards from the incline, and is of
magnitude m g cos θ. Parallel to the incline, the block is subject to the downward
gravitational force m g sin θ, and the upward frictional force f (which acts to
prevent the block sliding down the incline). In order for the block to move, the
magnitude of the former force must exceed the maximum value of the latter,

68
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.8 Friction

F
f

mg
W
Figure 32: Friction

which is µ time the magnitude of the normal reaction, or µ m g cos θ. Hence, the
condition for the weight of the block to overcome friction, and, thus, to cause the
block to slide down the incline, is

m g sin θ > µ m g cos θ, (4.24)

or
tan θ > µ. (4.25)
In other words, if the slope of the incline exceeds a certain critical value, which
depends on µ, then the block will start to slide. Incidentally, the above formula
suggests a fairly simple way of determining the coefficient of friction for a given
object sliding over a particular surface. Simply tilt the surface gradually until the
object just starts to move: the coefficient of friction is simply the tangent of the
critical tilt angle (measured with respect to the horizontal).

Up to now, we have implicitly suggested that the coefficient of friction between

an object and a surface is the same whether the object remains stationary or slides
over the surface. In fact, this is generally not the case. Usually, the coefficient of
friction when the object is stationary is slightly larger than the coefficient when
the object is sliding. We call the former coefficient the coefficient of static friction,
µs , whereas the latter coefficient is usually termed the coefficient of kinetic (or
dynamical) friction, µk . The fact that µs > µk simply implies that objects have a
tendency to “stick” to rough surfaces when placed upon them. The force required
to unstick a given object, and, thereby, set it in motion, is µ s times the normal

69
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

mg cos θ

f m

mg sin θ

mg cos θ
mg
θ

Figure 33: Block sliding down a rough slope

reaction at the surface. Once the object has been set in motion, the frictional force
acting to impede this motion falls somewhat to µk times the normal reaction.

4.9 Frames of reference

As discussed in Sect. 1, the laws of physics are assumed to possess objective real-
ity. In other words, it is assumed that two independent observers, studying the
same physical phenomenon, would eventually formulate identical laws of physics
in order to account for their observations. Now, two completely independent
observers are likely to choose different systems of units with which to quantify
physical measurements. However, as we have seen in Sect. 1, the dimensional
consistency of valid laws of physics renders them invariant under transformation
from one system of units to another. Independent observers are also likely to
choose different coordinate systems. For instance, the origins of their separate
coordinate systems might differ, as well as the orientation of the various coordi-
nate axes. Are the laws of physics also invariant under transformation between
coordinate systems possessing different origins, or a different orientation of the
various coordinate axes?

Consider the vector equation

r = r 1 + r2 , (4.26)

which is represented diagrammatically in Fig. 12. Suppose that we shift the origin

70
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

of our coordinate system, or rotate the coordinate axes. Clearly, in general, the
components of vectors r, r1 , and r2 are going to be modified by this change in
our coordinate scheme. However, Fig. 12 still remains valid. Hence, we conclude
that the vector equation (4.26) also remains valid. In other words, although
the individual components of vectors r, r1 , and r2 are modified by the change
in coordinate scheme, the interrelation between these components expressed in
Eq. (4.26) remains invariant. This observation suggests that the independence
of the laws of physics from the arbitrary choice of the location of the underlying
coordinate system’s origin, or the equally arbitrary choice of the orientation of
the various coordinate axes, can be made manifest by simply writing these laws
as interrelations between vectors. In particular, Newton’s second law of motion,

f = m a, (4.27)

is clearly invariant under shifts in the origin of our coordinate system, or changes
in the orientation of the various coordinate axes. Note that the quantity m (i.e.,
the mass of the body whose motion is under investigation), appearing in the
above equation, is invariant under any changes in the coordinate system, since
measurements of mass are completely independent of measurements of distance.
We refer to such a quantity as a scalar (this is an improved definition). We con-
clude that valid laws of physics must consist of combinations of scalars and vec-
tors, otherwise they would retain an unphysical dependence on the details of the
chosen coordinate system.

Up to now, we have implicitly assumed that all of our observers are stationary
(i.e., they are all standing still on the surface of the Earth). Let us, now, relax
this assumption. Consider two observers, O and O 0 , whose coordinate systems
coincide momentarily at t = 0. Suppose that observer O is stationary (on the
surface of the Earth), whereas observer O 0 moves (with respect to observer O)
with uniform velocity v0 . As illustrated in Fig. 34, if r represents the displacement
of some body P in the stationary observer’s frame of reference, at time t, then the
corresponding displacement in the moving observer’s frame of reference is simply

r 0 = r − v0 t. (4.28)

The velocity of body P in the stationary observer’s frame of reference is defined

71
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

r’
r

O’

v0 t

Figure 34: A moving observer

as
dr
v= . (4.29)
dt
Hence, the corresponding velocity in the moving observer’s frame of reference
takes the form
dr 0
v0 = = v − v0 . (4.30)
dt
Finally, the acceleration of body P in stationary observer’s frame of reference is
defined as
dv
a= , (4.31)
dt
whereas the corresponding acceleration in the moving observer’s frame of refer-
ence takes the form
0 dv 0
a = = a. (4.32)
dt
Hence, the acceleration of body P is identical in both frames of reference.

It is clear that if observer O concludes that body P is moving with constant ve-
locity, and, therefore, subject to zero net force, then observer O 0 will agree with
this conclusion. Furthermore, if observer O concludes that body P is accelerating,
and, therefore, subject to a force a/m, then observer O 0 will remain in agreement.
It follows that Newton’s laws of motion are equally valid in the frames of refer-
ence of the moving and the stationary observer. Such frames are termed inertial
frames of reference. There are infinitely many inertial frames of reference—within

72
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

which Newton’s laws of motion are equally valid—all moving with constant ve-
locity with respect to one another. Consequently, there is no universal standard
of rest in physics. Observer O might claim to be at rest compared to observer O 0 ,
and vice versa: however, both points of view are equally valid. Moreover, there
is absolutely no physical experiment which observer O could perform in order to
demonstrate that he/she is at rest whilst observer O 0 is moving. This, in essence,
is the principle of special relativity, first formulated by Albert Einstein in 1905.

Worked example 4.1: In equilibrium

Question: Consider the diagram. If the system is in equilibrium, and the tension
in string 2 is 50 N, determine the mass M.

1 3
o
40 2 40
o

M M

Answer: It follows from symmetry that the tensions in strings 1 and 3 are equal.
Let T1 be the tension in string 1, and T2 the tension in string 2. Consider the
equilibrium of the knot above the leftmost mass. As shown below, this knot
is subject to three forces: the downward force T4 = M g due to the tension
in the string which directly supports the leftmost mass, the rightward force T 2
due to the tension in string 2, and the upward and leftward force T1 due to the
tension in string 1. The resultant of all these forces must be zero, otherwise the
system would not be in equilibrium. Resolving in the horizontal direction (with
rightward forces positive), we obtain

T2 − T1 sin 40◦ = 0.

Likewise, resolving in the vertical direction (with upward forces positive) yields

T1 cos 40◦ − T4 = 0.

73
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

Combining the above two expressions, making use of the fact that T 4 = M g, gives
T2
M= .
g tan 40◦
Finally, since T2 = 50 N and g = 9.81 m/s2 , we obtain
50
M= = 6.074 kg.
9.81 × 0.8391

T1

o
40

T2

T4

Worked example 4.2: Block accelerating up a slope

Question: Consider the diagram. Suppose that the block, mass m = 5 kg, is
subject to a horizontal force F = 27 N. What is the acceleration of the block up
the (frictionless) slope?

m
F

o
25

Answer: Only that component of the applied force which is parallel to the incline
has any influence on the block’s motion: the normal component of the applied
force is canceled out by the normal reaction of the incline. The component of
the applied force acting up the incline is F cos 25◦ . Likewise, the component of

74
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

the block’s weight acting down the incline is m g sin 25◦ . Hence, using Newton’s
second law to determine the acceleration a of the block up the incline, we obtain
F cos 25◦ − m g sin 25◦
a= .
m
Since m = 5 kg and F = 27 N, we have
27 × 0.9063 − 5 × 9.81 × 0.4226
a= = 0.7483 m/s2 .
5

Worked example 4.3: Raising a platform

Question: Consider the diagram. The platform and the attached frictionless pulley
weigh a total of 34 N. With what force F must the (light) rope be pulled in order
to lift the platform at 3.2 m/s2 ?

pulley

platform

Answer: Let W be the weight of the platform, m = W/g the mass of the platform,
and T the tension in the rope. From Newton’s third law, it is clear that T = F.
Let us apply Newton’s second law to the upward motion of the platform. The
platform is subject to two vertical forces: a downward force W due to its weight,
and an upward force 2 T due to the tension in the rope (the force is 2 T , rather
than T , because both the leftmost and rightmost sections of the rope, emerging
from the pulley, are in tension and exerting an upward force on the pulley). Thus,

75
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

the upward acceleration a of the platform is

2T − W
a= .
m
Since T = F and m = W/g, we obtain
W (a/g + 1)
F= .
2
Finally, given that W = 34 N and a = 3.2 m/s2 , we have
34 (3.2/9.81 + 1)
F= = 22.55 N.
2

Worked example 4.4: Suspended block

Question: Consider the diagram. The mass of block A is 75 kg and the mass
of block B is 15 kg. The coefficient of static friction between the two blocks is
µ = 0.45. The horizontal surface is frictionless. What minimum force F must be
exerted on block A in order to prevent block B from falling?

B
F A

Answer: Suppose that block A exerts a rightward force R on block B. By New-

ton’s third law, block B exerts an equal and opposite force on block A. Applying
Newton’s second law of motion to the rightward acceleration a of block B, we
obtain
R
a= ,
mB
where mB is the mass of block B. The normal reaction at the interface between
the two blocks is R. Hence, the maximum frictional force that block A can ex-
ert on block B is µ R. In order to prevent block B from falling, this maximum

76
4 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 4.9 Frames of reference

frictional force (which acts upwards) must exceed the downward acting weight,
mB g, of the block. Hence, we require

µ R > mB g,

or
g
a> .
µ
Applying Newton’s second law to the rightward acceleration a of both blocks
(remembering that the equal and opposite forces exerted between the blocks
cancel one another out), we obtain
F
a= ,
mA + m B
where mA is the mass of block A. It follows that
(mA + mB ) g
F> .
µ
Since mA = 75 kg, mB = 15 kg, and µ = 0.45, we have
(75 + 15) × 9.81
F> = 1.962 × 103 N.
0.45

77
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

5 Conservation of energy

5.1 Introduction

Nowadays, the conservation of energy is undoubtedly the single most important

idea in physics. Strangely enough, although the basic idea of energy conservation
was familiar to scientists from the time of Newton onwards, this crucial concept
only moved to centre-stage in physics in about 1850 (i.e., when scientists first
realized that heat was a form of energy).

According to the ideas of modern physics, energy is the substance from which
all things in the Universe are made up. Energy can take many different forms:
e.g., potential energy, kinetic energy, electrical energy, thermal energy, chemi-
cal energy, nuclear energy, etc. In fact, everything that we observe in the world
around us represents one of the multitudinous manifestations of energy. Now,
there exist processes in the Universe which transform energy from one form into
another: e.g., mechanical processes (which are the focus of this course), thermal
processes, electrical processes, nuclear processes, etc. However, all of these pro-
cesses leave the total amount of energy in the Universe invariant. In other words,
whenever, and however, energy is transformed from one form into another, it
is always conserved. For a closed system (i.e., a system which does not exchange
energy with the rest of the Universe), the above law of universal energy conserva-
tion implies that the total energy of the system in question must remain constant
in time.

5.2 Energy conservation during free-fall

Consider a mass m which is falling vertically under the influence of gravity. We

already know how to analyze the motion of such a mass. Let us employ this
knowledge to search for an expression for the conserved energy during this pro-
cess. (N.B., This is clearly an example of a closed system, involving only the mass
and the gravitational field.) The physics of free-fall under gravity is summarized
by the three equations (2.14)–(2.16). Let us examine the last of these equations:

78
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.2 Energy conservation during free-fall

v2 = v02 −2 g s. Suppose that the mass falls from height h1 to h2 , its initial velocity
is v1 , and its final velocity is v2 . It follows that the net vertical displacement of
the mass is s = h2 − h1 . Moreover, v0 = v1 and v = v2 . Hence, the previous
expression can be rearranged to give
1 1
m v12 + m g h1 = m v22 + m g h2 . (5.1)
2 2
The above equation clearly represents a conservation law, of some description,
since the left-hand side only contains quantities evaluated at the initial height,
whereas the right-hand side only contains quantities evaluated at the final height.
In order to clarify the meaning of Eq. (5.1), let us define the kinetic energy of the
mass,
1
K = m v2 , (5.2)
2
and the gravitational potential energy of the mass,

U = m g h. (5.3)

Note that kinetic energy represents energy the mass possesses by virtue of its
motion. Likewise, potential energy represents energy the mass possesses by virtue
of its position. It follows that Eq. (5.1) can be written

E = K + U = constant. (5.4)

Here, E is the total energy of the mass: i.e., the sum of its kinetic and potential
energies. It is clear that E is a conserved quantity: i.e., although the kinetic and
potential energies of the mass vary as it falls, its total energy remains the same.

Incidentally, the expressions (5.2) and (5.3) for kinetic and gravitational po-
tential energy, respectively, are quite general, and do not just apply to free-fall
under gravity. The mks unit of energy is called the joule (symbol J). In fact, 1
joule is equivalent to 1 kilogram meter-squared per second-squared, or 1 newton-
meter. Note that all forms of energy are measured in the same units (otherwise
the idea of energy conservation would make no sense).

One of the most important lessons which students learn during their studies is
that there are generally many different paths to the same result in physics. Now,

79
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.2 Energy conservation during free-fall

we have already analyzed free-fall under gravity using Newton’s laws of motion.
However, it is illuminating to re-examine this problem from the point of view of
energy conservation. Suppose that a mass m is dropped from rest and falls a
distance h. What is the final velocity v of the mass? Well, according to Eq. (5.1),
if energy is conserved then
∆K = −∆U : (5.5)
i.e., any increase in the kinetic energy of the mass must be offset by a correspond-
ing decrease in its potential energy. Now, the change in potential energy of the
mass is simply ∆U = m g s = −m g h, where s = −h is its net vertical displace-
ment. The change in kinetic energy is simply ∆K = (1/2) m v2 , where v is the
final velocity. This follows because the initial kinetic energy of the mass is zero
(since it is initially at rest). Hence, the above expression yields
1
m v2 = m g h, (5.6)
2
or q
v = 2 g h. (5.7)

Suppose that the same mass is thrown upwards with initial velocity v. What
is the maximum height h to which it rises? Well, it is clear from Eq. (5.3) that
as the mass rises its potential energy increases. It, therefore, follows from energy
conservation that its kinetic energy must decrease with height. Note, however,
from Eq. (5.2), that kinetic energy can never be negative (since it is the product
of the two positive definite quantities, m and v2 /2). Hence, once the mass has
risen to a height h which is such that its kinetic energy is reduced to zero it can
rise no further, and must, presumably, start to fall. The change in potential energy
of the mass in moving from its initial height to its maximum height is m g h. The
corresponding change in kinetic energy is −(1/2) m v2 ; since (1/2) m v2 is the
initial kinetic energy, and the final kinetic energy is zero. It follows from Eq. (5.5)
that −(1/2) m v2 = −m g h, which can be rearranged to give
v2
h= . (5.8)
2g

It should be noted that the idea of energy conservation—although extremely

useful—is not a replacement for Newton’s laws of motion. For instance, in the

80
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

previous example, there is no way in which we can deduce how long it takes
the mass to rise to its maximum height from energy conservation alone—this
information can only come from the direct application of Newton’s laws.

5.3 Work

We have seen that when a mass free-falls under the influence of gravity some of
its kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy, or vice versa. Let us now
investigate, in detail, how this transformation is effected. The mass falls because
it is subject to a downwards gravitational force of magnitude m g. It stands to
reason, therefore, that the transformation of kinetic into potential energy is a
direct consequence of the action of this force.

This is, perhaps, an appropriate point at which to note that the concept of
gravitational potential energy—although extremely useful—is, strictly speaking,
fictitious. To be more exact, the potential energy of a body is not an intrinsic
property of that body (unlike its kinetic energy). In fact, the gravitational po-
tential energy of a given body is stored in the gravitational field which surrounds
it. Thus, when the body rises, and its potential energy consequently increases by
an amount ∆U; in reality, it is the energy of the gravitational field surrounding
the body which increases by this amount. Of course, the increase in energy of
the gravitational field is offset by a corresponding decrease in the body’s kinetic
energy. Thus, when we speak of a body’s kinetic energy being transformed into
potential energy, we are really talking about a flow of energy from the body to the
surrounding gravitational field. This energy flow is mediated by the gravitational
force exerted by the field on the body in question.

Incidentally, according to Einstein’s general theory of relativity (1917), the

gravitational field of a mass consists of the local distortion that mass induces in
the fabric of space-time. Fortunately, however, we do not need to understand
general relativity in order to talk about gravitational fields or gravitational po-
tential energy. All we need to know is that a gravitational field stores energy
without loss: i.e., if a given mass rises a certain distance, and, thereby, gives up
a certain amount of energy to the surrounding gravitational field, then that field

81
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

will return this energy to the mass—without loss—if the mass falls by the same
distance. In physics, we term such a field a conservative field (see later).

Suppose that a mass m falls a distance h. During this process, the energy of
the gravitational field decreases by a certain amount (i.e., the fictitious potential
energy of the mass decreases by a certain amount), and the body’s kinetic energy
increases by a corresponding amount. This transfer of energy, from the field to
the mass, is, presumably, mediated by the gravitational force −m g (the minus
sign indicates that the force is directed downwards) acting on the mass. In fact,
given that U = m g h, it follows from Eq. (5.5) that

∆K = f ∆h. (5.9)

In other words, the amount of energy transferred to the mass (i.e., the increase in
the mass’s kinetic energy) is equal to the product of the force acting on the mass
and the distance moved by the mass in the direction of that force.

In physics, we generally refer to the amount of energy transferred to a body,

when a force acts upon it, as the amount of work W performed by that force on
the body in question. It follows from Eq. (5.9) that when a gravitational force
f acts on a body, causing it to displace a distance x in the direction of that force,
then the net work done on the body is

W = f x. (5.10)

It turns out that this equation is quite general, and does not just apply to grav-
itational forces. If W is positive then energy is transferred to the body, and its
intrinsic energy consequently increases by an amount W. This situation occurs
whenever a body moves in the same direction as the force acting upon it. Like-
wise, if W is negative then energy is transferred from the body, and its intrinsic
energy consequently decreases by an amount |W|. This situation occurs when-
ever a body moves in the opposite direction to the force acting upon it. Since an
amount of work is equivalent to a transfer of energy, the mks unit of work is the
same as the mks unit of energy: namely, the joule.

In deriving equation (5.10), we have made two assumptions which are not
universally valid. Firstly, we have assumed that the motion of the body upon

82
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

which the force acts is both 1-dimensional and parallel to the line of action of the
force. Secondly, we have assumed that the force does not vary with position. Let
us attempt to relax these two assumptions, so as to obtain an expression for the
work W done by a general force f.

Let us start by relaxing the first assumption. Suppose, for the sake of argument,
that we have a mass m which moves under gravity in 2-dimensions. Let us adopt
the coordinate system shown in Fig. 35, with z representing vertical distance,
and x representing horizontal distance. The vector acceleration of the mass is
simply a = (0, −g). Here, we are neglecting the redundant y-component, for the
sake of simplicity. The physics of motion under gravity in more than 1-dimension
is summarized by the three equations (3.35)–(3.37). Let us examine the last of
these equations:
v2 = v02 + 2 a·s. (5.11)
Here, v0 is the speed at t = 0, v is the speed at t = t, and s = (∆x, ∆z) is the
net displacement of the mass during this time interval. Recalling the definition
of a scalar product [i.e., a·b = (ax bx + ay by + az bz )], the above equation can be
rearranged to give
1 1
m v2 − m v02 = −m g ∆z. (5.12)
2 2
Since the right-hand side of the above expression is manifestly the increase in the
kinetic energy of the mass between times t = 0 and t = t, the left-hand side must
equal the decrease in the mass’s potential energy during the same time interval.
Hence, we arrive at the following expression for the gravitational potential energy
of the mass:
U = m g z. (5.13)
Of course, this expression is entirely equivalent to our previous expression for
gravitational potential energy, Eq. (5.3). The above expression merely makes
manifest a point which should have been obvious anyway: namely, that the grav-
itational potential energy of a mass only depends on its height above the ground,
and is quite independent of its horizontal displacement.

Let us now try to relate the flow of energy between the gravitational field and
the mass to the action of the gravitational force, f = (0, −m g). Equation (5.12)

83
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

x
Figure 35: Coordinate system for 2-dimensional motion under gravity

can be rewritten
∆K = W = f· s. (5.14)
In other words, the work W done by the force f is equal to the scalar product of f
and the vector displacement s of the body upon which the force acts. It turns out
that this result is quite general, and does not just apply to gravitational forces.

Figure 36 is a visualization of the definition (5.14). The work W performed

by a force f when the object upon which it acts is subject to a displacement s is

W = |f| |s| cos θ. (5.15)

where θ is the angle subtended between the directions of f and s. In other words,
the work performed is the product of the magnitude of the force, |f|, and the
displacement of the object in the direction of that force, |s| cos θ. It follows that
any component of the displacement in a direction perpendicular to the force gen-
erates zero work. Moreover, if the displacement is entirely perpendicular to the
direction of the force (i.e., if θ = 90◦ ) then no work is performed, irrespective
of the nature of the force. As before, if the displacement has a component in
the same direction as the force (i.e., if θ < 90◦ ) then positive work is performed
Likewise, if the displacement has a component in the opposite direction to the
force (i.e., if θ > 90◦ ) then negative work is performed.

Suppose, now, that an object is subject to a force f which varies with position.
What is the total work done by the force when the object moves along some
general trajectory in space between points A and B (say)? See Fig. 37. Well,
one way in which we could approach this problem would be to approximate the
trajectory as a series of N straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 38. Suppose

84
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

|s|

θ
f
|f|

|s| cos θ

Figure 36: Definition of work

that the vector displacement of the ith segment is ∆ri . Suppose, further, that N is
sufficiently large that the force f does not vary much along each segment. In fact,
let the average force along the ith segment be fi . We shall assume that formula
(5.14)—which is valid for constant forces and straight-line displacements—holds
good for each segment. It follows that the net work done on the body, as it moves
from point A to point B, is approximately
N
X
W' fi ·∆ri . (5.16)
i=1

We can always improve the level of our approximation by increasing the number
N of the straight-line segments which we use to approximate the body’s trajectory
between points A and B. In fact, if we take the limit N → ∞ then the above
expression becomes exact:
N
X ZB
W = lim fi ·∆ri = f(r)·dr. (5.17)
N→∞ A
i=1

Here, r measures vector displacement

RB from the origin of our coordinate system,
and the mathematical construct A f(r)·dr is termed a line-integral.

The meaning of Eq. (5.17) becomes a lot clearer if we restrict our attention to
1-dimensional motion. Suppose, therefore, that an object moves in 1-dimension,
with displacement x, and is subject to a varying force f(x) (directed along the
x-axis). What is the work done by this force when the object moves from x A

85
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

A
Figure 37: Possible trajectory of an object in a variable force-field

A
Figure 38: Approximation to the previous trajectory using straight-line segments

86
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.3 Work

f ->
xA xB x ->

Figure 39: Work performed by a 1-dimensional force

to xB ? Well, a straight-forward application of Eq. (5.17) [with f = (f, 0, 0) and

dr = (dx, 0, 0)] yields Z xB
W= f(x) dx. (5.18)
xA
In other words, the net work done by the force as the object moves from displace-
ment xA to xB is simply the area under the f(x) curve between these two points,
as illustrated in Fig. 39.

Let us, finally, round-off this discussion by re-deriving the so-called work-
energy theorem, Eq. (5.14), in 1-dimension, allowing for a non-constant force.
According to Newton’s second law of motion,
d2 x
f=m . (5.19)
dt2
Combining Eqs. (5.18) and (5.19), we obtain
Z xB Z tB Z tB 
d2 x d2 x dx d  m dx 2 
! 
W= m 2 dx = m 2 dt = dt, (5.20)
xA dt tA dt dt tA dt 2 dt
where x(tA ) = xA and x(tB ) = xB . It follows that
1 1
W= m vB2 − m vA2 = ∆K, (5.21)
2 2
where vA = (dx/dt)tA and vB = (dx/dt)tB . Thus, the net work performed on a
body by a non-uniform force, as it moves from point A to point B, is equal to the

87
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.4 Conservative and non-conservative force-fields

net increase in that body’s kinetic energy between these two points. This result
is completely general (at least, for conservative force-fields—see later), and does
not just apply to 1-dimensional motion.

Suppose, finally, that an object is subject to more than one force. How do we
calculate the net work W performed by all these forces as the object moves from
point A to point B? One approach would be to calculate the work done by each
force, taken in isolation, and then to sum the results. In other words, defining
ZB
Wi = fi (r)·dr (5.22)
A

as the work done by the ith force, the net work is given by
X
W= Wi . (5.23)
i

An alternative approach would be to take the vector sum of all the forces to find
the resultant force, X
f= fi , (5.24)
i
and then to calculate the work done by the resultant force:
ZB
W = f(r)·dr. (5.25)
A

It should, hopefully, be clear that these two approaches are entirely equivalent.

5.4 Conservative and non-conservative force-fields

Suppose that a non-uniform force-field f(r) acts upon an object which moves
along a curved trajectory, labeled path 1, from point A to point B. See Fig. 40.
As we have seen, the work W1 performed by the force-field on the object can be
written as a line-integral along this trajectory:
Z
W1 = f·dr. (5.26)
A→B:path1

88
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.4 Conservative and non-conservative force-fields

Figure 40: Two alternative paths between points A and B

Suppose that the same object moves along a different trajectory, labeled path
2, between the same two points. In this case, the work W2 performed by the
force-field is Z
W2 = f·dr. (5.27)
A→B:path2

Basically, there are two possibilities. Firstly, the line-integrals (5.26) and (5.27)
might depend on the end points, A and B, but not on the path taken between
them, in which case W1 = W2 . Secondly, the line-integrals (5.26) and (5.27)
might depend both on the end points, A and B, and the path taken between
them, in which case W1 6= W2 (in general). The first possibility corresponds
to what physicists term a conservative force-field, whereas the second possibility
corresponds to a non-conservative force-field.

What is the physical distinction between a conservative and a non-conservative

force-field? Well, the easiest way of answering this question is to slightly modify
the problem discussed above. Suppose, now, that the object moves from point
A to point B along path 1, and then from point B back to point A along path 2.
What is the total work done on the object by the force-field as it executes this
closed circuit? Incidentally, one fact which should be clear from the definition of
a line-integral is that if we simply reverse the path of a given integral then the

89
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.4 Conservative and non-conservative force-fields

value of that integral picks up a minus sign: in other words,

ZB ZA
f·dr = − f·dr, (5.28)
A B

where it is understood that both the above integrals are taken in opposite direc-
tions along the same path. Recall that conventional 1-dimensional integrals obey
an analogous rule: i.e., if we swap the limits of integration then the integral picks
up a minus sign. It follows that the total work done on the object as it executes
the circuit is simply
∆W = W1 − W2 , (5.29)
where W1 and W2 are defined in Eqs. (5.26) and (5.27), respectively. There is a
minus sign in front of W2 because we are moving from point B to point A, instead
of the other way around. For the case of a conservative field, we have W1 = W2 .
Hence, we conclude that
∆W = 0. (5.30)
In other words, the net work done by a conservative field on an object taken
around a closed loop is zero. This is just another way of saying that a conservative
field stores energy without loss: i.e., if an object gives up a certain amount of
energy to a conservative field in traveling from point A to point B, then the field
returns this energy to the object—without loss—when it travels back to point B.
For the case of a non-conservative field, W1 6= W2 . Hence, we conclude that
∆W 6= 0. (5.31)
In other words, the net work done by a non-conservative field on an object taken
around a closed loop is non-zero. In practice, the net work is invariably negative.
This is just another way of saying that a non-conservative field dissipates energy:
i.e., if an object gives up a certain amount of energy to a non-conservative field
in traveling from point A to point B, then the field only returns part, or, perhaps,
none, of this energy to the object when it travels back to point B. The remainder
is usually dissipated as heat.

What are typical examples of conservative and non-conservative fields? Well,

a gravitational field is probably the most well-known example of a conservative
field (see later). A typical example of a non-conservative field might consist of

90
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.4 Conservative and non-conservative force-fields

f
i
∆ ri

Figure 41: Closed circuit over a rough horizontal surface

an object moving over a rough horizontal surface. Suppose, for the sake of sim-
plicity, that the object executes a closed circuit on the surface which is made up
entirely of straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 41. Let ∆ri represent the vec-
tor displacement of the ith leg of this circuit. Suppose that the frictional force
acting on the object as it executes this leg is fi . One thing that we know about a
frictional force is that it is always directed in the opposite direction to the instan-
taneous direction of motion of the object upon which it acts. Hence, f i ∝ −∆ri .
It follows that fi ·∆ri = −|fi | |∆ri |. Thus, the net work performed by the frictional
force on the object, as it executes the circuit, is given by
X X
∆W = fi ·∆ri = − |fi | |∆ri | < 0. (5.32)
i i

The fact that the net work is negative indicates that the frictional force continually
drains energy from the object as it moves over the surface. This energy is actu-
ally dissipated as heat (we all know that if we rub two rough surfaces together,
sufficiently vigorously, then they will eventually heat up: this is how mankind
first made fire) and is, therefore, lost to the system. (Generally speaking, the
laws of thermodynamics forbid energy which has been converted into heat from
being converted back to its original form.) Hence, friction is an example of a
non-conservative force, because it dissipates energy rather than storing it.

91
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.5 Potential energy

5.5 Potential energy

Consider a body moving in a conservative force-field f(r). Let us arbitrarily pick

some point O in this field. We can define a function U(r) which possesses a
unique value at every point in the field. The value of this function associated
with some general point R is simply
ZR
U(R) = − f·dr. (5.33)
O

In other words, U(R) is just the energy transferred to the field (i.e., minus the
work done by the field) when the body moves from point O to point R. Of
course, the value of U at point O is zero: i.e., U(O) = 0. Note that the above
definition uniquely specifies U(R), since the work done when a body moves be-
tween two points in a conservative force-field is independent of the path taken
between these points. Furthermore, the above definition would make no sense
in a non-conservative field, since the work done when a body moves between
two points in such a field is dependent on the chosen path: hence, U(R) would
have an infinite number of different values corresponding to the infinite number
of different paths the body could take between points O and R.

According to the work-energy theorem,

ZR
∆K = f·dr. (5.34)
O

In other words, the net change in the kinetic energy of the body, as it moves from
point O to point R, is equal to the work done on the body by the force-field during
this process. However, comparing with Eq. (5.33), we can see that

∆K = U(O) − U(R) = −∆U. (5.35)

In other words, the increase in the kinetic energy of the body, as it moves from
point O to point R, is equal to the decrease in the function U evaluated between
these same two points. Another way of putting this is

E = K + U = constant : (5.36)

92
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.6 Hooke’s law

i.e., the sum of the kinetic energy and the function U remains constant as the body
moves around in the force-field. It should be clear, by now, that the function U
represents some form of potential energy.

The above discussion leads to the following important conclusions. Firstly, it

should be possible to associate a potential energy (i.e., an energy a body pos-
sesses by virtue of its position) with any conservative force-field. Secondly, any
force-field for which we can define a potential energy must necessarily be con-
servative. For instance, the existence of gravitational potential energy is proof
that gravitational fields are conservative. Thirdly, the concept of potential en-
ergy is meaningless in a non-conservative force-field (since the potential energy
at a given point cannot be uniquely defined). Fourthly, potential energy is only
defined to within an arbitrary additive constant. In other words, the point in
space at which we set the potential energy to zero can be chosen at will. This im-
plies that only differences in potential energies between different points in space
have any physical significance. For instance, we have seen that the definition of
gravitational potential energy is U = m g z, where z represents height above the
ground. However, we could just as well write U = m g (z − z0 ), where z0 is the
height of some arbitrarily chosen reference point (e.g., the top of Mount Ever-
est, or the bottom of the Dead Sea). Fifthly, the difference in potential energy
between two points represents the net energy transferred to the associated force-
field when a body moves between these two points. In other words, potential
energy is not, strictly speaking, a property of the body—instead, it is a property
of the force-field within which the body moves.

5.6 Hooke’s law

Consider a mass m which slides over a horizontal frictionless surface. Suppose

that the mass is attached to a light horizontal spring whose other end is anchored
to an immovable object. See Fig. 42. Let x be the extension of the spring: i.e.,
the difference between the spring’s actual length and its unstretched length. Ob-
viously, x can also be used as a coordinate to determine the horizontal displace-
ment of the mass. According to Hooke’s law, the force f that the spring exerts on

93
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.6 Hooke’s law

x=0
Figure 42: Mass on a spring

the mass is directly proportional to its extension, and always acts to reduce this
extension. Hence, we can write

f = −k x, (5.37)

where the positive quantity k is called the force constant of the spring. Note that
the minus sign in the above equation ensures that the force always acts to reduce
the spring’s extension: e.g., if the extension is positive then the force acts to the
left, so as to shorten the spring.

According to Eq. (5.18), the work performed by the spring force on the mass
as it moves from displacement xA to xB is
Z xB Z xB
1 1
" #
2 2
W= f(x) dx = −k x dx = − k xB − k xA . (5.38)
xA xA 2 2
Note that the right-hand side of the above expression consists of the difference
between two factors: the first only depends on the final state of the mass, whereas
the second only depends on its initial state. This is a sure sign that it is possible
to associate a potential energy with the spring force. Equation (5.33), which is
the basic definition of potential energy, yields
Z xB
1 1
U(xB ) − U(xA ) = − f(x) dx = k xB2 − k xA2 . (5.39)
xA 2 2

94
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.6 Hooke’s law

Hence, the potential energy of the mass takes the form

1 2
U(x) = kx . (5.40)
2
Note that the above potential energy actually represents energy stored by the
spring—in the form of mechanical stresses—when it is either stretched or com-
pressed. Incidentally, this energy must be stored without loss, otherwise the con-
cept of potential energy would be meaningless. It follows that the spring force is
another example of a conservative force.

It is reasonable to suppose that the form of the spring potential energy is some-
how related to the form of the spring force. Let us now explicitly investigate this
relationship. If we let xB → x and xA → 0 then Eq. (5.39) gives
Zx
U(x) = − f(x 0 ) dx 0 . (5.41)
0

We can differentiate this expression to obtain

dU
f=− . (5.42)
dx
Thus, in 1-dimension, a conservative force is equal to minus the derivative (with
respect to displacement) of its associated potential energy. This is a quite general
result. For the case of a spring force: U = (1/2) k x2 , so f = −dU/dx = −k x.

As is easily demonstrated, the 3-dimensional equivalent to Eq. (5.42) is

∂U ∂U ∂U
!
f=− , , . (5.43)
∂x ∂y ∂z
For example, we have seen that the gravitational potential energy of a mass m
moving above the Earth’s surface is U = m g z, where z measures height off the
ground. It follows that the associated gravitational force is

f = (0, 0, −m g). (5.44)

In other words, the force is of magnitude m g, and is directed vertically down-

ward.

95
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.7 Motion in a general 1-dimensional potential

The total energy of the mass shown in Fig. 42 is the sum of its kinetic and
potential energies:
1
E = K + U = K + k x2 . (5.45)
2
Of course, E remains constant during the mass’s motion. Hence, the above ex-
pression can be rearranged to give
1 2
K=E− kx . (5.46)
2
Since it is impossible for a kinetic energy to be negative, the above expression
suggests that |x| can never exceed the value
v
u2 E
u
x0 = t
. (5.47)
k
Here, x0 is termed the amplitude of the mass’s motion. Note that when x attains its
maximum value x0 , or its minimum value −x0 , the kinetic energy is momentarily
zero (i.e., K = 0).

5.7 Motion in a general 1-dimensional potential

Suppose that the curve U(x) in Fig. 43 represents the potential energy of some
mass m moving in a 1-dimensional conservative force-field. For instance, U(x)
might represent the gravitational potential energy of a cyclist freewheeling in a
hilly region. Note that we have set the potential energy at infinity to zero. This is
a useful, and quite common, convention (recall that potential energy is undefined
to within an arbitrary additive constant). What can we deduce about the motion
of the mass in this potential?

Well, we know that the total energy, E—which is the sum of the kinetic energy,
K, and the potential energy, U—is a constant of the motion. Hence, we can write
K(x) = E − U(x). (5.48)
Now, we also know that a kinetic energy can never be negative, so the above
expression tells us that the motion of the mass is restricted to the region (or

96
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.7 Motion in a general 1-dimensional potential

E2

U ->
x ->
0
E1

E0

x0 x1 x2

Figure 43: General 1-dimensional potential

regions) in which the potential energy curve U(x) falls below the value E. This
idea is illustrated in Fig. 43. Suppose that the total energy of the system is E0 .
It is clear, from the figure, that the mass is trapped inside one or other of the
two dips in the potential—these dips are generally referred to as potential wells.
Suppose that we now raise the energy to E1 . In this case, the mass is free to enter
or leave each of the potential wells, but its motion is still bounded to some extent,
since it clearly cannot move off to infinity. Finally, let us raise the energy to E 2 .
Now the mass is unbounded: i.e., it can move off to infinity. In systems in which it
makes sense to adopt the convention that the potential energy at infinity is zero,
bounded systems are characterized by E < 0, whereas unbounded systems are
characterized by E > 0.

The above discussion suggests that the motion of a mass moving in a potential
generally becomes less bounded as the total energy E of the system increases.
Conversely, we would expect the motion to become more bounded as E decreases.
In fact, if the energy becomes sufficiently small, it appears likely that the system
will settle down in some equilibrium state in which the mass is stationary. Let us
try to identify any prospective equilibrium states in Fig. 43. If the mass remains
stationary then it must be subject to zero force (otherwise it would accelerate).
Hence, according to Eq. (5.42), an equilibrium state is characterized by
dU
= 0. (5.49)
dx
97
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.7 Motion in a general 1-dimensional potential

In other words, a equilibrium state corresponds to either a maximum or a min-

imum of the potential energy curve U(x). It can be seen that the U(x) curve
shown in Fig. 43 has three associated equilibrium states: these are located at
x = x0 , x = x1 , and x = x2 .

Let us now make a distinction between stable equilibrium points and unstable
equilibrium points. When the system is slightly perturbed from a stable equi-
librium point then the resultant force f should always be such as to attempt to
return the system to this point. In other words, if x = x0 is an equilibrium point,
then we require
df
<0 (5.50)
dx x0
for stability: i.e., if the system is perturbed to the right, so that x − x 0 > 0, then
the force must act to the left, so that f < 0, and vice versa. Likewise, if
df
>0 (5.51)
dx x0

then the equilibrium point x = x0 is unstable. It follows, from Eq. (5.42), that
stable equilibrium points are characterized by
d2 U
> 0. (5.52)
dx2
In other words, a stable equilibrium point corresponds to a minimum of the po-
tential energy curve U(x). Likewise, an unstable equilibrium point corresponds
to a maximum of the U(x) curve. Hence, we conclude that x = x0 and x = x2 are
stable equilibrium points, in Fig. 43, whereas x = x1 is an unstable equilibrium
point. Of course, this makes perfect sense if we think of U(x) as a gravitational
potential energy curve, in which case U is directly proportional to height. All we
are saying is that it is easy to confine a low energy mass at the bottom of a valley,
but very difficult to balance the same mass on the top of a hill (since any slight
perturbation to the mass will cause it to fall down the hill). Note, finally, that if
dU d2 U
= =0 (5.53)
dx dx2
at any point (or in any region) then we have what is known as a neutral equilib-
rium point. We can move the mass slightly off such a point and it will still remain

98
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium Neutral Equilibrium

U(x) ->
x ->

Figure 44: Different types of equilibrium

in equilibrium (i.e., it will neither attempt to return to its initial state, nor will
it continue to move). A neutral equilibrium point corresponds to a flat spot in a
U(x) curve. See Fig. 44.

5.8 Power

Suppose that an object moves in a general force-field f(r). We now know how to
calculate how much energy flows from the force-field to the object as it moves
along a given path between two points. Let us now consider the rate at which
this energy flows. If dW is the amount of work that the force-field performs on
the mass in a time interval dt then the rate of working is given by
dW
P= . (5.54)
dt
In other words, the rate of working—which is usually referred to as the power—is
simply the time derivative of the work performed. Incidentally, the mks unit of
power is called the watt (symbol W). In fact, 1 watt equals 1 kilogram meter-
squared per second-cubed, or 1 joule per second.

Suppose that the object displaces by dr in the time interval dt. By definition,
the amount of work done on the object during this time interval is given by
dW = f·dr. (5.55)
It follows from Eq. (5.54) that
P = f·v, (5.56)

99
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

where v = dr/dt is the object’s instantaneous velocity. Note that power can be
positive or negative, depending on the relative directions of the vectors f and v.
If these two vectors are mutually perpendicular then the power is zero. For the
case of 1-dimensional motion, the above expression reduces to

P = f v. (5.57)

In other words, in 1-dimension, power simply equals force times velocity.

Worked example 5.1: Bucket lifted from a well

Question: A man lifts a 30 kg bucket from a well whose depth is 150 m. Assuming
that the man lifts the bucket at a constant rate, how much work does he perform?

Answer: Let m be the mass of the bucket and h the depth of the well. The gravita-
tional force f 0 acting on the bucket is of magnitude m g and is directed vertically
downwards. Hence, f 0 = −m g (where upward is defined to be positive). The net
upward displacement of the bucket is h. Hence, the work W 0 performed by the
gravitational force is the product of the (constant) force and the displacement of
the bucket along the line of action of that force:

W 0 = f 0 h = −m g h.

Note that W 0 is negative, which implies that the gravitational field surrounding
the bucket gains energy as the bucket is lifted. In order to lift the bucket at a
constant rate, the man must exert a force f on the bucket which balances (and
very slightly exceeds) the force due to gravity. Hence, f = −f 0 . It follows that the
work W done by the man is

W = f h = m g h = 30 × 150 × 9.81 = 4.415 × 104 J.

Note that the work is positive, which implies that the man expends energy whilst
lifting the bucket. Of course, since W = −W 0 , the energy expended by the man
equals the energy gained by the gravitational field.

100
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

F
θ
chest
f dock

mg

Worked example 5.2: Dragging a treasure chest

Question: A pirate drags a 50 kg treasure chest over the rough surface of a dock
by exerting a constant force of 95 N acting at an angle of 15◦ above the horizon-
tal. The chest moves 6 m in a straight line, and the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the chest and the dock is 0.15. How much work does the pirate perform?
How much energy is dissipated as heat via friction? What is the final velocity of
the chest?

Answer: Referring to the diagram, the force F exerted by the pirate can be re-
solved into a horizontal component F cos θ and a vertical component F sin θ.
Since the chest only moves horizontally, the vertical component of F performs
zero work. The work W performed by the horizontal component is simply the
magnitude of this component times the horizontal distance x moved by the chest:
W = F cos θ x = 95 × cos 15◦ × 6 = 550.6 J.

The chest is subject to the following forces in the vertical direction: the down-
ward force m g due to gravity, the upward reaction force R due to the dock, and
the upward component F sin θ of the force exerted by the pirate. Since the chest
does not accelerate in the vertical direction, these forces must balance. Hence,
R = m g − F sin θ = 50 × 9.81 − 95 × sin 15◦ = 465.9 N.
The frictional force f is the product of the coefficient of kinetic friction µ k and the
normal reaction R, so
f = µk R = 0.15 × 465.9 = 69.89 N.

101
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

The work W 0 done by the frictional force is

W 0 = −f x = −69.89 × 6 = −419.3 J.

Note that there is a minus sign in front of the f because the displacement of
the chest is in the opposite direction to the frictional force. The fact that W 0 is
negative indicates a loss of energy by the chest: this energy is dissipated as heat
via friction. Hence, the dissipated energy is 419.3 J.

The final kinetic energy K of the chest (assuming that it is initially at rest)
is the difference between the work W done by the pirate and the energy −W 0
dissipated as heat. Hence,

K = W + W 0 = 550.6 − 419.3 = 131.3 J.

Since K = (1/2) m v2 , the final velocity of the chest is

v v
u2 K u2 × 131.3
u u
v= t
= t
= 2.29 m/s.
m 50

Worked example 5.3: Stretching a spring

Question: The force required to slowly stretch a spring varies from 0 N to 105 N
as the spring is extended by 13 cm from its unstressed length. What is the force
constant of the spring? What work is done in stretching the spring? Assume that
the spring obeys Hooke’s law.

Answer: The force f that the spring exerts on whatever is stretching it is f = −k x,

where k is the force constant, and x is the extension of the spring. The minus
sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite direction to the extension. Since
the spring is stretched slowly, the force f 0 which must be exerted on it is (almost)
equal and opposite to f. Hence, f 0 = −f = k x. We are told that f 0 = 105 N when
x = 0.13 m. It follows that
105
k= = 807.7 N/m.
0.13

102
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

B
h1
h2

The work W 0 done by the external force in extending the spring from 0 to x is
Zx Zx
1
W = f dx = k x dx = k x2 .
0 0
0 0 2
Hence,
W 0 = 0.5 × 807.7 × 0.132 = 6.83 J.

Worked example 5.4: Roller coaster ride

Question: A roller coaster cart of mass m = 300 kg starts at rest at point A, whose
height off the ground is h1 = 25 m, and a little while later reaches point B, whose
height off the ground is h2 = 7 m. What is the potential energy of the cart relative
to the ground at point A? What is the speed of the cart at point B, neglecting the
effect of friction?

Answer: The gravitational potential energy of the cart with respect to the ground
at point A is
UA = m g h1 = 300 × 9.81 × 25 = 7.36 × 104 J.
Likewise, the potential energy of the cart at point B is

UB = m g h2 = 300 × 9.81 × 7 = 2.06 × 104 J.

Hence, the change in the cart’s potential energy in moving from point A to point
B is
∆U = UB − UA = 2.06 × 104 − 7.36 × 104 = −5.30 × 104 J.

103
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

By energy conservation, ∆K = −∆U, where K represents kinetic energy. How-

ever, since the initial kinetic energy is zero, the change in kinetic energy ∆K is
equivalent to the final kinetic energy KB . Thus,

KB = −∆U = 5.30 × 104 J.

Now, KB = (1/2) m vB2 , where vB is the final speed. Hence,

v v
u 2 KB u2 × 5.30 × 104
u u
vB = t
= t
= 18.8 m/s.
m 300

Worked example 5.5: Sliding down a plane

Question: A block of mass m = 3 kg starts at rest at a height of h = 43 cm on a

plane that has an angle of inclination of θ = 35◦ with respect to the horizontal.
The block slides down the plane, and, upon reaching the bottom, then slides
along a horizontal surface. The coefficient of kinetic friction of the block on both
surfaces is µ = 0.25. How far does the block slide along the horizontal surface
before coming to rest?

Answer: The normal reaction of the plane to the block’s weight is

R = m g cos θ.

Hence, the frictional force acting on the block when it is sliding down the plane
is
f = µ R = 0.25 × 3 × 9.81 × cos 35◦ = 6.03 N.

The change in gravitational potential energy of the block as it slides down the
plane is
∆U = −m g h = −3 × 9.81 × 0.43 = −12.65 J.
The work W done on the block by the frictional force during this process is

W = −f x,

104
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

where x = h/ sin θ is the distance the block slides. The minus sign indicates that
f acts in the opposite direction to the displacement of the block. Hence,
6.03 × 0.43
W=− = −4.52 J.
sin 35◦
Now, by energy conservation, the kinetic energy K of the block at the bottom of
the plane equals the decrease in the block’s potential energy plus the amount of
work done on the block:
K = −∆U + W = 12.65 − 4.52 = 8.13 J.

The frictional force acting on the block when it slides over the horizontal sur-
face is
f 0 = µ m g = 0.25 × 3 × 9.81 = 7.36 N.
The work done on the block as it slides a distance y over this surface is
W 0 = −f 0 y.
By energy conservation, the block comes to rest when the action of the frictional
force has drained all of the kinetic energy from the block: i.e., when W 0 = −K. It
follows that
K 8.13
y= 0 = = 1.10 m.
f 7.36

Worked example 5.6: Driving up an incline

Question: A car of weight 3000 N possesses an engine whose maximum power

output is 160 kW. The maximum speed of this car on a level road is 35 m/s.
Assuming that the resistive force (due to a combination of friction and air re-
sistance) remains constant, what is the car’s maximum speed on an incline of 1
in 20 (i.e., if θ is the angle of the incline with respect to the horizontal, then
sin θ = 1/20)?

Answer: When the car is traveling on a level road at its maximum speed, v, then
all of the power output, P, of its engine is used to overcome the power dissipated
by the resistive force, f. Hence,
P = fv

105
5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 5.8 Power

f
m

where the left-hand side is the power output of the engine, and the right-hand
side is the power dissipated by the resistive force (i.e., minus the rate at which
this force does work on the car). It follows that
P 160 × 103
f= = = 4.57 × 103 N.
v 35

When the car, whose weight is W, is traveling up an incline, whose angle with
respect to the horizontal is θ, it is subject to the additional force f 0 = W sin θ,
which acts to impede its motion. Of course, this force is just the component of
the car’s weight acting down the incline. Thus, the new power balance equation
is written
P = f v 0 + W sin θ v 0 ,
where v 0 is the maximum velocity of the car up the incline. Here, the left-hand
side represents the power output of the car, whereas the right-hand side repre-
sents the sum of the power dissipated by the resistive force and the power ex-
pended to overcome the component of the car’s weight acting down the incline.
It follows that

0 P 160 × 103
v = = = 33.90 m/s.
f + W sin θ 4.57 × 103 + 3000/20

106
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

6 Conservation of momentum

6.1 Introduction

Up to now, we have only analyzed the behaviour of dynamical systems which

consist of single point masses (i.e., objects whose spatial extent is either negligi-
ble or plays no role in their motion) or arrangements of point masses which are
constrained to move together because they are connected via inextensible cables.
Let us now broaden our approach somewhat in order to take into account systems
of point masses which exert forces on one another, but are not necessarily con-
strained to move together. The classic example of such a multi-component point
mass system is one in which two (or more) freely moving masses collide with one
another. The physical concept which plays the central role in the dynamics of
multi-component point mass systems is the conservation of momentum.

6.2 Two-component systems

The simplest imaginable multi-component dynamical system consists of two point

mass objects which are both constrained to move along the same straight-line.
See Fig. 45. Let x1 be the displacement of the first object, whose mass is m1 .
Likewise, let x2 be the displacement of the second object, whose mass is m2 .
Suppose that the first object exerts a force f21 on the second object, whereas the
second object exerts a force f12 on the first. From Newton’s third law of motion,
we have
f12 = −f21 . (6.1)
Suppose, finally, that the first object is subject to an external force (i.e., a force
which originates outside the system) F1 , whilst the second object is subject to an
external force F2 .

Applying Newton’s second law of motion to each object in turn, we obtain

m1 ẍ1 = f12 + F1 , (6.2)
m2 ẍ2 = f21 + F2 . (6.3)

107
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.2 Two-component systems

Here, ˙ is a convenient shorthand for d/dt. Likewise, ¨ means d2 /dt2 .

At this point, it is helpful to introduce the concept of the centre of mass. The
centre of mass is an imaginary point whose displacement xcm is defined to be the
mass weighted average of the displacements of the two objects which constitute
the system. In other words,
m 1 x1 + m 2 x2
xcm = . (6.4)
m1 + m 2
Thus, if the two masses are equal then the centre of mass lies half way between
them; if the second mass is three times larger than the first then the centre of
mass lies three-quarters of the way along the line linking the first and second
masses, respectively; if the second mass is much larger than the first then the
centre of mass is almost coincident with the second mass; and so on.

Summing Eqs. (6.2) and (6.3), and then making use of Eqs. (6.1) and (6.4),
we obtain
m1 ẍ1 + m2 ẍ2 = (m1 + m2 ) ẍcm = F1 + F2 . (6.5)
Note that the internal forces, f12 and f21 , have canceled out. The physical signifi-
cance of this equation becomes clearer if we write it in the following form:

M ẍcm = F, (6.6)

where M = m1 + m2 is the total mass of the system, and F = F1 + F2 is the

net external force acting on the system. Thus, the motion of the centre of mass
is equivalent to that which would occur if all the mass contained in the system
were collected at the centre of mass, and this conglomerate mass were then acted
upon by the net external force. In general, this suggests that the motion of the
centre of mass is simpler than the motions of the component masses, m 1 and m2 .

m2
m1
F1 F2
f f
12 21
x1 x2 x

Figure 45: A 1-dimensional dynamical system consisting of two point mass objects

108
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.2 Two-component systems

This is particularly the case if the internal forces, f12 and f21 , are complicated in
nature.

Suppose that there are no external forces acting on the system (i.e., F 1 = F2 =
0), or, equivalently, suppose that the sum of all the external forces is zero (i.e.,
F = F1 + F2 = 0). In this case, according to Eq. (6.6), the motion of the centre
of mass is governed by Newton’s first law of motion: i.e., it consists of uniform
motion in a straight-line. Hence, in the absence of a net external force, the motion
of the centre of mass is almost certainly far simpler than that of the component
masses.

Now, the velocity of the centre of mass is written

m1 ẋ1 + m2 ẋ2
vcm = ẋcm = . (6.7)
m1 + m 2
We have seen that in the absence of external forces vcm is a constant of the motion
(i.e., the centre of mass does not accelerate). It follows that, in this case,

m1 ẋ1 + m2 ẋ2 (6.8)

is also a constant of the motion. Recall, however, from Sect. 4.3, that momentum
is defined as the product of mass and velocity. Hence, the momentum of the first
mass is written p1 = m1 ẋ1 , whereas the momentum of the second mass takes the
form p2 = m2 ẋ2 . It follows that the above expression corresponds to the total
momentum of the system:
P = p 1 + p2 . (6.9)
Thus, the total momentum is a conserved quantity—provided there is no net
external force acting on the system. This is true irrespective of the nature of the
internal forces. More generally, Eq. (6.6) can be written
dP
= F. (6.10)
dt
In other words, the time derivative of the total momentum is equal to the net
external force acting on the system—this is just Newton’s second law of motion
applied to the system as a whole.

109
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.2 Two-component systems

balloon

gondola

xg
x

cable
sandbag

xw

Figure 46: An example two-component system

Let us now try to apply some of the concepts discussed above. Consider the
simple two-component system shown in Fig. 46. A gondola of mass mg hangs
from a hot-air balloon whose mass is negligible compared to that of the gondola.
A sandbag of mass mw is suspended from the gondola by means of a light inex-
tensible cable. The system is in equilibrium. Suppose, for the sake of consistency
with our other examples, that the x-axis runs vertically upwards. Let xg be the
height of the gondola, and xw the height of the sandbag. Suppose that the upper
end of the cable is attached to a winch inside the gondola, and that this winch is
used to slowly shorten the cable, so that the sandbag is lifted upwards a distance
∆xw . The question is this: does the height of the gondola also change as the cable
is reeled in? If so, by how much?

Let us identify all of the forces acting on the system shown in Fig. 46. The
internal forces are the upward force exerted by the gondola on the sandbag, and
the downward force exerted by the sandbag on the gondola. These forces are
transmitted via the cable, and are equal and opposite (by Newton’s third law of
motion). The external forces are the net downward force due to the combined
weight of the gondola and the sandbag, and the upward force due to the buoy-
ancy of the balloon. Since the system is in equilibrium, these forces are equal
and opposite (it is assumed that the cable is reeled in sufficiently slowly that the

110
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.2 Two-component systems

cannon cannonball

vr vb

ground

Figure 47: Another example two-component system

equilibrium is not upset). Hence, there is zero net external force acting on the
system. It follows, from the previous discussion, that the centre of mass of the
system is subject to Newton’s first law. In particular, since the centre of mass is
clearly stationary before the winch is turned on, it must remain stationary both
during and after the period in which the winch is operated. Hence, the height of
the centre of mass,
m g xg + m w xw
xcm = , (6.11)
mg + m w
is a conserved quantity.

Suppose that the operation of the winch causes the height of the sandbag to
change by ∆xw , and that of the gondola to simultaneously change by ∆xg . If xcm
is a conserved quantity, then we must have

0 = mg ∆xg + mw ∆xw , (6.12)

or
mw
∆xg = − ∆xw . (6.13)
mg
Thus, if the winch is used to raise the sandbag a distance ∆xw then the gondola
is simultaneously pulled downwards a distance (mw /mg ) ∆xw . It is clear that we
could use a suspended sandbag as a mechanism for adjusting a hot-air balloon’s
altitude: the balloon descends as the sandbag is raised, and ascends as it is low-
ered.

Our next example is pictured in Fig. 47. Suppose that a cannon of mass M
propels a cannonball of mass m horizontally with velocity v b . What is the recoil

111
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.3 Multi-component systems

velocity vr of the cannon? Let us first identify all of the forces acting on the sys-
tem. The internal forces are the force exerted by the cannon on the cannonball,
as the cannon is fired, and the equal and opposite force exerted by the cannon-
ball on the cannon. These forces are extremely large, but only last for a short
instance in time: in physics, we call these impulsive forces. There are no external
forces acting in the horizontal direction (which is the only direction that we are
considering in this example). It follows that the total (horizontal) momentum
P of the system is a conserved quantity. Prior to the firing of the cannon, the
total momentum is zero (since momentum is mass times velocity, and nothing is
initially moving). After the cannon is fired, the total momentum of the system
takes the form
P = m v b + M vr . (6.14)
Since P is a conserved quantity, we can set P = 0. Hence,
m
vr = − vb . (6.15)
M
Thus, the recoil velocity of the cannon is in the opposite direction to the velocity
of the cannonball (hence, the minus sign in the above equation), and is of magni-
tude (m/M) vb . Of course, if the cannon is far more massive that the cannonball
(i.e., M  m), which is usually the case, then the recoil velocity of the cannon is
far smaller in magnitude than the velocity of the cannonball. Note, however, that
the momentum of the cannon is equal in magnitude to that of the cannonball.
It follows that it takes the same effort (i.e., force applied for a certain period of
time) to slow down and stop the cannon as it does to slow down and stop the
cannonball.

6.3 Multi-component systems

Consider a system of N mutually interacting point mass objects which move in

3-dimensions. See Fig. 48. Let the ith object, whose mass is mi , be located at
vector displacement ri . Suppose that this object exerts a force fji on the jth object.
By Newton’s third law of motion, the force fij exerted by the jth object on the ith
is given by
fij = −fji . (6.16)

112
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.3 Multi-component systems

f Fi
ij

mi

ri Fj

mj

rj f
ji

Figure 48: A 3-dimensional dynamical system consisting of many point mass objects.

Finally, suppose that the ith object is subject to an external force F i .

Newton’s second law of motion applied to the ith object yields

j6=i
X
mi r̈i = fij + Fi . (6.17)
j=1,N

Note that the summation on the right-hand side of the above equation excludes
the case j = i, since the ith object cannot exert a force on itself. Let us now take
the above equation and sum it over all objects. We obtain
X j6=i
X X
mi r̈i = fij + Fi . (6.18)
i=1,N i,j=1,N i=1,N

Consider the sum over all internal forces: i.e., the first term on the right-hand
side. Each element of this sum—fij , say—can be paired with another element—
fji , in this case—which is equal and opposite. In other words, the elements of the
sum all cancel out in pairs. Thus, the net value of the sum is zero. It follows that
the above equation can be written

M r̈cm = F, (6.19)

113
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.3 Multi-component systems

P PN
where M = N i=1 m i is the total mass, and F = i=1 Fi is the net external force.
The quantity rcm is the vector displacement of the centre of mass. As before, the
centre of mass is an imaginary point whose coordinates are the mass weighted
averages of the coordinates of the objects which constitute the system. Thus,
PN
mi ri
rcm = Pi=1N . (6.20)
i=1 m i

According to Eq. (6.19), the motion of the centre of mass is equivalent to that
which would be obtained if all the mass contained in the system were collected
at the centre of mass, and this conglomerate mass were then acted upon by the
net external force. As before, the motion of the centre of mass is likely to be far
simpler than the motions of the component masses.

Suppose that there is zero net external force acting on the system, so that
F = 0. In this case, Eq. (6.19) implies that the centre of mass moves with uniform
velocity in a straight-line. In other words, the velocity of the centre of mass,
PN
mi ṙi
ṙcm = Pi=1
N , (6.21)
i=1 m i

is a constant of the motion. Now, the momentum of the ith object takes the form
pi = mi ṙi . Hence, the total momentum of the system is written
N
X
P= mi ṙi . (6.22)
i=1

A comparison of Eqs. (6.21) and (6.22) suggests that P is also a constant of the
motion when zero net external force acts on the system. Finally, Eq. (6.19) can
be rewritten
dP
= F. (6.23)
dt
In other words, the time derivative of the total momentum is equal to the net
external force acting on the system.

It is clear, from the above discussion, that most of the important results ob-
tained in the previous section, for the case of a two-component system moving in
1-dimension, also apply to a multi-component system moving in 3-dimensions.

114
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.4 Rocket science

fragments of Krypton

Krypton
explosion

trajectory of centre of mass

Figure 49: The unfortunate history of the planet Krypton.

As an illustration of the points raised in the above discussion, let us con-

sider the unfortunate history of the planet Krypton. As you probably all know,
Krypton—Superman’s home planet—eventually exploded. Note, however, that
before, during, and after this explosion the net external force acting on Krypton,
or the fragments of Krypton—namely, the gravitational attraction to Krypton’s
sun—remained the same. In other words, the forces responsible for the explo-
sion can be thought of as large, transitory, internal forces. We conclude that the
motion of the centre of mass of Krypton, or the fragments of Krypton, was un-
affected by the explosion. This follows, from Eq. (6.19), since the motion of the
centre of mass is independent of internal forces. Before the explosion, the planet
Krypton presumably executed a standard elliptical orbit around Krypton’s sun.
We conclude that, after the explosion, the fragments of Krypton (or, to be more
exact, the centre of mass of these fragments) continued to execute exactly the
same orbit. See Fig. 49.

6.4 Rocket science

A rocket engine is the only type of propulsion device that operates effectively in
outer space. As shown in Fig. 50, a rocket works by ejecting a propellant at high
velocity from its rear end. The rocket exerts a backward force on the propellant,
in order to eject it, and, by Newton’s third law, the propellant exerts an equal and
opposite force on the rocket, which propels it forward.

115
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.4 Rocket science

rocket

propellant

Figure 50: A rocket.

t t+dt

v M+m M+m+dm v+dv

-dm v-u

Figure 51: Derivation of the rocket equation.

Let us attempt to find the equation of motion of a rocket. Let M be the fixed
mass of the rocket engine and the payload, and m(t) the total mass of the pro-
pellant contained in the rocket’s fuel tanks at time t. Suppose that the rocket
engine ejects the propellant at some fixed velocity u relative to the rocket. Let
us examine the rocket at two closely spaced instances in time. Suppose that at
time t the rocket and propellant, whose total mass is M + m, are traveling with
instantaneous velocity v. Suppose, further, that between times t and t + dt the
rocket ejects a quantity of propellant of mass −dm (n.b., dm is understood to
be negative, so this represents a positive mass) which travels with velocity v − u
(i.e., velocity −u in the instantaneous rest frame of the rocket). As a result of the
fuel ejection, the velocity of the rocket at time t + dt is boosted to v + dv, and its
total mass becomes M + m + dm. See Fig. 51.

Now, there is zero external force acting on the system, since the rocket is

116
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.4 Rocket science

assumed to be in outer space. It follows that the total momentum of the system is
a constant of the motion. Hence, we can equate the momenta evaluated at times
t and t + dt:

(M + m) v = (M + m + dm) (v + dv) + (−dm) (v − u). (6.24)

Neglecting second order quantities (i.e., dm dv), the above expression yields

0 = (M + m) dv + u dm. (6.25)

Rearranging, we obtain
dv dm
=− . (6.26)
u M+m
Let us integrate the above equation between an initial time at which the rocket
is fully fueled—i.e., m = mp , where mp is the maximum mass of propellant that
the rocket can carry—but stationary, and a final time at which the mass of the
fuel is m and the velocity of the rocket is v. Hence,
Zv Zm
dv dm
=− . (6.27)
0 u mp M + m

It follows that #v=v

v
"
= − [ln(M + m)]m=m
m=mp , (6.28)
u v=0
which yields
M + mp
!
v = u ln . (6.29)
M+m
The final velocity of the rocket (i.e., the velocity attained by the time the rocket
has exhausted its fuel, so that m = 0) is
mp
!
vf = u ln 1 + . (6.30)
M
Note that, unless the initial mass of the fuel exceeds the fixed mass of the rocket
by many orders of magnitude (which is highly unlikely), the final velocity v f of
the rocket is similar to the velocity u with which fuel is ejected from the rear
of the rocket in its instantaneous rest frame. This follows because ln x ∼ O(1),
unless x becomes extremely large.

117
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.5 Impulses

Let us now consider the factors which might influence the design of a rocket
for use in interplanetary or interstellar travel. Since the distances involved in
such travel are vast, it is important that the rocket’s final velocity be made as
large as possible, otherwise the journey is going to take an unacceptably long
time. However, as we have just seen, the factor which essentially determines the
final velocity vf of a rocket is the speed of ejection u of the propellant relative to
the rocket. Broadly speaking, vf can never significantly exceed u. It follows that
a rocket suitable for interplanetary or interstellar travel should have as high an
ejection speed as practically possible. Now, ordinary chemical rockets (the kind
which powered the Apollo moon program) can develop enormous thrusts, but
are limited to ejection velocities below about 5000 m/s. Such rockets are ideal
for lifting payloads out of the Earth’s gravitational field, but their relatively low
ejection velocities render them unsuitable for long distance space travel. A new
type of rocket engine, called an ion thruster, is currently under development:
ion thrusters operate by accelerating ions electrostatically to great velocities, and
then ejecting them. Although ion thrusters only generate very small thrusts, com-
pared to chemical rockets, their much larger ejection velocities (up to 100 times
those of chemical rockets) makes them far more suitable for interplanetary or
interstellar space travel. The first spacecraft to employ an ion thruster was the
Deep Space 1 probe, which was launched from Cape Canaveral on October 24,
1998: this probe successfully encountered the asteroid 9969 Braille in July, 1999.

6.5 Impulses

Suppose that a ball of mass m and speed ui strikes an immovable wall normally
and rebounds with speed uf . See Fig. 52. Clearly, the momentum of the ball is
changed by the collision with the wall, since the direction of the ball’s velocity
is reversed. It follows that the wall must exert a force on the ball, since force is
the rate of change of momentum. This force is generally very large, but is only
exerted for the short instance in time during which the ball is in physical contact
with the wall. As we have already mentioned, physicists generally refer to such a
force as an impulsive force.

118
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.5 Impulses

wall

after

uf

m
ui
before

+ve

Figure 52: A ball bouncing off a wall.

f

t1 t2
t
Figure 53: An impulsive force.

119
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.5 Impulses

Figure 53 shows the typical time history of an impulsive force, f(t). It can be
seen that the force is only non-zero in the short time interval t 1 to t2 . It is helpful
to define a quantity known as the net impulse, I, associated with f(t):
Z t2
I= f(t) dt. (6.31)
t1

In other words, I is the total area under the f(t) curve shown in Fig. 53.

Consider a object subject to the impulsive force pictured in Fig. 53. Newton’s
second law of motion yields
dp
= f, (6.32)
dt
where p is the momentum of the object. Integrating the above equation, making
use of the definition (6.31), we obtain
∆p = I. (6.33)
Here, ∆p = pf − pi , where pi is the momentum before the impulse, and pf is the
momentum after the impulse. We conclude that the net change in momentum
of an object subject to an impulsive force is equal to the total impulse associated
with that force. For instance, the net change in momentum of the ball bouncing
off the wall in Fig. 52 is ∆p = m uf − m (−ui ) = m (uf + ui ). [Note: The initial
velocity is −ui , since the ball is initially moving in the negative direction.] It
follows that the net impulse imparted to the ball by the wall is I = m (u f + ui ).
Suppose that we know the ball was only in physical contact with the wall for the
short time interval ∆t. We conclude that the average force f̄ exerted on the ball
during this time interval was
I
f̄ = . (6.34)
∆t
The above discussion is only relevant to 1-dimensional motion. However, the
generalization to 3-dimensional motion is fairly straightforward. Consider an
impulsive force f(t), which is only non-zero in the short time interval t 1 to t2 .
The vector impulse associated with this force is simply
Z t2
I= f(t) dt. (6.35)
t1

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6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

m m2
1
vi1 vi2
before

m1 m
2
vf1 vf 2
after

Figure 54: A collision in 1-dimension.

The net change in momentum of an object subject to f(t) is

∆p = I. (6.36)
Finally, if t2 − t1 = ∆t, then the average force experienced by the object in the
time interval t1 to t2 is
I
f̄ = . (6.37)
∆t

6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

Consider two objects of mass m1 and m2 , respectively, which are free to move
in 1-dimension. Suppose that these two objects collide. Suppose, further, that
both objects are subject to zero net force when they are not in contact with one
another. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 54.

Both before and after the collision, the two objects move with constant velocity.
Let vi1 and vi2 be the velocities of the first and second objects, respectively, before
the collision. Likewise, let vf1 and vf2 be the velocities of the first and second
objects, respectively, after the collision. During the collision itself, the first object
exerts a large transitory force f21 on the second, whereas the second object exerts
an equal and opposite force f12 = −f21 on the first. In fact, we can model the
collision as equal and opposite impulses given to the two objects at the instant in
time when they come together.

We are clearly considering a system in which there is zero net external force
(the forces associated with the collision are internal in nature). Hence, the total

121
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

momentum of the system is a conserved quantity. Equating the total momenta

before and after the collision, we obtain

m1 vi1 + m2 vi2 = m1 vf1 + m2 vf2 . (6.38)

This equation is valid for any 1-dimensional collision, irrespective its nature. Note
that, assuming we know the masses of the colliding objects, the above equation
only fully describes the collision if we are given the initial velocities of both ob-
jects, and the final velocity of at least one of the objects. (Alternatively, we could
be given both final velocities and only one of the initial velocities.)

There are many different types of collision. An elastic collision is one in which
the total kinetic energy of the two colliding objects is the same before and after
the collision. Thus, for an elastic collision we can write
1 1 1 1
m1 vi12 + m2 vi22 = m1 vf1
2 2
+ m2 vf2 , (6.39)
2 2 2 2
in addition to Eq. (6.38). Hence, in this case, the collision is fully specified once
we are given the two initial velocities of the colliding objects. (Alternatively, we
could be given the two final velocities.)

The majority of collisions occurring in real life are not elastic in nature. Some
fraction of the initial kinetic energy of the colliding objects is usually converted
into some other form of energy—generally heat energy, or energy associated with
the mechanical deformation of the objects—during the collision. Such collisions
are termed inelastic. For instance, a large fraction of the initial kinetic energy of
a typical automobile accident is converted into mechanical energy of deformation
of the two vehicles. Inelastic collisions also occur during squash/racquetball/handball
games: in each case, the ball becomes warm to the touch after a long game,
because some fraction of the ball’s kinetic energy of collision with the walls of
the court has been converted into heat energy. Equation (6.38) remains valid
for inelastic collisions—however, Eq. (6.39) is invalid. Thus, generally speak-
ing, an inelastic collision is only fully characterized when we are given the initial
velocities of both objects, and the final velocity of at least one of the objects.
There is, however, a special case of an inelastic collision—called a totally inelastic
collision—which is fully characterized once we are given the initial velocities of

122
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

the colliding objects. In a totally inelastic collision, the two objects stick together
after the collision, so that vf1 = vf2 .

Let us, now, consider elastic collisions in more detail. Suppose that we trans-
form to a frame of reference which co-moves with the centre of mass of the
system. The motion of a multi-component system often looks particularly simple
when viewed in such a frame. Since the system is subject to zero net external
force, the velocity of the centre of mass is invariant, and is given by
m1 vi1 + m2 vi2 m1 vf1 + m2 vf2
vcm = = . (6.40)
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
An object which possesses a velocity v in our original frame of reference—henceforth,
termed the laboratory frame—possesses a velocity v 0 = v − vcm in the centre of
mass frame. It is easily demonstrated that
0 m2
vi1 = − (vi2 − vi1 ), (6.41)
m1 + m 2
0 m1
vi2 = + (vi2 − vi1 ), (6.42)
m1 + m 2
0 m2
vf1 = − (vf2 − vf1 ), (6.43)
m1 + m 2
0 m1
vf2 = + (vf2 − vf1 ). (6.44)
m1 + m 2

The above equations yield

0 0
− pi1 = pi2 = µ (vi2 − vi1 ), (6.45)
0 0
−pf1 = pf2 = µ (vf2 − vf1 ), (6.46)
0 0
where µ = m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 ) is the so-called reduced mass, and pi1 = m1 vi1
is the initial momentum of the first object in the centre of mass frame, etc. In
other words, when viewed in the centre of mass frame, the two objects approach
one another with equal and opposite momenta before the collision, and diverge
from one another with equal and opposite momenta after the collision. Thus, the
centre of mass momentum conservation equation,
0 0 0 0
pi1 + pi2 = pf1 + pf2 , (6.47)

123
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

is trivially satisfied, because both the left- and right-hand sides are zero. Inciden-
tally, this result is valid for both elastic and inelastic collisions.

The centre of mass kinetic energy conservation equation takes the form
0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2
pi1 pi2 pf1 pf2
+ = + . (6.48)
2 m1 2 m2 2 m1 2 m2
Note, incidentally, that if energy and momentum are conserved in the laboratory
frame then they must also be conserved in the centre of mass frame. A compari-
son of Eqs. (6.45), (6.46), and (6.48) yields
(vi2 − vi1 ) = −(vf2 − vf1 ). (6.49)
In other words, the relative velocities of the colliding objects are equal and opposite
before and after the collision. This is true in all frames of reference, since relative
velocities are frame invariant. Note, however, that this result only applies to fully
elastic collisions.

Equations (6.38) and (6.49) can be combined to give the following pair of
equations which fully specify the final velocities (in the laboratory frame) of two
objects which collide elastically, given their initial velocities:
(m1 − m2 ) 2 m2
vf1 = vi1 + vi2 , (6.50)
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
2 m1 (m1 − m2 )
vf2 = vi1 − vi2 . (6.51)
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2

Let us, now, consider some special cases. Suppose that two equal mass objects
collide elastically. If m1 = m2 then Eqs. (6.50) and (6.51) yield
vf1 = vi2 , (6.52)
vf2 = vi1 . (6.53)
In other words, the two objects simply exchange velocities when they collide. For
instance, if the second object is stationary and the first object strikes it head-on
with velocity v then the first object is brought to a halt whereas the second object
moves off with velocity v. It is possible to reproduce this effect in pool by striking

124
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

the cue ball with great force in such a manner that it slides, rather that rolls, over
the table—in this case, when the cue ball strikes another ball head-on it comes to
a complete halt, and the other ball is propelled forward very rapidly. Incidentally,
it is necessary to prevent the cue ball from rolling, because rolling motion is not
taken into account in our analysis, and actually changes the answer.

Suppose that the second object is much more massive than the first (i.e., m 2 
m1 ) and is initially at rest (i.e., vi2 = 0). In this case, Eqs. (6.50) and (6.51) yield
vf1 ' −vi1 , (6.54)
vf2 ' 0. (6.55)
In other words, the velocity of the light object is effectively reversed during the
collision, whereas the massive object remains approximately at rest. Indeed, this
is the sort of behaviour we expect when an object collides elastically with an
immovable obstacle: e.g., when an elastic ball bounces off a brick wall.

Suppose, finally, that the second object is much lighter than the first (i.e.,
m2  m1 ) and is initially at rest (i.e., vi2 = 0). In this case, Eqs. (6.50) and
(6.51) yield
vf1 ' vi1 , (6.56)
vf2 ' 2 vi1 . (6.57)
In other words, the motion of the massive object is essentially unaffected by the
collision, whereas the light object ends up going twice as fast as the massive one.

Let us, now, consider totally inelastic collisions in more detail. In a totally
inelastic collision the two objects stick together after colliding, so they end up
moving with the same final velocity vf = vf1 = vf2 . In this case, Eq. (6.38)
reduces to
m1 vi1 + m2 vi2
vf = = vcm . (6.58)
m1 + m 2
In other words, the common final velocity of the two objects is equal to the centre
of mass velocity of the system. This is hardly a surprising result. We have already
seen that in the centre of mass frame the two objects must diverge with equal and
opposite momenta after the collision. However, in a totally inelastic collision these

125
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.6 Collisions in 1-dimension

y vf2

m2

m1 θ2
x
vi1 m2
θ1

m1

vf1

Figure 55: A collision in 2-dimensions.

two momenta must also be equal (since the two objects stick together). The only
way in which this is possible is if the two objects remain stationary in the centre
of mass frame after the collision. Hence, the two objects move with the centre of
mass velocity in the laboratory frame.

Suppose that the second object is initially at rest (i.e., vi2 = 0). In this special
case, the common final velocity of the two objects is
m1
vf = vi1 . (6.59)
m1 + m 2
Note that the first object is slowed down by the collision. The fractional loss in
kinetic energy of the system due to the collision is given by
Ki − K f m1 vi12 − (m1 + m2 ) vf2 m2
f= = = . (6.60)
Ki m1 vi12 m1 + m 2
The loss in kinetic energy is small if the (initially) stationary object is much lighter
than the moving object (i.e., if m2  m1 ), and almost 100% if the moving object
is much lighter than the stationary one (i.e., if m2  m1 ). Of course, the lost
kinetic energy of the system is converted into some other form of energy: e.g.,
heat energy.

126
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

Suppose that an object of mass m1 , moving with initial speed vi1 , strikes a second
object, of mass m2 , which is initially at rest. Suppose, further, that the collision
is not head-on, so that after the collision the first object moves off at an angle
θ1 to its initial direction of motion, whereas the second object moves off at an
angle θ2 to this direction. Let the final speeds of the two objects be vf1 and vf2 ,
respectively. See Fig. 55.

We are again considering a system in which there is zero net external force
(the forces associated with the collision are internal in nature). It follows that the
total momentum of the system is a conserved quantity. However, unlike before,
we must now treat the total momentum as a vector quantity, since we are no
longer dealing with 1-dimensional motion. Note that if the collision takes place
wholly within the x-y plane, as indicated in Fig. 55, then it is sufficient to equate
the x- and y- components of the total momentum before and after the collision.

Consider the x-component of the system’s total momentum. Before the colli-
sion, the total x-momentum is simply m1 vi1 , since the second object is initially
stationary, and the first object is initially moving along the x-axis with speed
vi1 . After the collision, the x-momentum of the first object is m1 vf1 cos θ1 : i.e.,
m1 times the x-component of the first object’s final velocity. Likewise, the final x-
momentum of the second object is m2 vf2 cos θ2 . Hence, momentum conservation
in the x-direction yields

m1 vi1 = m1 vf1 cos θ1 + m2 vf2 cos θ2 . (6.61)

Consider the y-component of the system’s total momentum. Before the colli-
sion, the total y-momentum is zero, since there is initially no motion along the
y-axis. After the collision, the y-momentum of the first object is −m1 vf1 sin θ1 :
i.e., m1 times the y-component of the first object’s final velocity. Likewise, the
final y-momentum of the second object is m2 vf2 sin θ2 . Hence, momentum con-
servation in the y-direction yields

m1 vf1 sin θ1 = m2 vf2 sin θ2 . (6.62)

127
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

m + m2
1
m1 vf
vi1
θf x
θi

vi2

m2

Figure 56: A totally inelastic collision in 2-dimensions.

For the special case of an elastic collision, we can equate the total kinetic ener-
gies of the two objects before and after the collision. Hence, we obtain
1 1 1
m1 vi12 = m1 vf1
2 2
+ m2 vf2 . (6.63)
2 2 2
Given the initial conditions (i.e., m1 , m2 , and vi1 ), we have a system of three
equations [i.e., Eqs. (6.61), (6.62), and (6.63)] and four unknowns (i.e., θ1 , θ2 ,
vf1 , and vf2 ). Clearly, we cannot uniquely solve such a system without being given
additional information: e.g., the direction of motion or speed of one of the objects
after the collision.

Figure 56 shows a 2-dimensional totally inelastic collision. In this case, the

first object, mass m1 , initially moves along the x-axis with speed vi1 . On the other
hand, the second object, mass m2 , initially moves at an angle θi to the x-axis with
speed vi2 . After the collision, the two objects stick together and move off at an
angle θf to the x-axis with speed vf . Momentum conservation along the x-axis
yields
m1 vi1 + m2 vi2 cos θi = (m1 + m2 ) vf cos θf . (6.64)
Likewise, momentum conservation along the y-axis gives
m2 vi2 sin θi = (m1 + m2 ) vf sin θf . (6.65)
Given the initial conditions (i.e., m1 , m2 , vi1 , vi2 , and θi ), we have a system of

128
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

two equations [i.e., Eqs. (6.64) and (6.65)] and two unknowns (i.e., vf and θf ).
Clearly, we should be able to find a unique solution for such a system.

Worked example 6.1: Cannon in a railway carriage

Question: A cannon is bolted to the floor of a railway carriage, which is free to

move without friction along a straight track. The combined mass of the cannon
and the carriage is M = 1200 kg. The cannon fires a cannonball, of mass m =
1.2 kg, horizontally with velocity v = 115 m/s. The cannonball travels the length
of the carriage, a distance L = 85 m, and then becomes embedded in the carriage’s
end wall. What is the recoil speed of the carriage right after the cannon is fired?
What is the velocity of the carriage after the cannonball strikes the far wall? What
net distance, and in what direction, does the carriage move as a result of the firing
of the cannon?

M L
v
m

Answer: Conservation of momentum implies that the net horizontal momentum

of the system is the same before and after the cannon is fired. The momentum
before the cannon is fired is zero, since nothing is initially moving. Hence, we
can also set the momentum after the cannon is fired to zero, giving

0 = M u + m v,

where u is the recoil velocity of the carriage. It follows that

m 1.2 × 115
u=− v=− = −0.115 m/s.
M 1200
The minus sign indicates that the recoil velocity of the carriage is in the opposite
direction to the direction of motion of the cannonball. Hence, the recoil speed of
the carriage is |u| = 0.115 m/s.

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6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

Suppose that, after the cannonball strikes the far wall of the carriage, both
the cannonball and the carriage move with common velocity w. Conservation of
momentum implies that the net horizontal momentum of the system is the same
before and after the collision. Hence, we can write

M u + m v = (M + m) w.

However, we have already seen that M u + m v = 0. It follows that w = 0:

in other words, the carriage is brought to a complete halt when the cannonball
strikes its far wall.

In the frame of reference of the carriage, the cannonball moves with velocity
v − u after the cannon is fired. Hence, the time of flight of the cannonball is
L 85
t= = = 0.738 s.
v − u 115 + 0.115
The distance moved by the carriage in this time interval is

d = u t = −0.115 × 0.738 = −0.0849 m.

Thus, the carriage moves 8.49 cm in the opposite direction to the direction of
motion of the cannonball.

Worked example 6.2: Hitting a softball

Question: A softball of mass m = 0.35 kg is pitched at a speed of u = 12 m/s. The

batter hits the ball directly back to the pitcher at a speed of v = 21 m/s. The bat
acts on the ball for t = 0.01 s. What impulse is imparted by the bat to the ball?
What average force is exerted by the bat on the ball?

Answer: The initial momentum of the softball is −m u, whereas its final mo-
mentum is m v. Here, the final direction of motion of the softball is taken to be
positive. Thus, the net change in momentum of the softball due to its collision
with the bat is

∆p = m v − (−) m u = 0.35 × (21 + 12) = 11.55 N s.

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6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

By definition, the net momentum change is equal to the impulse imparted by the
bat, so
I = ∆p = 11.55 N s.

The average force exerted by the bat on the ball is simply the net impulse
divided by the time interval over which the ball is in contact with the bat. Hence,
I 11.55
f̄ = = = 1155.0 N.
t 0.01

Worked example 6.3: Skater and medicine ball

Question: A skater of mass M = 120 kg is skating across a pond with uniform

velocity v = 8 m/s. One of the skater’s friends, who is standing at the edge of
the pond, throws a medicine ball of mass m = 20 kg with velocity u = 3 m/s to
the skater, who catches it. The direction of motion of the ball is perpendicular
to the initial direction of motion of the skater. What is the final speed of the
skater? What is the final direction of motion of the skater relative to his/her
initial direction of motion? Assume that the skater moves without friction.
p
3 p
y θ 2
p
1

x
Answer: Suppose that the skater is initially moving along the x-axis, whereas the
initial direction of motion of the medicine ball is along the y-axis. The skater’s
initial momentum is

p1 = (M v, 0) = (120 × 8, 0) = (960, 0) N s.

Likewise, the initial momentum of the medicine ball is

p2 = (0, m u) = (0, 20 × 3) = (0, 60) N s.

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6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

After the skater catches the ball, the combined momentum of the skater and the
ball is
p3 = p1 + p2 = (960, 60) N s.
This follows from momentum conservation. The final speed of the skater (and
the ball) is √
|p 3 | 9602 + 602
v0 = = = 6.87 m/s.
M+m 120 + 20
The final direction of motion of the skater is parameterized by the angle θ (see
the above diagram), where
 
−1  |p2 |  60
!
−1
θ = tan = tan = 3.58◦ .
|p1 | 960

Worked example 6.4: Bullet and block

Question: A bullet of mass m = 12 g strikes a stationary wooden block of mass

M = 5.2 kg standing on a frictionless surface. The block, with the bullet embed-
ded in it, acquires a velocity of v = 1.7 m/s. What was the velocity of the bullet
before it struck the block? What fraction of the bullet’s initial kinetic energy is
lost (i.e., dissipated) due to the collision with the block?

Answer: Let u be the initial velocity of the bullet. Momentum conservation re-
quires the total horizontal momentum of the system to be the same before and
after the bullet strikes the block. The initial momentum of the system is simply
m u, since the block is initially at rest. The final momentum is (M + m) v, since
both the block and the bullet end up moving with velocity v. Hence,
m u = (M + m) v,
giving
M+m (0.012 + 5.2) × 1.7
u= v= = 738.4 m/s.
m 0.012
The initial kinetic energy of the bullet is
1
Ki = m u2 = 0.5 × 0.012 × 738.42 = 3.2714 kJ.
2
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6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

The final kinetic energy of the system is

1
Kf = (M + m) v2 = 0.5 × (0.012 + 5.2) × 1.72 = 7.53 J.
2
Hence, the fraction of the initial kinetic energy which is dissipated is
Ki − K f 3.2714 × 103 − 7.53
f= = = 0.9977.
Ki 3.2714 × 103

Worked example 6.5: Elastic collision

Question: An object of mass m1 = 2 kg, moving with velocity vi1 = 12 m/s, col-
lides head-on with a stationary object whose mass is m2 = 6 kg. Given that the
collision is elastic, what are the final velocities of the two objects. Neglect friction.

Answer: Momentum conservation yields

m1 vi1 = m1 vf1 + m2 vf2 ,
where vf1 and vf2 are the final velocities of the first and second objects, respec-
tively. Since the collision is elastic, the total kinetic energy must be the same
before and after the collision. Hence,
1 1 1
m1 v2i1 = m1 vf1
2 2
+ m2 vf2 .
2 2 2

Let x = vf1 /vi1 and y = vf2 /vi1 . Noting that m2 /m1 = 3, the above two
equations reduce to
1 = x + 3 y,
and
1 = x2 + 3 y2 .
Eliminating x between the previous two expressions, we obtain
1 = (1 − 3 y)2 + 3 y2 ,
or
6 y (2 y − 1) = 0,

133
6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

which has the non-trivial solution y = 1/2. The corresponding solution for x is
x = (1 − 3 y) = −1/2.

It follows that the final velocity of the first object is

vf1 = x vi1 = −0.5 × 12 = −6 m/s.
The minus sign indicates that this object reverses direction as a result of the
collision. Likewise, the final velocity of the second object is
vf2 = y vi1 = 0.5 × 12 = 6 m/s.

Worked example 6.6: 2-dimensional collision

Question: Two objects slide over a frictionless horizontal surface. The first object,
mass m1 = 5 kg, is propelled with speed vi1 = 4.5 m/s toward the second object,
mass m2 = 2.5 kg, which is initially at rest. After the collision, both objects have
velocities which are directed θ = 30◦ on either side of the original line of motion
of the first object. What are the final speeds of the two objects? Is the collision
elastic or inelastic?
y vf2

m2

m1 θ
x
vi1 m2
θ

m1

vf1

Answer: Let us adopt the coordinate system shown in the diagram. Conservation
of momentum along the x-axis yields
m1 vi1 = m1 vf1 cos θ + m2 vf2 cos θ.
Likewise, conservation of momentum along the y-axis yields
m1 vf1 sin θ = m2 vf2 sin θ.

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6 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 6.7 Collisions in 2-dimensions

The above pair of equations can be combined to give

vi1 4.5
vf1 = = = 2.5981 m/s,
2 cos θ 2 × cos 30◦
and
m1 5 × 2.5981
vf2 = vf1 = = 5.1962 m/s.
m2 2.5

The initial kinetic energy of the system is

1
Ki = m1 vi12 = 0.5 × 5 × 4.52 = 50.63 J.
2
The final kinetic energy of the system is
1 2 1 2
Kf = m1 vf1 + m2 vf2 = 0.5 × 5 × 2.59812 + 0.5 × 2.5 × 5.19622 = 50.63 J.
2 2
Since Ki = Kf , the collision is elastic.

135
7 CIRCULAR MOTION

7 Circular motion

7.1 Introduction

Up to now, we have basically only considered rectilinear motion: i.e., motion in

a straight-line. Let us now broaden our approach so as to take into account the
most important type of non-rectilinear motion: namely, circular motion.

7.2 Uniform circular motion

Suppose that an object executes a circular orbit of radius r with uniform tan-
gential speed v. The instantaneous position of the object is most conveniently
specified in terms of an angle θ. See Fig. 57. For instance, we could decide that
θ = 0◦ corresponds to the object’s location at t = 0, in which case we would write

θ(t) = ω t, (7.1)

where ω is termed the angular velocity of the object. For a uniformly rotating
object, the angular velocity is simply the angle through which the object turns in
one second.
v
s

t=0
θ (t)
r t=t
r

Figure 57: Circular motion.

Consider the motion of the object in the time interval between t = 0 and t = t.
In this interval, the object rotates through an angle θ, and traces out a circular
arc of length s. See Fig. 57. It is fairly obvious that the arc length s is directly

136
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.2 Uniform circular motion

proportional to the angle θ: but, what is the constant of proportionality? Well,

an angle of 360◦ corresponds to an arc length of 2π r. Hence, an angle θ must
correspond to an arc length of
2π
s= ◦
r θ(◦ ). (7.2)
360
At this stage, it is convenient to define a new angular unit known as a radian
(symbol rad.). An angle measured in radians is related to an angle measured in
degrees via the following simple formula:
2π
θ(rad.) = ◦
θ(◦ ). (7.3)
360
Thus, 360◦ corresponds to 2 π radians, 180◦ corresponds to π radians, 90◦ corre-
sponds to π/2 radians, and 57.296◦ corresponds to 1 radian. When θ is measured
in radians, Eq. (7.2) simplifies greatly to give
s = r θ. (7.4)
Henceforth, in this course, all angles are measured in radians by default.

Consider the motion of the object in the short interval between times t and
t + δt. In this interval, the object turns through a small angle δθ and traces out a
short arc of length δs, where
δs = r δθ. (7.5)
Now δs/δt (i.e., distance moved per unit time) is simply the tangential velocity
v, whereas δθ/δt (i.e., angle turned through per unit time) is simply the angular
velocity ω. Thus, dividing Eq. (7.5) by δt, we obtain
v = r ω. (7.6)
Note, however, that this formula is only valid if the angular velocity ω is mea-
sured in radians per second. From now on, in this course, all angular velocities
are measured in radians per second by default.

An object that rotates with uniform angular velocity ω turns through ω radi-
ans in 1 second. Hence, the object turns through 2 π radians (i.e., it executes a
complete circle) in
2π
T= (7.7)
ω
137
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.3 Centripetal acceleration

seconds. Here, T is the repetition period of the circular motion. If the object
executes a complete cycle (i.e., turns through 360◦ ) in T seconds, then the number
of cycles executed per second is
1 ω
f= = . (7.8)
T 2π
Here, the repetition frequency, f, of the motion is measured in cycles per second—
otherwise known as hertz (symbol Hz).

As an example, suppose that an object executes uniform circular motion, ra-

dius r = 1.2 m, at a frequency of f = 50 Hz (i.e., the object executes a complete
rotation 50 times a second). The repetition period of this motion is simply
1
T= = 0.02 s. (7.9)
f
Furthermore, the angular frequency of the motion is given by

ω = 2π f = 314.16 rad./s. (7.10)

Finally, the tangential velocity of the object is

v = r ω = 1.2 × 314.16 = 376.99 m/s. (7.11)

7.3 Centripetal acceleration

An object executing a circular orbit of radius r with uniform tangential speed v

possesses a velocity vector v whose magnitude is constant, but whose direction
is continuously changing. It follows that the object must be accelerating, since
(vector) acceleration is the rate of change of (vector) velocity, and the (vector)
velocity is indeed varying in time.

Suppose that the object moves from point P to point Q between times t and
t + δt, as shown in Fig. 58. Suppose, further, that the object rotates through δθ
→
radians in this time interval. The vector PX, shown in the diagram, is identical
→ → →
to the vector QY. Moreover, the angle subtended between vectors PZ and PX is

138
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.3 Centripetal acceleration

Y
v
Q
Z
δv
v X
v
P
r

δθ

Figure 58: Centripetal acceleration.

→
simply δθ. The vector ZX represents the change in vector velocity, δv, between
times t and t + δt. It can be seen that this vector is directed towards the centre of
→
the circle. From standard trigonometry, the length of vector ZX is

δv = 2 v sin(δθ/2). (7.12)

However, for small angles sin θ ' θ, provided that θ is measured in radians.
Hence,
δv ' v δθ. (7.13)
It follows that
δv δθ
a= =v = v ω, (7.14)
δt δt
where ω = δθ/δt is the angular velocity of the object, measured in radians per
second. In summary, an object executing a circular orbit, radius r, with uniform
tangential velocity v, and uniform angular velocity ω = v/r, possesses an acceler-
ation directed towards the centre of the circle—i.e., a centripetal acceleration—of
magnitude
v2
a = vω = = r ω2 . (7.15)
r

139
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.3 Centripetal acceleration

weight v

cable
m T

Figure 59: Weight on the end of a cable.

Suppose that a weight, of mass m, is attached to the end of a cable, of length

r, and whirled around such that the weight executes a horizontal circle, radius r,
with uniform tangential velocity v. As we have just learned, the weight is subject
to a centripetal acceleration of magnitude v2 /r. Hence, the weight experiences a
centripetal force
m v2
f= . (7.16)
r
What provides this force? Well, in the present example, the force is provided by
the tension T in the cable. Hence, T = m v2 /r.

Suppose that the cable is such that it snaps whenever the tension in it exceeds
a certain critical value Tmax . It follows that there is a maximum velocity with
which the weight can be whirled around: namely,
v
u r Tmax
u
vmax = t
. (7.17)
m
If v exceeds vmax then the cable will break. As soon as the cable snaps, the weight
will cease to be subject to a centripetal force, so it will fly off—with velocity v max —
along the straight-line which is tangential to the circular orbit it was previously
executing.

140
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.4 The conical pendulum

θ
h l

T
r
m

mg

Figure 60: A conical pendulum.

7.4 The conical pendulum

Suppose that an object, mass m, is attached to the end of a light inextensible

string whose other end is attached to a rigid beam. Suppose, further, that the
object is given an initial horizontal velocity such that it executes a horizontal
circular orbit of radius r with angular velocity ω. See Fig. 60. Let h be the
vertical distance between the beam and the plane of the circular orbit, and let θ
be the angle subtended by the string with the downward vertical.

The object is subject to two forces: the gravitational force m g which acts ver-
tically downwards, and the tension force T which acts upwards along the string.
The tension force can be resolved into a component T cos θ which acts vertically
upwards, and a component T sin θ which acts towards the centre of the circle.
Force balance in the vertical direction yields

T cos θ = m g. (7.18)

In other words, the vertical component of the tension force balances the weight
of the object.

Since the object is executing a circular orbit, radius r, with angular velocity ω,
it experiences a centripetal acceleration ω2 r. Hence, it is subject to a centripetal
force m ω2 r. This force is provided by the component of the string tension which

141
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

acts towards the centre of the circle. In other words,

T sin θ = m ω2 r. (7.19)

Taking the ratio of Eqs. (7.18) and (7.19), we obtain

ω2 r
tan θ = . (7.20)
g
However, by simple trigonometry,
r
tan θ = . (7.21)
h
Hence, we find
g
s
ω= . (7.22)
h
Note that if l is the length of the string then h = l cos θ. It follows that
g
s
ω= . (7.23)
l cos θ

For instance, if the length of the string is l = 0.2 m and the conical angle is
θ = 30◦ then the angular velocity of rotation is given by
v
9.81
u
u
ω= t
= 7.526 rad./s. (7.24)
0.2 × cos 30◦
This translates to a rotation frequency in cycles per second of
ω
f= = 1.20 Hz. (7.25)
2π

7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

Consider an object which executes non-uniform circular motion, as shown in

Fig. 61. Suppose that the motion is confined to a 2-dimensional plane. We can
specify the instantaneous position of the object in terms of its polar coordinates r

142
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

eθ
er

Figure 61: Polar coordinates.

and θ. Here, r is the radial distance of the object from the origin, whereas θ is
the angular bearing of the object from the origin, measured with respect to some
arbitrarily chosen direction. We imagine that both r and θ are changing in time.
As an example of non-uniform circular motion, consider the motion of the Earth
around the Sun. Suppose that the origin of our coordinate system corresponds to
the position of the Sun. As the Earth rotates, its angular bearing θ, relative to the
Sun, obviously changes in time. However, since the Earth’s orbit is slightly ellipti-
cal, its radial distance r from the Sun also varies in time. Moreover, as the Earth
moves closer to the Sun, its rate of rotation speeds up, and vice versa. Hence, the
rate of change of θ with time is non-uniform.

Let us define two unit vectors, er and eθ . Incidentally, a unit vector simply a
vector whose length is unity. As shown in Fig. 61, the radial unit vector er always
points from the origin to the instantaneous position of the object. Moreover, the
tangential unit vector eθ is always normal to er , in the direction of increasing θ.
The position vector r of the object can be written

r = r er . (7.26)

In other words, vector r points in the same direction as the radial unit vector e r ,
and is of length r. We can write the object’s velocity in the form

v = ṙ = vr er + vθ eθ , (7.27)

143
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

whereas the acceleration is written

a = v̇ = ar er + aθ eθ . (7.28)
Here, vr is termed the object’s radial velocity, whilst vθ is termed the tangential ve-
locity. Likewise, ar is the radial acceleration, and aθ is the tangential acceleration.
But, how do we express these quantities in terms of the object’s polar coordinates
r and θ? It turns out that this is a far from straightforward task. For instance, if
we simply differentiate Eq. (7.26) with respect to time, we obtain
v = ṙ er + r ėr , (7.29)
where ėr is the time derivative of the radial unit vector—this quantity is non-
zero because er changes direction as the object moves. Unfortunately, it is not
entirely clear how to evaluate ėr . In the following, we outline a famous trick for
calculating vr , vθ , etc. without ever having to evaluate the time derivatives of the
unit vectors er and eθ .

Consider a general complex number,

z = x + i y, (7.30)
where x and y are real, and i is the square root of −1 (i.e., i2 = −1). Here, x is
the real part of z, whereas y is the imaginary part. We can visualize z as a point in
the so-called complex plane: i.e., a 2-dimensional plane in which the real parts of
complex numbers are plotted along one Cartesian axis, whereas the correspond-
ing imaginary parts are plotted along the other axis. Thus, the coordinates of z
in the complex plane are simply (x, y). See Fig. 62. In other words, we can use
a complex number to represent a position vector in a 2-dimensional plane. Note
that the length of the vector is equal to the modulus of the corresponding complex
number. Incidentally, the modulus of z = x + i y is defined
q
|z| = x2 + y2 . (7.31)

Consider the complex number e i θ , where θ is real. A famous result in complex

analysis—known as de Moivre’s theorem—allows us to split this number into its
real and imaginary components:
e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ. (7.32)

144
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

Im(z)
z

x Re(z)

Figure 62: Representation of a complex number in the complex plane.

Now, as we have just discussed, we can think of e i θ as representing a vector in

the complex plane: the real and imaginary parts of e i θ form the coordinates of
the head of the vector, whereas the tail of the vector corresponds to the origin.
What are the properties of this vector? Well, the length of the vector is given by
q
e iθ
= cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1. (7.33)
In other words, e i θ represents a unit vector. In fact, it is clear from Fig. 63 that e i θ
represents the radial unit vector er for an object whose angular polar coordinate
(measured anti-clockwise from the real axis) is θ. Can we also find a complex
representation of the corresponding tangential unit vector eθ ? Actually, we can.
The complex number i e i θ can be written
i e i θ = − sin θ + i cos θ. (7.34)
Here, we have just multiplied Eq. (7.32) by i, making use of the fact that i2 = −1.
This number again represents a unit vector, since
q
ie iθ
= sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. (7.35)
Moreover, as is clear from Fig. 63, this vector is normal to er , in the direction of
increasing θ. In other words, i e i θ represents the tangential unit vector eθ .

Consider an object executing non-uniform circular motion in the complex

plane. By analogy with Eq. (7.26), we can represent the instantaneous position

145
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

i ei θ

Im(z)
ei θ

eθ er

cos θ

sin θ
θ
- sin θ cos θ Re(z)

Figure 63: Representation of the unit vectors er and eθ in the complex plane.

vector of this object via the complex number

z = r e i θ. (7.36)
Here, r(t) is the object’s radial distance from the origin, whereas θ(t) is its angu-
lar bearing relative to the real axis. Note that, in the above formula, we are using
e i θ to represent the radial unit vector er . Now, if z represents the position vector
of the object, then ż = dz/dt must represent the object’s velocity vector. Differ-
entiating Eq. (7.36) with respect to time, using the standard rules of calculus, we
obtain
ż = ṙ e i θ + r θ̇ i e i θ . (7.37)
Comparing with Eq. (7.27), recalling that e i θ represents er and i e i θ represents
eθ , we obtain
vr = ṙ, (7.38)
vθ = r θ̇ = r ω, (7.39)
where ω = dθ/dt is the object’s instantaneous angular velocity. Thus, as desired,
we have obtained expressions for the radial and tangential velocities of the object
in terms of its polar coordinates, r and θ. We can go further. Let us differentiate
ż with respect to time, in order to obtain a complex number representing the
object’s vector acceleration. Again, using the standard rules of calculus, we obtain
z̈ = (r̈ − r θ̇2 ) e i θ + (r θ̈ + 2 ṙ θ̇) i e i θ . (7.40)

146
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.5 Non-uniform circular motion

Comparing with Eq. (7.28), recalling that e i θ represents er and i e i θ represents

eθ , we obtain

ar = r̈ − r θ̇2 = r̈ − r ω2 , (7.41)
aθ = r θ̈ + 2 ṙ θ̇ = r ω̇ + 2 ṙ ω. (7.42)

Thus, we now have expressions for the object’s radial and tangential accelerations
in terms of r and θ. The beauty of this derivation is that the complex analysis
has automatically taken care of the fact that the unit vectors e r and eθ change
direction as the object moves.

Let us now consider the commonly occurring special case in which an object
executes a circular orbit at fixed radius, but varying angular velocity. Since the
radius is fixed, it follows that ṙ = r̈ = 0. According to Eqs. (7.38) and (7.39), the
radial velocity of the object is zero, and the tangential velocity takes the form

vθ = r ω. (7.43)

Note that the above equation is exactly the same as Eq. (7.6)—the only difference
is that we have now proved that this relation holds for non-uniform, as well as
uniform, circular motion. According to Eq. (7.41), the radial acceleration is given
by
ar = −r ω2 . (7.44)
The minus sign indicates that this acceleration is directed towards the centre
of the circle. Of course, the above equation is equivalent to Eq. (7.15)—the only
difference is that we have now proved that this relation holds for non-uniform, as
well as uniform, circular motion. Finally, according to Eq. (7.42), the tangential
acceleration takes the form
aθ = r ω̇. (7.45)
The existence of a non-zero tangential acceleration (in the former case) is the
one difference between non-uniform and uniform circular motion (at constant
radius).

147
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.6 The vertical pendulum

v’ θ r cos θ
T
r
B
mg cos θ
mg v
A

mg

Figure 64: Motion in a vertical circle.

7.6 The vertical pendulum

Let us now examine an example of non-uniform circular motion. Suppose that

an object of mass m is attached to the end of a light rigid rod, or light string, of
length r. The other end of the rod, or string, is attached to a stationary pivot in
such a manner that the object is free to execute a vertical circle about this pivot.
Let θ measure the angular position of the object, measured with respect to the
downward vertical. Let v be the velocity of the object at θ = 0◦ . How large do we
have to make v in order for the object to execute a complete vertical circle?

Consider Fig. 64. Suppose that the object moves from point A, where its
tangential velocity is v, to point B, where its tangential velocity is v 0 . Let us,
first of all, obtain the relationship between v and v 0 . This is most easily achieved
by considering energy conservation. At point A, the object is situated a vertical
distance r below the pivot, whereas at point B the vertical distance below the
pivot has been reduced to r cos θ. Hence, in moving from A to B the object gains
potential energy m g r (1 − cos θ). This gain in potential energy must be offset by
a corresponding loss in kinetic energy. Thus,
1 1 2
m v2 − m v 0 = m g r (1 − cos θ), (7.46)
2 2
148
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.6 The vertical pendulum

which reduces to
2
v 0 = v2 − 2 r g (1 − cos θ). (7.47)

Let us now examine the radial acceleration of the object at point B. The ra-
dial forces acting on the object are the tension T in the rod, or string, which
acts towards the centre of the circle, and the component m g cos θ of the object’s
weight, which acts away from the centre of the circle. Since the object is execut-
ing circular motion with instantaneous tangential velocity v 0 , it must experience
an instantaneous acceleration v 0 2 /r towards the centre of the circle. Hence, New-
ton’s second law of motion yields
m v 02
= T − m g cos θ. (7.48)
r
Equations (7.47) and (7.48) can be combined to give
m v2
T= + m g (3 cos θ − 2). (7.49)
r
Suppose that the object is, in fact, attached to the end of a piece of string,
rather than a rigid rod. One important property of strings is that, unlike rigid
rods, they cannot support negative tensions. In other words, a string can only pull
objects attached to its two ends together—it cannot push them apart. Another
way of putting this is that if the tension in a string ever becomes negative then
the string will become slack and collapse. Clearly, if our object is to execute
a full vertical circle then then tension T in the string must remain positive for
all values of θ. It is clear from Eq. (7.49) that the tension attains its minimum
value when θ = 180◦ (at which point cos θ = −1). This is hardly surprising, since
θ = 180◦ corresponds to the point at which the object attains its maximum height,
and, therefore, its minimum tangential velocity. It is certainly the case that if the
string tension is positive at this point then it must be positive at all other points.
Now, the tension at θ = 180◦ is given by
m v2
T0 = − 5 m g. (7.50)
r
Hence, the condition for the object to execute a complete vertical circle without
the string becoming slack is T0 > 0, or
v2 > 5 r g. (7.51)

149
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

Note that this condition is independent of the mass of the object.

Suppose that the object is attached to the end of a rigid rod, instead of a piece
of string. There is now no constraint on the tension, since a rigid rod can quite
easily support a negative tension (i.e., it can push, as well as pull, on objects
attached to its two ends). However, in order for the object to execute a complete
vertical circle the square of its tangential velocity v 0 2 must remain positive at all
values of θ. It is clear from Eq. (7.47) that v 0 2 attains its minimum value when
θ = 180◦ . This is, again, hardly surprising. Thus, if v 0 2 is positive at this point
then it must be positive at all other points. Now, the expression for v 0 2 at θ = 180◦
is
2
(v 0 )0 = v2 − 4 r g. (7.52)
Hence, the condition for the object to execute a complete vertical circle is (v 0 2 )0 >
0, or
v2 > 4 r g. (7.53)
Note that this condition is slightly easier to satisfy than the condition (7.51). In
other words, it is slightly easier to cause an object attached to the end of a rigid
rod to execute a vertical circle than it is to cause an object attached to the end of
a string to execute the same circle. The reason for this is that the rigidity of the
rod helps support the object when it is situated above the pivot point.

7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

Consider a smooth rigid vertical hoop of internal radius r, as shown in Fig. 65.
Suppose that an object of mass m slides without friction around the inside of this
hoop. What is the motion of this object? Is it possible for the object to execute a
complete vertical circle?

Suppose that the object moves from point A to point B in Fig. 65. In doing so,
it gains potential energy m g r (1 − cos θ), where θ is the angular coordinate of
the object measured with respect to the downward vertical. This gain in potential
energy must be offset by a corresponding loss in kinetic energy. Thus,
1 1 2
m v2 − m v 0 = m g r (1 − cos θ), (7.54)
2 2
150
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

v’ θ r cos θ
R
r
B
mg cos θ
mg v
A

mg

Figure 65: Motion on the inside of a vertical hoop.

which reduces to
2
v 0 = v2 − 2 r g (1 − cos θ). (7.55)
Here, v is the velocity at point A (θ = 0◦ ), and v 0 is the velocity at point B
(θ = θ◦ ).

Let us now examine the radial acceleration of the object at point B. The radial
forces acting on the object are the reaction R of the vertical hoop, which acts
towards the centre of the hoop, and the component m g cos θ of the object’s
weight, which acts away from the centre of the hoop. Since the object is executing
circular motion with instantaneous tangential velocity v 0 , it must experience an
instantaneous acceleration v 0 2 /r towards the centre of the hoop. Hence, Newton’s
second law of motion yields

m v 02
= R − m g cos θ. (7.56)
r

Note, however, that there is a constraint on the reaction R that the hoop can
exert on the object. This reaction must always be positive. In other words, the
hoop can push the object away from itself, but it can never pull it towards itself.
Another way of putting this is that if the reaction ever becomes negative then

151
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

the object will fly off the surface of the hoop, since it is no longer being pressed
into this surface. It should be clear, by now, that the problem we are considering
is exactly analogous to the earlier problem of an object attached to the end of a
piece of string which is executing a vertical circle, with the reaction R of the hoop
playing the role of the tension T in the string.

Let us imagine that the hoop under consideration is a “loop the loop” segment
in a fairground roller-coaster. The object sliding around the inside of the loop
then becomes the roller-coaster train. Suppose that the fairground operator can
vary the velocity v with which the train is sent into the bottom of the loop (i.e.,
the velocity at θ = 0◦ ). What is the safe range of v? Now, if the train starts at
θ = 0◦ with velocity v then there are only three possible outcomes. Firstly, the
train can execute a complete circuit of the loop. Secondly, the train can slide
part way up the loop, come to a halt, reverse direction, and then slide back down
again. Thirdly, the train can slide part way up the loop, but then fall off the loop.
Obviously, it is the third possibility that the fairground operator would wish to
guard against.

Using the analogy between this problem and the problem of a mass on the end
of a piece of string executing a vertical circle, the condition for the roller-coaster
train to execute a complete circuit is

v2 > 5 r g. (7.57)

Note, interestingly enough, that this condition is independent of the mass of the
train.

Equation (7.56) yields

2 rR
v0 = − r g cos θ. (7.58)
m
Now, the condition for the train to reverse direction without falling off the loop
is v 0 2 = 0 with R > 0. Thus, the train reverses direction when

R = m g cos θ. (7.59)

Note that this equation can only be satisfied for positive R when cos θ > 0. In
other words, the train can only turn around without falling off the loop if the

152
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

mg cos θ
m
R

r cos θ r
θ v
mg

Figure 66: A skier on a hemispherical mountain.

turning point lies in the lower half of the loop (i.e., −90◦ < θ < 90◦ ). The
condition for the train to fall off the loop is
2
v 0 = −r g cos θ. (7.60)
Note that this equation can only be satisfied for positive v 0 2 when cos θ < 0. In
other words, the train can only fall off the loop when it is situated in the upper
half of the loop. It is fairly clear that if the train’s initial velocity is not sufficiently
large for it to execute a complete circuit of the loop, and not sufficiently small
for it to turn around before entering the upper half of the loop, then it must
inevitably fall off the loop somewhere in the loop’s upper half. The critical value
of v2 above which the train executes a complete circuit is 5 r g [see Eq. (7.57)].
The critical value of v2 at which the train just turns around before entering the
upper half of the loop is 2 r g [this is obtained from Eq. (7.55) by setting v 0 = 0
and θ = 90◦ ]. Hence, the dangerous range of v2 is
2 r g < v2 < 5 r g. (7.61)
For v2 < 2 r g, the train turns around in the lower half of the loop. For v2 > 5 r g,
the train executes a complete circuit around the loop. However, for 2 r g < v2 <
5 r g, the train falls off the loop somewhere in its upper half.

Consider a skier of mass m skiing down a hemispherical mountain of radius r,

as shown in Fig. 66. Let θ be the angular coordinate of the skier, measured with
respect to the upward vertical. Suppose that the skier starts at rest (v = 0) on
top of the mountain (θ = 0◦ ), and slides down the mountain without friction. At
what point does the skier fly off the surface of the mountain?

153
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

Suppose that the skier has reached angular coordinate θ. At this stage, the
skier has fallen though a height r (1 − cos θ). Thus, the tangential velocity v of
the skier is given by energy conservation:
1
m v2 = m g r (1 − cos θ). (7.62)
2
Let us now consider the skier’s radial acceleration. The radial forces acting on the
skier are the reaction R exerted by the mountain, which acts radially outwards,
and the component of the skier’s weight m g cos θ, which acts radially inwards.
Since the skier is executing circular motion, radius r, with instantaneous tangen-
tial velocity v, he/she experiences an instantaneous inward radial acceleration
v2 /r. Hence, Newton’s second law of motion yields
v2
m = m g cos θ − R. (7.63)
r

Equations (7.62) and (7.63) can be combined to give

R = m g (3 cos θ − 2). (7.64)

As before, the reaction R is constrained to be positive—the mountain can push

outward on the skier, but it cannot pull the skier inward. In fact, as soon as the
reaction becomes negative, the skier flies of the surface of the mountain. This
occurs when cos θ0 = 2/3, or θ0 = 48.19◦ . The height through which the skier
falls before becoming a ski-jumper is h = r (1 − cos θ0 ) = a/3.

Worked example 7.1: A banked curve

Question: Civil engineers generally bank curves on roads in such a manner that
a car going around the curve at the recommended speed does not have to rely
on friction between its tires and the road surface in order to round the curve.
Suppose that the radius of curvature of a given curve is r = 60 m, and that
the recommended speed is v = 40 km/h. At what angle θ should the curve be
banked?

154
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

R car

centre of curvature

mg
θ

banked curve

Answer: Consider a car of mass m going around the curve. The car’s weight, m g,
acts vertically downwards. The road surface exerts an upward normal reaction R
on the car. The vertical component of the reaction must balance the downward
weight of the car, so
R cos θ = m g.
The horizontal component of the reaction, R sin θ, acts towards the centre of
curvature of the road. This component provides the force m v2 /r towards the
centre of the curvature which the car experiences as it rounds the curve. In other
words,
v2
R sin θ = m ,
r
which yields
v2
tan θ = ,
rg
or
2
 
v
θ = tan−1   .
rg
Hence,
× 1000/3600)2 
 
−1  (40
θ = tan = 11.8◦ .
60 × 9.81
Note that if the car attempts to round the curve at the wrong speed then m v 2 /r 6=
m g tan θ, and the difference has to be made up by a sideways friction force
exerted between the car’s tires and the road surface. Unfortunately, this does not
always work—especially if the road surface is wet!

155
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

Worked example 7.2: Circular race track

Question: A car of mass m = 2000 kg travels around a flat circular race track of
radius r = 85 m. The car starts at rest, and its speed increases at the constant rate
aθ = 0.6 m/s. What is the speed of the car at the point when its centripetal and
tangential accelerations are equal?

Answer: The tangential acceleration of the car is aθ = 0.6 m/s. When the car
travels with tangential velocity v its centripetal acceleration is a r = v2 /r. Hence,
ar = aθ when
v2
= aθ ,
r
or √
√
v = r aθ = 85 × 0.6 = 7.14 m/s.

Worked example 7.3: Amusement park ride

Question: An amusement park ride consists of a vertical cylinder that spins about
a vertical axis. When the cylinder spins sufficiently fast, any person inside it is
held up against the wall. Suppose that the coefficient of static friction between
a typical person and the wall is µ = 0.25. Let the mass of an typical person be
m = 60 kg, and let r = 7 m be the radius of the cylinder. Find the critical angular
velocity of the cylinder above which a typical person will not slide down the
wall. How many revolutions per second is the cylinder executing at this critical
velocity?

Answer: In the vertical direction, the person is subject to a downward force m g

due to gravity, and a maximum upward force f = µ R due to friction with the
wall. Here, R is the normal reaction between the person and the wall. In order
for the person not to slide down the wall, we require f > m g. Hence, the critical
case corresponds to
f = µ R = m g.

In the radial direction, the person is subject to a single force: namely, the

156
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

mg f

reaction R due to the wall, which acts radially inwards. If the cylinder (and,
hence, the person) rotates with angular velocity ω, then this force must provided
the acceleration r ω2 towards the axis of rotation. Hence,

R = m r ω2 .

It follows that, in the critical case,

v v
g 9.81
u u
u
ω= = = 2.37 rad/s.
u t
t
µr 0.25 × 7
The corresponding number of revolutions per second is
ω 2.37
f= = = 0.38 Hz.
2 π 2 × 3.1415

Worked example 7.4: Aerobatic maneuver

Question: A stunt pilot experiences weightlessness momentarily at the top of

a “loop the loop” maneuver. Given that the speed of the stunt plane is v =
500 km/h, what is the radius r of the loop?

Answer: Let m be the mass of the pilot. Consider the radial acceleration of the
pilot at the top of the loop. The pilot is subject to two radial forces: the gravita-
tional force m g, which acts towards the centre of the loop, and the reaction force
R, due to the plane, which acts away from the centre of the loop. Since the pilot

157
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

mg

experiences an acceleration v2 /r towards the centre of the loop, Newton’s second

law of motion yields
v2
m = m g − R.
r
Now, the reaction R is equivalent to the apparent weight of the pilot. In partic-
ular, if the pilot is “weightless” then he/she exerts no force on the plane, and,
therefore, the plane exerts no reaction force on the pilot. Hence, if the pilot is
weightless at the top of the loop then R = 0, giving
v2 (500 × 1000/3600)2
r= = = 1.97 km.
g 9.81

Worked example 7.5: Ballistic pendulum

Question: A bullet of mass m = 10 g strikes a pendulum bob of mass M = 1.3 kg

horizontally with speed v, and then becomes embedded in the bob. The bob is
initially at rest, and is suspended by a stiff rod of length l = 0.6 m and negligible
mass. The bob is free to rotate in the vertical direction. What is the minimum
value of v which causes the bob to execute a complete vertical circle? How does
the answer change if the bob is suspended from a light flexible rod (of the same
length), instead of a stiff rod?

Answer: When the bullet strikes the bob, and then sticks to it, the bullet and bob
move off with a velocity v 0 which is given by momentum conservation:
m v = (M + m) v 0 .

158
7 CIRCULAR MOTION 7.7 Motion on curved surfaces

Hence,
mv
v0 = .
M+m

Consider the case where the bob is suspended by a rigid rod. If the bob and
bullet only just manage to execute a vertical loop, then their initial kinetic energy
(1/2) (M + m) v 0 2 must only just be sufficient to lift them from the bottom to the
top of the loop—a distance 2 l. Hence, in this critical case, energy conservation
yields
1 2
(M + m) v 0 = (M + m) 2 g l,
2
which implies
2
v 0 = 4 g l,
or √ √
(M + m) 4gl 1.31 × 4 × 9.81 × 0.6
v= = = 635.6 m/s.
m 0.01

Consider the case where the bob is suspended by a flexible rod. The velocity v 00
of the bob and bullet at the top of the loop is obtained from energy conservation:
1 2 1 2
(M + m) v 00 = (M + m) v 0 − (M + m) 2 g l.
2 2
If the bob and bullet only just manage to execute a vertical loop, then the tension
in the rod is zero at the top of the loop. Hence, the acceleration due to gravity
g must account exactly for the required acceleration v 00 2 /l towards the centre of
the loop:
v 00 2
= g.
l
It follows that, in this critical case,
2
v 0 = 5 g l,

or √ √
(M + m) 5gl 1.31 × 5 × 9.81 × 0.6
v= = = 710.7 m/s.
m 0.01

159
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION

8 Rotational motion

8.1 Introduction

Up to now, we have only analyzed the dynamics of point masses (i.e., objects
whose spatial extent is either negligible or plays no role in their motion). Let us
now broaden our approach in order to take extended objects into account. Now,
the only type of motion which a point mass object can exhibit is translational mo-
tion: i.e., motion by which the object moves from one point in space to another.
However, an extended object can exhibit another, quite distinct, type of motion
by which it remains located (more or less) at the same spatial position, but con-
stantly changes its orientation with respect to other fixed points in space. This
new type of motion is called rotation. Let us investigate rotational motion.

8.2 Rigid body rotation

Consider a rigid body executing pure rotational motion (i.e., rotational motion
which has no translational component). It is possible to define an axis of rotation
(which, for the sake of simplicity, is assumed to pass through the body)—this axis
corresponds to the straight-line which is the locus of all points inside the body
which remain stationary as the body rotates. A general point located inside the
body executes circular motion which is centred on the rotation axis, and orien-
tated in the plane perpendicular to this axis. In the following, we tacitly assume
that the axis of rotation remains fixed.

Figure 67 shows a typical rigidly rotating body. The axis of rotation is the line
AB. A general point P lying within the body executes a circular orbit, centred
on AB, in the plane perpendicular to AB. Let the line QP be a radius of this
orbit which links the axis of rotation to the instantaneous position of P at time
t. Obviously, this implies that QP is normal to AB. Suppose that at time t + δt
point P has moved to P 0 , and the radius QP has rotated through an angle δφ.

160
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.2 Rigid body rotation

A
rigid body

P’ δφ
Q P

B axis of rotation

Figure 67: Rigid body rotation.

The instantaneous angular velocity of the body ω(t) is defined

δφ dφ
ω = lim = . (8.1)
δt→0 δt dt
Note that if the body is indeed rotating rigidly, then the calculated value of ω
should be the same for all possible points P lying within the body (except for
those points lying exactly on the axis of rotation, for which ω is ill-defined). The
rotation speed v of point P is related to the angular velocity ω of the body via
v = σ ω, (8.2)
where σ is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to point P. Thus, in
a rigidly rotating body, the rotation speed increases linearly with (perpendicular)
distance from the axis of rotation.

It is helpful to introduce the angular acceleration α(t) of a rigidly rotating

body: this quantity is defined as the time derivative of the angular velocity. Thus,
dω d2 φ
α= = , (8.3)
dt dt2
where φ is the angular coordinate of some arbitrarily chosen point reference
within the body, measured with respect to the rotation axis. Note that angular

161
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.3 Is rotation a vector?

velocities are conventionally measured in radians per second, whereas angular

accelerations are measured in radians per second squared.

For a body rotating with constant angular velocity, ω, the angular acceleration
is zero, and the rotation angle φ increases linearly with time:
φ(t) = φ0 + ω t, (8.4)
where φ0 = φ(t = 0). Likewise, for a body rotating with constant angular accel-
eration, α, the angular velocity increases linearly with time, so that
ω(t) = ω0 + α t, (8.5)
and the rotation angle satisfies
1 2
φ(t) = φ0 + ω0 t + αt . (8.6)
2
Here, ω0 = ω(t = 0). Note that there is a clear analogy between the above equa-
tions, and the equations of rectilinear motion at constant acceleration introduced
in Sect. 2.6—rotation angle plays the role of displacement, angular velocity plays
the role of (regular) velocity, and angular acceleration plays the role of (regular)
acceleration.

8.3 Is rotation a vector?

Consider a rigid body which rotates through an angle φ about a given axis. It
is tempting to try to define a rotation “vector” φ which describes this motion.
For example, suppose that φ is defined as the “vector” whose magnitude is the
angle of rotation, φ, and whose direction runs parallel to the axis of rotation.
Unfortunately, this definition is ambiguous, since there are two possible directions
which run parallel to the rotation axis. However, we can resolve this problem by
adopting the following convention—the rotation “vector” runs parallel to the axis
of rotation in the sense indicated by the thumb of the right-hand, when the fingers
of this hand circulate around the axis in the direction of rotation. This convention
is known as the right-hand grip rule. The right-hand grip rule is illustrated in
Fig. 68.

162
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.3 Is rotation a vector?

direction of rotation vector

sense of rotation

Figure 68: The right-hand grip rule.

The rotation “vector” φ now has a well-defined magnitude and direction. But,
is this quantity really a vector? This may seem like a strange question to ask,
but it turns out that not all quantities which have well-defined magnitudes and
directions are necessarily vectors. Let us review some properties of vectors. If a
and b are two general vectors, then it is certainly the case that

a + b = b + a. (8.7)

In other words, the addition of vectors is necessarily commutative (i.e., it is in-

dependent of the order of addition). Is this true for “vector” rotations, as we
have just defined them? Figure 69 shows the effect of applying two successive
90◦ rotations—one about the x-axis, and the other about the z-axis—to a six-
sided die. In the left-hand case, the z-rotation is applied before the x-rotation,
and vice versa in the right-hand case. It can be seen that the die ends up in two
completely different states. Clearly, the z-rotation plus the x-rotation does not
equal the x-rotation plus the z-rotation. This non-commutative algebra cannot be
represented by vectors. We conclude that, although rotations have well-defined
magnitudes and directions, they are not, in general, vector quantities.

There is a direct analogy between rotation and motion over the Earth’s surface.
After all, the motion of a pointer along the Earth’s equator from longitude 0 ◦ W to

163
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.3 Is rotation a vector?

x
y
z-axis x-axis

x-axis z-axis

Figure 69: The addition of rotation is non-commutative.

164
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.3 Is rotation a vector?

longitude 90◦ W could just as well be achieved by keeping the pointer fixed and ro-
tating the Earth through 90◦ about a North-South axis. The non-commutative na-
ture of rotation “vectors” is a direct consequence of the non-planar (i.e., curved)
nature of the Earth’s surface. For instance, suppose we start off at (0◦ N, 0◦ W),
which is just off the Atlantic coast of equatorial Africa, and rotate 90 ◦ northwards
and then 90◦ eastwards. We end up at (0◦ N, 90◦ E), which is in the middle of the
Indian Ocean. However, if we start at the same point, and rotate 90 ◦ eastwards
and then 90◦ northwards, we end up at the North pole. Hence, large rotations
over the Earth’s surface do not commute. Let us now repeat this experiment
on a far smaller scale. Suppose that we walk 10 m northwards and then 10 m
eastwards. Next, suppose that—starting from the same initial position—we walk
10 m eastwards and then 10 m northwards. In this case, few people would need
much convincing that the two end points are essentially identical. The crucial
point is that for sufficiently small displacements the Earth’s surface is approxi-
mately planar, and vector displacements on a plane surface commute with one
another. This observation immediately suggests that rotation “vectors” which cor-
respond to rotations through small angles must also commute with one another.
In other words, although the quantity φ, defined above, is not a true vector, the
infinitesimal quantity δφ, which is defined in a similar manner but corresponds
to a rotation through an infinitesimal angle δφ, is a perfectly good vector.

We have just established that it is possible to define a true vector δφ which

describes a rotation through a small angle δφ about a fixed axis. But, how is this
definition useful? Well, suppose that vector δφ describes the small rotation that
a given object executes in the infinitesimal time interval between t and t + δt. We
can then define the quantity
δφ dφ
ω = lim = . (8.8)
δt→0 δt dt
This quantity is clearly a true vector, since it is simply the ratio of a true vector
and a scalar. Of course, ω represents an angular velocity vector. The magnitude of
this vector, ω, specifies the instantaneous angular velocity of the object, whereas
the direction of the vector indicates the axis of rotation. The sense of rotation
is given by the right-hand grip rule: if the thumb of the right-hand points along
the direction of the vector, then the fingers of the right-hand indicate the sense of

165
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.4 The vector product

rotation. We conclude that, although rotation can only be thought of as a vector

quantity under certain very special circumstances, we can safely treat angular
velocity as a vector quantity under all circumstances.

Suppose, for example, that a rigid body rotates at constant angular velocity
ω1 . Let us now combine this motion with rotation about a different axis at con-
stant angular velocity ω2 . What is the subsequent motion of the body? Since we
know that angular velocity is a vector, we can be certain that the combined mo-
tion simply corresponds to rotation about a third axis at constant angular velocity

ω3 = ω 1 + ω 2 , (8.9)

where the sum is performed according to the standard rules of vector addition.
[Note, however, the following important proviso. In order for Eq. (8.9) to be
valid, the rotation axes corresponding to ω1 and ω2 must cross at a certain
point—the rotation axis corresponding to ω3 then passes through this point.]
Moreover, a constant angular velocity

^ + ωy y
ω = ωx x ^ + ωz ^z (8.10)

can be thought of as representing rotation about the x-axis at angular velocity ω x ,

combined with rotation about the y-axis at angular velocity ω y , combined with
rotation about the z-axis at angular velocity ωz . [There is, again, a proviso—
namely, that the rotation axis corresponding to ω must pass through the origin.
Of course, we can always shift the origin such that this is the case.] Clearly, the
knowledge that angular velocity is vector quantity can be extremely useful.

8.4 The vector product

We saw earlier, in Sect. 3.10, that it is possible to combine two vectors multi-
plicatively, by means of a scalar product, to form a scalar. Recall that the scalar
product a·b of two vectors a = (ax , ay , az ) and b = (bx , by , bz ) is defined

a·b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = |a| |b| cos θ, (8.11)

where θ is the angle subtended between the directions of a and b.

166
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.4 The vector product

ax b |a x b| = a b sin θ

θ
a
Figure 70: The vector product.

Is it also possible to combine two vector multiplicatively to form a third (non-

coplanar) vector? It turns out that this goal can be achieved via the use of the
so-called vector product. By definition, the vector product, a × b, of two vectors
a = (ax , ay , az ) and b = (bx , by , bz ) is of magnitude
|a × b| = |a| |b| sin θ. (8.12)
The direction of a × b is mutually perpendicular to a and b, in the sense given by
the right-hand grip rule when vector a is rotated onto vector b (the direction of
rotation being such that the angle of rotation is less than 180 ◦ ). See Fig. 70. In
coordinate form,
a × b = (ay bz − az by , az bx − ax bz , ax by − ay bx ). (8.13)

There are a number of fairly obvious consequences of the above definition.

Firstly, if vector b is parallel to vector a, so that we can write b = λ a, then the
vector product a × b has zero magnitude. The easiest way of seeing this is to note
that if a and b are parallel then the angle θ subtended between them is zero,
hence the magnitude of the vector product, |a| |b| sin θ, must also be zero (since
sin 0◦ = 0). Secondly, the order of multiplication matters. Thus, b × a is not
equivalent to a × b. In fact, as can be seen from Eq. (8.13),
b × a = −a × b. (8.14)
In other words, b × a has the same magnitude as a × b, but points in diagram-
matically the opposite direction.

167
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.5 Centre of mass

Now that we have defined the vector product of two vectors, let us find a use
for this concept. Figure 71 shows a rigid body rotating with angular velocity ω.
For the sake of simplicity, the axis of rotation, which runs parallel to ω, is as-
sumed to pass through the origin O of our coordinate system. Point P, whose
position vector is r, represents a general point inside the body. What is the veloc-
ity of rotation v at point P? Well, the magnitude of this velocity is simply

v = σ ω = ω r sin θ, (8.15)

where σ is the perpendicular distance of point P from the axis of rotation, and
θ is the angle subtended between the directions of ω and r. The direction of
the velocity is into the page. Another way of saying this, is that the direction of
the velocity is mutually perpendicular to the directions of ω and r, in the sense
indicated by the right-hand grip rule when ω is rotated onto r (through an angle
less than 180◦ ). It follows that we can write

v = ω × r. (8.16)

Note, incidentally, that the direction of the angular velocity vector ω indicates
the orientation of the axis of rotation—however, nothing actually moves in this
direction; in fact, all of the motion is perpendicular to the direction of ω.

8.5 Centre of mass

The centre of mass—or centre of gravity—of an extended object is defined in much

the same manner as we earlier defined the centre of mass of a set of mutually
interacting point mass objects—see Sect. 6.3. To be more exact, the coordinates
of the centre of mass of an extended object are the mass weighted averages of
the coordinates of the elements which make up that object. Thus, if the object
has net mass M, and is composed of N elements, such that the ith element has
mass mi and position vector ri , then the position vector of the centre of mass is
given by
1 X
rcm = mi ri . (8.17)
M i=1,N

168
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.5 Centre of mass

σ v
P

θ r
O

Figure 71: Rigid rotation.

If the object under consideration is continuous, then

mi = ρ(ri ) Vi , (8.18)

where ρ(r) is the mass density of the object, and Vi is the volume occupied by
the ith element. Here, it is assumed that this volume is small compared to the
total volume of the object. Taking the limit that the number of elements goes
to infinity, and the volume of each element goes to zero, Eqs. (8.17) and (8.18)
yield the following integral formula for the position vector of the centre of mass:
ZZZ
1
rcm = ρ r dV. (8.19)
M
Here, the integral is taken over the whole volume of the object, and dV =
dx dy dz is an element of that volume. Incidentally, the triple integral sign in-
dicates a volume integral: i.e., a simultaneous integral over three independent
Cartesian coordinates. Finally, for an object whose mass density is constant—
which is the only type of object that we shall be considering in this course—the
above expression reduces to
ZZZ
1
rcm = r dV, (8.20)
V
169
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.5 Centre of mass

where V is the volume of the object. According to Eq. (8.20), the centre of mass
of a body of uniform density is located at the geometric centre of that body.

geometric centre

a
a
Figure 72: Locating the geometric centre of a cube.

For many solid objects, the location of the geometric centre follows from sym-
metry. For instance, the geometric centre of a cube is the point of intersection
of the cube’s diagonals. See Fig. 72. Likewise, the geometric centre of a right
cylinder is located on the axis, half-way up the cylinder. See Fig. 73.
axis

geometric centre

h/2

Figure 73: Locating the geometric centre of a right cylinder.

As an illustration of the use of formula (8.20), let us calculate the geometric

centre of a regular square-sided pyramid. Figure 74 shows such a pyramid. Let a
be the length of each side.√ It follows, from simple trigonometry, that the height
of the pyramid is h = a/ 2. Suppose that the base of the pyramid lies on the
x-y plane, and the apex is aligned with the z-axis, as shown in the diagram. It
follows, from symmetry, that the geometric centre of the pyramid lies on the z-
axis. It only remains to calculate the perpendicular distance, zcm , between the
geometric centre and the base of the pyramid. This quantity is obtained from the

170
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.5 Centre of mass

y z
geometric centre

a x h
a z cm
x
a a

top view side view

Figure 74: Locating the geometric centre of a regular square-sided pyramid.

z-component of Eq. (8.20):

RRR
z dx dy dz
zcm = RRR , (8.21)
dx dy dz
where the integral is taken over the volume of the pyramid.

In the above integral, the limits of integration for z are z = 0 to z = h, respec-

tively (i.e., from the base to the apex of the pyramid). The corresponding limits of
integration for x and y are x, y = −a (1 − z/h)/2 to x, y = +a (1 − z/h)/2, respec-
tively (i.e., the limits are x, y = ±a/2 at the base of the pyramid, and x, y = ±0
at the apex). Hence, Eq. (8.21) can be written more explicitly as
Rh R+a (1−z/h)/2 R+a (1−z/h)/2
0 z dz −a (1−z/h)/2 dy −a (1−z/h)/2 dx
zcm = Rh R+a (1−z/h)/2 R+a (1−z/h)/2 . (8.22)
0 dz −a (1−z/h)/2 dy −a (1−z/h)/2 dx

As indicated above, it makes sense to perform the x- and y- integrals before

the z-integrals, since the limits of integration for the x- and y- integrals are z-
dependent. Performing the x-integrals, we obtain
Rh R+a (1−z/h)/2
0 z dz −a (1−z/h)/2 a (1 − z/h) dy
zcm = Rh R+a (1−z/h)/2 . (8.23)
0 dz −a (1−z/h)/2 a (1 − z/h) dy

171
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

Performing the y-integrals, we obtain

Rh 2 2
0 a z (1 − z/h) dz
zcm = Rh . (8.24)
a 2 (1 − z/h)2 dz
0

Finally, performing the z-integrals, we obtain

h ih
a2 z2 /2 − 2 z3 /(3 h) + z4 /(4 h2 ) 0 a2 h2 /12 h
zcm = h = 2 = . (8.25)
a2 [z − z2 /(h) + z3 /(3 h)]0 a h/3 4
Thus, the geometric centre of a regular square-sided pyramid is located on the
symmetry axis, one quarter of the way from the base to the apex.

8.6 Moment of inertia

Consider an extended object which is made up of N elements. Let the ith element
possess mass mi , position vector ri , and velocity vi . The total kinetic energy of
the object is written
X 1
K= mi vi2 . (8.26)
i=1,N
2
Suppose that the motion of the object consists merely of rigid rotation at angular
velocity ω. It follows, from Sect. 8.4, that
vi = ω × r i . (8.27)
Let us write
ω = ω k, (8.28)
where k is a unit vector aligned along the axis of rotation (which is assumed
to pass through the origin of our coordinate system). It follows from the above
equations that the kinetic energy of rotation of the object takes the form
X 1
K= mi |k × ri |2 ω2 , (8.29)
i=1,N
2
or
1
K= I ω2 . (8.30)
2
172
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

Here, the quantity I is termed the moment of inertia of the object, and is written
X X
I= mi |k × ri |2 = mi σi2 , (8.31)
i=1,N i=1,N

where σi = |k × ri | is the perpendicular distance from the ith element to the axis
of rotation. Note that for translational motion we usually write
1
K= M v2 , (8.32)
2
where M represents mass and v represents speed. A comparison of Eqs. (8.30)
and (8.32) suggests that moment of inertia plays the same role in rotational
motion that mass plays in translational motion.

For a continuous object, analogous arguments to those employed in Sect. 8.5

yield ZZZ
I= ρ σ2 dV, (8.33)

where ρ(r) is the mass density of the object, σ = |k × r| is the perpendicular

distance from the axis of rotation, and dV is a volume element. Finally, for an
object of constant density, the above expression reduces to
RRR 2
σ dV
I = M RRR . (8.34)
dV
Here, M is the total mass of the object. Note that the integrals are taken over the
whole volume of the object.

The moment of inertia of a uniform object depends not only on the size and
shape of that object but on the location of the axis about which the object is
rotating. In particular, the same object can have different moments of inertia
when rotating about different axes.

Unfortunately, the evaluation of the moment of inertia of a given body about

a given axis invariably involves the performance of a nasty volume integral. In
fact, there is only one trivial moment of inertia calculation—namely, the moment
of inertia of a thin circular ring about a symmetric axis which runs perpendicular
to the plane of the ring. See Fig. 75. Suppose that M is the mass of the ring, and

173
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

axis I = M b2

M
ring

Figure 75: The moment of inertia of a ring about a perpendicular symmetric axis.

b is its radius. Each element of the ring shares a common perpendicular distance
from the axis of rotation—i.e., σ = b. Hence, Eq. (8.34) reduces to

I = M b2 . (8.35)

In general, moments of inertia are rather tedious to calculate. Fortunately,

there exist two powerful theorems which enable us to simply relate the moment
of inertia of a given body about a given axis to the moment of inertia of the same
body about another axis. The first of these theorems is called the perpendicular
axis theorem, and only applies to uniform laminar objects. Consider a laminar
object (i.e., a thin, planar object) of uniform density. Suppose, for the sake of
simplicity, that the object lies in the x-y plane. The moment of inertia of the
object about the z-axis is given by
RR 2
(x + y2 ) dx dy
Iz = M RR , (8.36)
dx dy
where we have suppressed the trivial z-integration, and the integral is taken over
the extent of the object in the x-y plane. Incidentally, the above expression fol-
lows from the observation that σ2 = x2 +y2 when the axis of rotation is coincident
with the z-axis. Likewise, the moments of inertia of the object about the x- and
y- axes take the form
RR 2
y dx dy
Ix = M R R , (8.37)
dx dy

174
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

z
Iz = I x + I y

Figure 76: The perpendicular axis theorem.

RR 2
x dx dy
Iy = M RR , (8.38)
dx dy
respectively. Here, we have made use of the fact that z = 0 inside the object. It
follows by inspection of the previous three equations that
Iz = I x + I y . (8.39)
See Fig. 76.

Let us use the perpendicular axis theorem to find the moment of inertia of a
thin ring about a symmetric axis which lies in the plane of the ring. Adopting the
coordinate system shown in Fig. 77, it is clear, from symmetry, that Ix = Iy . Now,
we already know that Iz = M b2 , where M is the mass of the ring, and b is its
radius. Hence, the perpendicular axis theorem tells us that
2 Ix = I z , (8.40)
or
Iz 1
Ix = = M b2 . (8.41)
2 2
Of course, Iz > Ix , because when the ring spins about the z-axis its elements are,
on average, farther from the axis of rotation than when it spins about the x-axis.

The second useful theorem regarding moments of inertia is called the parallel
axis theorem. The parallel axis theorem—which is quite general—states that if I
is the moment of inertia of a given body about an axis passing through the centre

175
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

ring

Figure 77: The moment of inertia of a ring about a coplanar symmetric axis.

of mass of that body, then the moment of inertia I 0 of the same body about a
second axis which is parallel to the first is
I 0 = I + M d2 , (8.42)
where M is the mass of the body, and d is the perpendicular distance between
the two axes.

In order to prove the parallel axis theorem, let us choose the origin of our
coordinate system to coincide with the centre of mass of the body in question.
Furthermore, let us orientate the axes of our coordinate system such that the z-
axis coincides with the first axis of rotation, whereas the second axis pieces the
x-y plane at x = d, y = 0. From Eq. (8.20), the fact that the centre of mass is
located at the origin implies that
ZZZ ZZZ ZZZ
x dx dy dz = y dx dy dz = z dx dy dz = 0, (8.43)

where the integrals are taken over the volume of the body. From Eq. (8.34), the
expression for the first moment of inertia is
RRR 2
(x + y2 ) dx dy dz
I=M RRR , (8.44)
dx dy dz
since x2 + y2 is the perpendicular distance of a general point (x, y, z) from the
z-axis. Likewise, the expression for the second moment of inertia takes the form
RRR
[(x − d)2 + y2 ] dx dy dz
I0 = M RRR . (8.45)
dx dy dz
176
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

The above equation can be expanded to give

RRR 2
0 [(x + y2 ) − 2 d x + d2 ] dx dy dz
I = M RRR
dx dy dz
RRR 2 RRR
(x + y2 ) dx dy dz x dx dy dz
= M RRR − 2 d M RRR
dx dy dz dx dy dz
RRR
dx dy dz
+d2 M RRR . (8.46)
dx dy dz
It follows from Eqs. (8.43) and (8.44) that

I 0 = I + M d2 , (8.47)

which proves the theorem.

Let us use the parallel axis theorem to calculate the moment of inertia, I 0 , of
a thin ring about an axis which runs perpendicular to the plane of the ring, and
passes through the circumference of the ring. We know that the moment of inertia
of a ring of mass M and radius b about an axis which runs perpendicular to the
plane of the ring, and passes through the centre of the ring—which coincides
with the centre of mass of the ring—is I = M b2 . Our new axis is parallel to this
original axis, but shifted sideways by the perpendicular distance b. Hence, the
parallel axis theorem tells us that

I 0 = I + M b 2 = 2 M b2 . (8.48)

See Fig. 78.

As an illustration of the direct application of formula (8.34), let us calculate

the moment of inertia of a thin circular disk, of mass M and radius b, about an
axis which passes through the centre of the disk, and runs perpendicular to the
plane of the disk. Let us choose our coordinate system such that the disk lies
in the x-y plane with its centre at the origin. The axis of rotation is, therefore,
coincident with the z-axis. Hence, formula (8.34) reduces to
RR 2
(x + y2 ) dx dy
I=M RR , (8.49)
dx dy
177
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.6 Moment of inertia

axis 2 axis 2
I=Mb I=2Mb

M M
ring ring

b b

original axis new axis

Figure 78: An application of the parallel axis theorem.

where the integrals are taken over the area of the disk, and the redundant z-
integration has been suppressed.
q Let us divide the disk up into thin annuli. Con-
sider an annulus of radius σ = x2 + y2 and radial thickness dσ. The area of this
annulus is simply 2π σ dσ. Hence, we can replace dx dy in the above integrals by
2π σ dσ, so as to give
Rb 3
0 2π σ dσ
I = M Rb . (8.50)
0 2π σ dσ
The above expression yields
h ib
2 π σ4 /4 1
I=M 0
b = M b2 . (8.51)
2
[2 π σ /2]0 2

Similar calculations to the above yield the following standard results:

• The moment of inertia of a thin rod of mass M and length l about an axis
passing through the centre of the rod and perpendicular to its length is
1
I= M l2 .
12
• The moment of inertia of a thin rectangular sheet of mass M and dimensions
a and b about a perpendicular axis passing through the centre of the sheet
is
1
I= M (a2 + b2 ).
12

178
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.7 Torque

• The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder of mass M and radius b about the
cylindrical axis is
1
I = M b2 .
2
• The moment of inertia of a thin spherical shell of mass M and radius b about
a diameter is
2
I = M b2 .
3
• The moment of inertia of a solid sphere of mass M and radius b about a
diameter is
2
I = M b2 .
5

8.7 Torque

We have now identified the rotational equivalent of velocity—namely, angular

velocity—and the rotational equivalent of mass—namely, moment of inertia. But,
what is the rotational equivalent of force?

Consider a bicycle wheel of radius b which is free to rotate around a perpen-

dicular axis passing through its centre. Suppose that we apply a force f, which
is coplanar with the wheel, to a point P lying on its circumference. See Fig. 79.
What is the wheel’s subsequent motion?

Let us choose the origin O of our coordinate system to coincide with the pivot
point of the wheel—i.e., the point of intersection between the wheel and the axis
of rotation. Let r be the position vector of point P, and let θ be the angle sub-
tended between the directions of r and f. We can resolve f into two components—
namely, a component f cos θ which acts radially, and a component f sin θ which
acts tangentially. The radial component of f is canceled out by a reaction at the
pivot, since the wheel is assumed to be mounted in such a manner that it can only
rotate, and is prevented from displacing sideways. The tangential component of
f causes the wheel to accelerate tangentially. Let v be the instantaneous rotation
velocity of the wheel’s circumference. Newton’s second law of motion, applied to

179
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.7 Torque

f sinθ f

O r
P
b

Figure 79: A rotating bicycle wheel.

the tangential motion of the wheel, yields

M v̇ = f sin θ, (8.52)

where M is the mass of the wheel (which is assumed to be concentrated in the

wheel’s rim).

Let us now convert the above expression into a rotational equation of motion.
If ω is the instantaneous angular velocity of the wheel, then the relation between
ω and v is simply
v = b ω. (8.53)
Since the wheel is basically a ring of radius b, rotating about a perpendicular
symmetric axis, its moment of inertia is

I = M b2 . (8.54)

Combining the previous three equations, we obtain

I ω̇ = τ, (8.55)

where
τ = f b sin θ. (8.56)

Equation (8.55) is the angular equation of motion of the wheel. It relates the
wheel’s angular velocity, ω, and moment of inertia, I, to a quantity, τ, which is
known as the torque. Clearly, if I is analogous to mass, and ω is analogous to

180
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.7 Torque

f
τ=fl
θ

b P

Figure 80: Definition of the length of the level arm, l.

velocity, then torque must be analogous to force. In other words, torque is the
rotational equivalent of force.

It is clear, from Eq. (8.56), that a torque is the product of the magnitude of
the applied force, f, and some distance l = b sin θ. The physical interpretation
of l is illustrated in Fig. 80. If can be seen that l is the perpendicular distance of
the line of action of the force from the axis of rotation. We usually refer to this
distance as the length of the lever arm.

In summary, a torque measures the propensity of a given force to cause the

object upon which it acts to twist about a certain axis. The torque, τ, is simply
the product of the magnitude of the applied force, f, and the length of the lever
arm, l:
τ = f l. (8.57)
Of course, this definition makes a lot of sense. We all know that it is far easier
to turn a rusty bolt using a long, rather than a short, wrench. Assuming that we
exert the same force on the end of each wrench, the torque we apply to the bolt
is larger in the former case, since the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the force and the bolt (i.e., the length of the wrench) is greater.

181
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.7 Torque

Since force is a vector quantity, it stands to reason that torque must also be
a vector quantity. It follows that Eq. (8.57) defines the magnitude, τ, of some
torque vector, τ. But, what is the direction of this vector? By convention, if a
torque is such as to cause the object upon which it acts to twist about a certain
axis, then the direction of that torque runs along the direction of the axis in the
sense given by the right-hand grip rule. In other words, if the fingers of the right-
hand circulate around the axis of rotation in the sense in which the torque twists
the object, then the thumb of the right-hand points along the axis in the direction
of the torque. It follows that we can rewrite our rotational equation of motion,
Eq. (8.55), in vector form:
dω
I = I α = τ, (8.58)
dt
where α = dω/dt is the vector angular acceleration. Note that the direction of α
indicates the direction of the rotation axis about which the object accelerates (in
the sense given by the right-hand grip rule), whereas the direction of τ indicates
the direction of the rotation axis about which the torque attempts to twist the
object (in the sense given by the right-hand grip rule). Of course, these two
rotation axes are identical.

Although Eq. (8.58) was derived for the special case of a torque applied to a
ring rotating about a perpendicular symmetric axis, it is, nevertheless, completely
general.

It is important to appreciate that the directions we ascribe to angular velocities,

angular accelerations, and torques are merely conventions. There is actually no
physical motion in the direction of the angular velocity vector—in fact, all of the
motion is in the plane perpendicular to this vector. Likewise, there is no physical
acceleration in the direction of the angular acceleration vector—again, all of the
acceleration is in the plane perpendicular to this vector. Finally, no physical forces
act in the direction of the torque vector—in fact, all of the forces act in the plane
perpendicular to this vector.

Consider a rigid body which is free to pivot in any direction about some fixed
point O. Suppose that a force f is applied to the body at some point P whose
position vector relative to O is r. See Fig. 81. Let θ be the angle subtended

182
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.7 Torque

f
torque
θ

r
O

pivot

Figure 81: Torque about a fixed point.

between the directions of r and f. What is the vector torque τ acting on the
object about an axis passing through the pivot point? The magnitude of this
torque is simply
τ = r f sin θ. (8.59)
In Fig. 81, the conventional direction of the torque is out of the page. Another
way of saying this is that the direction of the torque is mutually perpendicular
to both r and f, in the sense given by the right-hand grip rule when vector r is
rotated onto vector f (through an angle less than 180◦ degrees). It follows that
we can write
τ = r × f. (8.60)
In other words, the torque exerted by a force acting on a rigid body which pivots
about some fixed point is the vector product of the displacement of the point of
application of the force from the pivot point with the force itself. Equation (8.60)
specifies both the magnitude of the torque, and the axis of rotation about which
the torque twists the body upon which it acts. This axis runs parallel to the
direction of τ, and passes through the pivot point.

183
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.8 Power and work

8.8 Power and work

Consider a mass m attached to the end of a light rod of length l whose other end
is attached to a fixed pivot. Suppose that the pivot is such that the rod is free
to rotate in any direction. Suppose, further, that a force f is applied to the mass,
whose instantaneous angular velocity about an axis of rotation passing through
the pivot is ω.

Let v be the instantaneous velocity of the mass. We know that the rate at which
the force f performs work on the mass—otherwise known as the power—is given
by (see Sect. 5.8)
P = f·v. (8.61)
However, we also know that (see Sect. 8.4)

v = ω × r, (8.62)

where r is the vector displacement of the mass from the pivot. Hence, we can
write
P =ω×r·f (8.63)
(note that a·b = b·a).

Now, for any three vectors, a, b, and c, we can write

a × b · c = a · b × c. (8.64)

This theorem is easily proved by expanding the vector and scalar products in
component form using the definitions (8.11) and (8.13). It follows that Eq. (8.63)
can be rewritten
P = ω · r × f. (8.65)
However,
τ = r × f, (8.66)
where τ is the torque associated with force f about an axis of rotation passing
through the pivot. Hence, we obtain

P = τ·ω. (8.67)

184
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.8 Power and work

In other words, the rate at which a torque performs work on the object upon
which it acts is the scalar product of the torque and the angular velocity of the
object. Note the great similarity between Eq. (8.61) and Eq. (8.67).

Now the relationship between work, W, and power, P, is simply

dW
P= . (8.68)
dt
Likewise, the relationship between angular velocity, ω, and angle of rotation, φ,
is
dφ
ω= . (8.69)
dt
It follows that Eq. (8.67) can be rewritten

dW = τ·dφ. (8.70)

Integration yields Z
W= τ·dφ. (8.71)

Note that this is a good definition, since it only involves an infinitesimal rotation
vector, dφ. Recall, from Sect. 8.3, that it is impossible to define a finite rotation
vector. For the case of translational motion, the analogous expression to the
above is Z
W = f·dr. (8.72)

Here, f is the force, and dr is an element of displacement of the body upon which
the force acts.

Although Eqs. (8.67) and (8.71) were derived for the special case of the ro-
tation of a mass attached to the end of a light rod, they are, nevertheless, com-
pletely general.

Consider, finally, the special case in which the torque is aligned with the an-
gular velocity, and both are constant in time. In this case, the rate at which the
torque performs work is simply
P = τ ω. (8.73)

185
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.9 Translational motion versus rotational motion

Translational motion Rotational motion

Displacement dr Angular displacement dφ
Velocity v = dr/dt Angular velocity ω = dφ/dt
Acceleration a = dv/dt Angular acceleration α = dω/dt
R
Mass M Moment of inertia I = ρ |ω^ ×r|2 dV

Force f = Ma Torque τ ≡ r × f = Iα
R R
Work W = f·dr Work W = τ·dφ
Power P = f·v Power P = τ·ω
2
Kinetic energy K = M v /2 Kinetic energy K = I ω2 /2

Table 3: The analogies between translational and rotational motion.

Likewise, the net work performed by the torque in twisting the body upon which
it acts through an angle ∆φ is just

W = τ ∆φ. (8.74)

8.9 Translational motion versus rotational motion

It should be clear, by now, that there is a strong analogy between rotational mo-
tion and standard translational motion. Indeed, each physical concept used to
analyze rotational motion has its translational concomitant. Likewise, every law
of physics governing rotational motion has a translational equivalent. The analo-
gies between rotational and translational motion are summarized in Table 3.

8.10 The physics of baseball

Baseball players know from experience that there is a “sweet spot” on a baseball
bat, about 17 cm from the end of the barrel, where the shock of impact with the
ball, as felt by the hands, is minimized. In fact, if the ball strikes the bat exactly
on the “sweet spot” then the hitter is almost unaware of the collision. Conversely,
if the ball strikes the bat well away from the “sweet spot” then the impact is felt
as a painful jarring of the hands.

186
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.10 The physics of baseball

pivot

J’ J’

bat
b
centre of mass
h
l v
ball

J J

Figure 82: A schematic baseball bat.

The existence of a “sweet spot” on a baseball bat is just a consequence of ro-

tational dynamics. Let us analyze this problem. Consider the schematic baseball
bat shown in Fig. 82. Let M be the mass of the bat, and let l be its length. Sup-
pose that the bat pivots about a fixed point located at one of its ends. Let the
centre of mass of the bat be located a distance b from the pivot point. Finally,
suppose that the ball strikes the bat a distance h from the pivot point.

The collision between the bat and the ball can be modeled as equal and oppo-
site impulses, J, applied to each object at the time of the collision (see Sect. 6.5).
At the same time, equal and opposite impulses J 0 are applied to the pivot and the
bat, as shown in Fig. 82. If the pivot actually corresponds to a hitter’s hands then
the latter impulse gives rise to the painful jarring sensation felt when the ball is
not struck properly.

We saw earlier that in a general multi-component system—which includes an

extended body such as a baseball bat—the motion of the centre of mass takes
a particularly simple form (see Sect. 6.3). To be more exact, the motion of the
centre of mass is equivalent to that of the point particle obtained by concentrating
the whole mass of the system at the centre of mass, and then allowing all of the
external forces acting on the system to act upon that mass. Let us use this idea to

187
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.10 The physics of baseball

analyze the effect of the collision with the ball on the motion of the bat’s centre
of mass. The centre of mass of the bat acts like a point particle of mass M which
is subject to the two impulses, J and J 0 (which are applied simultaneously). If v
is the instantaneous velocity of the centre of mass then the change in momentum
of this point due to the action of the two impulses is simply

M ∆v = −J − J 0 . (8.75)

The minus signs on the right-hand side of the above equation follow from the fact
that the impulses are oppositely directed to v in Fig. 82.

Note that in order to specify the instantaneous state of an extended body we

must do more than just specify the location of the body’s centre of mass. In-
deed, since the body can rotate about its centre of mass, we must also specify its
orientation in space. Thus, in order to follow the motion of an extended body,
we must not only follow the translational motion of its centre of mass, but also
the body’s rotational motion about this point (or any other convenient reference
point located within the body).

Consider the rotational motion of the bat shown in Fig. 82 about a perpendic-
ular (to the bat) axis passing through the pivot point. This motion satisfies
dω
I = τ, (8.76)
dt
where I is the moment of inertia of the bat, ω is its instantaneous angular velocity,
and τ is the applied torque. The bat is actually subject to an impulsive torque (i.e.,
a torque which only lasts for a short period in time) at the time of the collision
with the ball. Defining the angular impulse K associated with an impulsive torque
τ in much the same manner as we earlier defined the impulse associated with an
impulsive force (see Sect. 6.5), we obtain
Zt
K = τ dt. (8.77)

It follows that we can integrate Eq. (8.76) over the time of the collision to find

I ∆ω = K, (8.78)

188
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.10 The physics of baseball

where ∆ω is the change in angular velocity of the bat due to the collision with
the ball.

Now, the torque associated with a given force is equal to the magnitude of the
force times the length of the lever arm. Thus, it stands to reason that the angular
impulse, K, associated with an impulse, J, is simply
K = J x, (8.79)
where x is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the impulse to the
axis of rotation. Hence, the angular impulses associated with the two impulses,
J and J 0 , to which the bat is subject when it collides with the ball, are J h and 0,
respectively. The latter angular impulse is zero since the point of application of
the associated impulse coincides with the pivot point, and so the length of the
lever arm is zero. It follows that Eq. (8.78) can be written
I ∆ω = −J h. (8.80)
The minus sign comes from the fact that the impulse J is oppositely directed to
the angular velocity in Fig. 82.

Now, the relationship between the instantaneous velocity of the bat’s centre of
mass and the bat’s instantaneous angular velocity is simply
v = b ω. (8.81)
Hence, Eq. (8.75) can be rewritten
M b ∆ω = −J − J 0 . (8.82)

Equations (8.80) and (8.82) can be combined to yield

Mbh
!
0
J =− 1− J. (8.83)
I
’ The above expression specifies the magnitude of the impulse J 0 applied to the
hitter’s hands terms of the magnitude of the impulse J applied to the ball.

Let us crudely model the bat as a uniform rod of length l and mass M. It
follows, by symmetry, that the centre of mass of the bat lies at its half-way point:

189
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

i.e.,
l
b= . (8.84)
2
Moreover, the moment of inertia of the bat about a perpendicular axis passing
through one of its ends is
1
I = M l2 (8.85)
3
(this is a standard result). Combining the previous three equations, we obtain
3h h
! !
0
J =− 1− J=− 1− J, (8.86)
2l h0
where
2
h0 = l. (8.87)
3
Clearly, if h = h0 then no matter how hard the ball is hit (i.e., no matter how
large we make J) zero impulse is applied to the hitter’s hands. We conclude that
the “sweet spot”—or, in scientific terms, the centre of percussion—of a uniform
baseball bat lies two-thirds of the way down the bat from the hitter’s end. If
we adopt a more realistic model of a baseball bat, in which the bat is tapered
such that the majority of its weight is located at its hitting end, we can easily
demonstrate that the centre of percussion is shifted further away from the hitter
(i.e., it is more that two-thirds of the way along the bat).

8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

In Sect. 4.7, we analyzed the motion of a block sliding down a frictionless incline.
We found that the block accelerates down the slope with uniform acceleration
g sin θ, where θ is the angle subtended by the incline with the horizontal. In this
case, all of the potential energy lost by the block, as it slides down the slope, is
converted into translational kinetic energy (see Sect. 5). In particular, no energy
is dissipated.

There is, of course, no way in which a block can slide over a frictional surface
without dissipating energy. However, we know from experience that a round

190
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

object can roll over such a surface with hardly any dissipation. For instance, it
is far easier to drag a heavy suitcase across the concourse of an airport if the
suitcase has wheels on the bottom. Let us investigate the physics of round objects
rolling over rough surfaces, and, in particular, rolling down rough inclines.

Consider a uniform cylinder of radius b rolling over a horizontal, frictional

surface. See Fig. 83. Let v be the translational velocity of the cylinder’s centre
of mass, and let ω be the angular velocity of the cylinder about an axis running
along its length, and passing through its centre of mass. Consider the point of
contact between the cylinder and the surface. The velocity v 0 of this point is
made up of two components: the translational velocity v, which is common to
all elements of the cylinder, and the tangential velocity vt = −b ω, due to the
cylinder’s rotational motion. Thus,
v 0 = v − vt = v − b ω. (8.88)
Suppose that the cylinder rolls without slipping. In other words, suppose that
there is no frictional energy dissipation as the cylinder moves over the surface.
This is only possible if there is zero net motion between the surface and the
bottom of the cylinder, which implies v 0 = 0, or
v = b ω. (8.89)
It follows that when a cylinder, or any other round object, rolls across a rough sur-
face without slipping—i.e., without dissipating energy—then the cylinder’s trans-
lational and rotational velocities are not independent, but satisfy a particular
relationship (see the above equation). Of course, if the cylinder slips as it rolls
across the surface then this relationship no longer holds.

Consider, now, what happens when the cylinder shown in Fig. 83 rolls, with-
out slipping, down a rough slope whose angle of inclination, with respect to the
horizontal, is θ. If the cylinder starts from rest, and rolls down the slope a verti-
cal distance h, then its gravitational potential energy decreases by −∆P = M g h,
where M is the mass of the cylinder. This decrease in potential energy must be
offset by a corresponding increase in kinetic energy. (Recall that when a cylin-
der rolls without slipping there is no frictional energy loss.) However, a rolling
cylinder can possesses two different types of kinetic energy. Firstly, translational

191
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

vt
centre of mass

cylinder
v
b

vt
surface

Figure 83: A cylinder rolling over a rough surface.

kinetic energy: Kt = (1/2) M v2 , where v is the cylinder’s translational velocity;

and, secondly, rotational kinetic energy: Kr = (1/2) I ω2 , where ω is the cylin-
der’s angular velocity, and I is its moment of inertia. Hence, energy conservation
yields
1 1
M g h = M v 2 + I ω2 . (8.90)
2 2
Now, when the cylinder rolls without slipping, its translational and rotational
velocities are related via Eq. (8.89). It follows from Eq. (8.90) that
2gh
v2 = . (8.91)
1 + I/M b2
Making use of the fact that the moment of inertia of a uniform cylinder about
its axis of symmetry is I = (1/2) M b2 , we can write the above equation more
explicitly as
4
v2 = g h. (8.92)
3
Now, if the same cylinder were to slide down a frictionless slope, such that it fell
from rest through a vertical distance h, then its final translational velocity would
satisfy
v2 = 2 g h. (8.93)
A comparison of Eqs. (8.92) and (8.93) reveals that when a uniform cylinder rolls
down an incline without slipping, its final translational velocity is less than that
obtained when the cylinder slides down the same incline without friction. The
reason for this is that, in the former case, some of the potential energy released

192
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

centre of mass
cylinder

f b
R

Mg

slope

Figure 84: A cylinder rolling down a rough incline.

as the cylinder falls is converted into rotational kinetic energy, whereas, in the
latter case, all of the released potential energy is converted into translational
kinetic energy. Note that, in both cases, the cylinder’s total kinetic energy at the
bottom of the incline is equal to the released potential energy.

Let us examine the equations of motion of a cylinder, of mass M and radius

b, rolling down a rough slope without slipping. As shown in Fig. 84, there are
three forces acting on the cylinder. Firstly, we have the cylinder’s weight, M g,
which acts vertically downwards. Secondly, we have the reaction, R, of the slope,
which acts normally outwards from the surface of the slope. Finally, we have the
frictional force, f, which acts up the slope, parallel to its surface.

As we have already discussed, we can most easily describe the translational

motion of an extended body by following the motion of its centre of mass. This
motion is equivalent to that of a point particle, whose mass equals that of the
body, which is subject to the same external forces as those that act on the body.
Thus, applying the three forces, M g, R, and f, to the cylinder’s centre of mass,
and resolving in the direction normal to the surface of the slope, we obtain
R = M g cos θ. (8.94)
Furthermore, Newton’s second law, applied to the motion of the centre of mass

193
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

parallel to the slope, yields

M v̇ = M g sin θ − f, (8.95)
where v̇ is the cylinder’s translational acceleration down the slope.

Let us, now, examine the cylinder’s rotational equation of motion. First, we
must evaluate the torques associated with the three forces acting on the cylin-
der. Recall, that the torque associated with a given force is the product of the
magnitude of that force and the length of the level arm—i.e., the perpendicular
distance between the line of action of the force and the axis of rotation. Now, by
definition, the weight of an extended object acts at its centre of mass. However,
in this case, the axis of rotation passes through the centre of mass. Hence, the
length of the lever arm associated with the weight M g is zero. It follows that
the associated torque is also zero. It is clear, from Fig. 84, that the line of action
of the reaction force, R, passes through the centre of mass of the cylinder, which
coincides with the axis of rotation. Thus, the length of the lever arm associated
with R is zero, and so is the associated torque. Finally, according to Fig. 84, the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the friction force, f, and the
axis of rotation is just the radius of the cylinder, b—so the associated torque is
f b. We conclude that the net torque acting on the cylinder is simply
τ = f b. (8.96)
It follows that the rotational equation of motion of the cylinder takes the form,
I ω̇ = τ = f b, (8.97)
where I is its moment of inertia, and ω̇ is its rotational acceleration.

Now, if the cylinder rolls, without slipping, such that the constraint (8.89) is
satisfied at all times, then the time derivative of this constraint implies the follow-
ing relationship between the cylinder’s translational and rotational accelerations:
v̇ = b ω̇. (8.98)
It follows from Eqs. (8.95) and (8.97) that
g sin θ
v̇ = , (8.99)
1 + I/M b2
194
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

M g sin θ
f = . (8.100)
1 + M b2 /I
Since the moment of inertia of the cylinder is actually I = (1/2) M b 2 , the above
expressions simplify to give
2
v̇ = g sin θ, (8.101)
3
and
1
f = M g sin θ. (8.102)
3
Note that the acceleration of a uniform cylinder as it rolls down a slope, without
slipping, is only two-thirds of the value obtained when the cylinder slides down
the same slope without friction. It is clear from Eq. (8.95) that, in the former
case, the acceleration of the cylinder down the slope is retarded by friction. Note,
however, that the frictional force merely acts to convert translational kinetic en-
ergy into rotational kinetic energy, and does not dissipate energy.

Now, in order for the slope to exert the frictional force specified in Eq. (8.102),
without any slippage between the slope and cylinder, this force must be less than
the maximum allowable static frictional force, µ R(= µ M g cos θ), where µ is the
coefficient of static friction. In other words, the condition for the cylinder to roll
down the slope without slipping is f < µ R, or

tan θ < 3 µ. (8.103)

This condition is easily satisfied for gentle slopes, but may well be violated for ex-
tremely steep slopes (depending on the size of µ). Of course, the above condition
is always violated for frictionless slopes, for which µ = 0.

Suppose, finally, that we place two cylinders, side by side and at rest, at the top
of a frictional slope of inclination θ. Let the two cylinders possess the same mass,
M, and the same radius, b. However, suppose that the first cylinder is uniform,
whereas the second is a hollow shell. Which cylinder reaches the bottom of
the slope first, assuming that they are both released simultaneously, and both
roll without slipping? The acceleration of each cylinder down the slope is given
by Eq. (8.99). For the case of the solid cylinder, the moment of inertia is I =

195
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

(1/2) M b2 , and so
2
v̇solid =g sin θ. (8.104)
3
For the case of the hollow cylinder, the moment of inertia is I = M b2 (i.e., the
same as that of a ring with a similar mass, radius, and axis of rotation), and so
1
v̇hollow = g sin θ. (8.105)
2
It is clear that the solid cylinder reaches the bottom of the slope before the hollow
one (since it possesses the greater acceleration). Note that the accelerations of
the two cylinders are independent of their sizes or masses. This suggests that a
solid cylinder will always roll down a frictional incline faster than a hollow one,
irrespective of their relative dimensions (assuming that they both roll without
slipping). In fact, Eq. (8.99) suggests that whenever two different objects roll
(without slipping) down the same slope, then the most compact object—i.e., the
object with the smallest I/M b2 ratio—always wins the race.

Worked example 8.1: Balancing tires

Question: A tire placed on a balancing machine in a service station starts from

rest and turns through 5.3 revolutions in 2.3 s before reaching its final angular
speed. What is the angular acceleration of the tire (assuming that this quantity
remains constant)? What is the final angular speed of the tire?

Answer: The tire turns through φ = 5.3 × 2 π = 33.30 rad. in t = 2.3 s. The
relationship between φ and t for the case of rotational motion, starting from rest,
with uniform angular acceleration α is
1 2
φ= αt .
2
Hence,
2 φ 2 × 33.30
α= 2
= 2
= 12.59 rad./s2 .
t 2.3

196
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

Given that the tire starts from rest, its angular velocity after t seconds takes
the form
ω = α t = 12.59 × 2.3 = 28.96 rad./s.

Worked example 8.2: Accelerating a wheel

Question: The net work done in accelerating a wheel from rest to an angular
speed of 30 rev./min. is W = 5500 J. What is the moment of inertia of the wheel?

Answer: The final angular speed of the wheel is

ω = 30 × 2 π/60 = 3.142 rad./s.
Assuming that all of the work W performed on the wheel goes to increase its
rotational kinetic energy, we have
1
W= I ω2 ,
2
where I is the wheel’s moment of inertia. It follows that
2W 2 × 5500
I= 2 = 2
= 1114.6 kg m2 .
ω 3.142

Worked example 8.3: Moment of inertia of a rod

Question: A rod of mass M = 3 kg and length L = 1.2 m pivots about an axis,

perpendicular to its length, which passes through one of its ends. What is the
moment of inertia of the rod? Given that the rod’s instantaneous angular velocity
is 60 deg./s, what is its rotational kinetic energy?

Answer: The moment of inertia of a rod of mass M and length L about an axis,
perpendicular to its length, which passes through its midpoint is I = (1/12) M L 2 .
This is a standard result. Using the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia
about a parallel axis passing through one of the ends of the rod is
!2
L 1
0
I =I+M = M L2 ,
2 3
197
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

so
3 × 1.22
0
I = = 1.44 kg m2 .
3
The instantaneous angular velocity of the rod is
π
ω = 60 × = 1.047 rad./s.
180
Hence, the rod’s rotational kinetic energy is written
1 0 2
K= I ω = 0.5 × 1.44 × 1.0472 = 0.789 J.
2

Worked example 8.4: Weight and pulley

Question: A weight of mass m = 2.6 kg is suspended via a light inextensible

cable which is wound around a pulley of mass M = 6.4 kg and radius b = 0.4 m.
Treating the pulley as a uniform disk, find the downward acceleration of the
weight and the tension in the cable. Assume that the cable does not slip with
respect to the pulley.
b
pulley

ω
T

weight

mg

Answer: Let v be the instantaneous downward velocity of the weight, ω the in-
stantaneous angular velocity of the pulley, and T the tension in the cable. Apply-
ing Newton’s second law to the vertical motion of the weight, we obtain
m v̇ = m g − T.

198
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

The angular equation of motion of the pulley is written

I ω̇ = τ,
where I is its moment of inertia, and τ is the torque acting on the pulley. Now, the
only force acting on the pulley (whose line of action does not pass through the
pulley’s axis of rotation) is the tension in the cable. The torque associated with
this force is the product of the tension, T , and the perpendicular distance from
the line of action of this force to the rotation axis, which is equal to the radius, b,
of the pulley. Hence,
τ = T b.
If the cable does not slip with respect to the pulley, then its downward velocity, v,
must match the tangential velocity of the outer surface of the pulley, b ω. Thus,
v = b ω.
It follows that
v̇ = b ω̇.

The above equations can be combined to give

g
v̇ = ,
1 + I/m b2
mg
T = .
1 + m b2 /I
Now, the moment of inertia of the pulley is I = (1/2) M b2 . Hence, the above
expressions reduce to
g 9.81
v̇ = = = 4.40 m/s2 ,
1 + M/2 m 1 + 6.4/2 × 2.6
mg 2.6 × 9.81
T = = = 14.07 N.
1 + 2 m/M 1 + 2 × 2.6/6.4

Worked example 8.5: Hinged rod

Question: A uniform rod of mass m = 5.3 kg and length l = 1.3 m rotates about a
fixed frictionless pivot located at one of its ends. The rod is released from rest at

199
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

an angle θ = 35◦ beneath the horizontal. What is the angular acceleration of the
rod immediately after it is released?
x
pivot
θ

l/2
rod

l
mg

Answer: The moment of inertia of a rod of mass m and length l about an axis,
perpendicular to its length, which passes through one of its ends is I = (1/3) m l 2
(see question 8.3). Hence,
5.3 × 1.32
I= = 2.986 kg m2 .
3
The angular equation of motion of the rod is
I α = τ,
where α is the rod’s angular acceleration, and τ is the net torque exerted on the
rod. Now, the only force acting on the rod (whose line of action does not pass
through the pivot) is the rod’s weight, m g. This force acts at the centre of mass
of the rod, which is situated at the rod’s midpoint. The perpendicular distance x
between the line of action of the weight and the pivot point is simply
l 1.3 × cos 35◦
x = cos θ = = 0.532 m.
2 2
Thus, the torque acting on the rod is
τ = m g x.
It follows that the rod’s angular acceleration is written
τ m g x 5.3 × 9.81 × 0.532
α= = = = 9.26 rad./s2 .
I I 2.986

200
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

Worked example 8.6: Horsepower of engine

Question: A car engine develops a torque of τ = 500 N m and rotates at 3000 rev./min..
What horsepower does the engine generate? (1 hp = 746 W).

Answer: The angular speed of the engine is

ω = 3000 × 2 π/60 = 314.12 rad./s.
Thus, the power output of the engine is
P = ω τ = 314.12 × 500 = 1.57 × 105 W.
In units of horsepower, this becomes
1.57 × 105
P= = 210.5 hp.
746

Worked example 8.7: Rotating cylinder

Question: A uniform cylinder of radius b = 0.25 m is given an angular speed

of ω0 = 35 rad./s about an axis, parallel to its length, which passes through its
centre. The cylinder is gently lowered onto a horizontal frictional surface, and
released. The coefficient of friction of the surface is µ = 0.15. How long does it
take before the cylinder starts to roll without slipping? What distance does the
cylinder travel between its release point and the point at which it commences to
roll without slipping?

Answer: Let v be the velocity of the cylinder’s centre of mass, ω the cylinder’s
angular velocity, f the frictional force exerted by the surface on the cylinder, M
the cylinder’s mass, and I the cylinder’s moment of inertia. The cylinder’s trans-
lational equation of motion is written
M v̇ = f.
Note that the friction force acts to accelerate the cylinder’s translational motion.
Likewise, the cylinder’s rotational equation of motion takes the form
I ω̇ = −f b,

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8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

cylinder

b v
surface

since the perpendicular distance between the line of action of f and the axis
of rotation is the radius, b, of the cylinder. Note that the friction force acts to
decelerate the cylinder’s rotational motion. If the cylinder is slipping with respect
to the surface, then the friction force, f, is equal to the coefficient of friction, µ,
times the normal reaction, M g, at the surface:
f = µ M g.
Finally, the moment of inertia of the cylinder is
1
I= M b2 .
2

The above equations can be solved to give

v̇ = µ g,
b ω̇ = −2 µ g.
Given that v = 0 (i.e., the cylinder is initially at rest) and ω = ω 0 at time t = 0,
the above expressions can be integrated to give
v = µ g t,
b ω = b ω0 − 2 µ g t,
which yields
v − b ω = −(b ω0 − 3 µ g t).

Now, the cylinder stops slipping as soon as the “no slip” condition,
v = b ω,

202
8 ROTATIONAL MOTION 8.11 Combined translational and rotational motion

is satisfied. This occurs when

b ω0 0.25 × 35
t= = = 1.98 s.
3 µ g 3 × 0.15 × 9.81
Whilst it is slipping, the cylinder travels a distance
1
x= µ g t2 = 0.5 × 0.15 × 9.81 × 1.982 = 2.88 m.
2

203
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

9 Angular momentum

9.1 Introduction

Two physical quantities are noticeable by their absence in Table 3. Namely, mo-
mentum, and its rotational concomitant angular momentum. It turns out that
angular momentum is a sufficiently important concept to merit a separate discus-
sion.

9.2 Angular momentum of a point particle

Consider a particle of mass m, position vector r, and instantaneous velocity v,

which rotates about an axis passing through the origin of our coordinate system.
We know that the particle’s linear momentum is written
p = m v, (9.1)
and satisfies
dp
= f, (9.2)
dt
where f is the force acting on the particle. Let us search for the rotational equiv-
alent of p.

Consider the quantity

l = r × p. (9.3)
This quantity—which is known as angular momentum—is a vector of magnitude
l = r p sin θ, (9.4)
where θ is the angle subtended between the directions of r and p. The direction of
l is defined to be mutually perpendicular to the directions of r and p, in the sense
given by the right-hand grip rule. In other words, if vector r rotates onto vector
p (through an angle less than 180◦ ), and the fingers of the right-hand are aligned
with this rotation, then the thumb of the right-hand indicates the direction of l.
See Fig. 85.

204
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.2 Angular momentum of a point particle

l = r p sin θ
p

l particle

origin r

O
Figure 85: Angular momentum of a point particle about the origin.

Let us differentiate Eq. (9.3) with respect to time. We obtain

dl
= ṙ × p + r × ṗ. (9.5)
dt
Note that the derivative of a vector product is formed in much the same manner
as the derivative of an ordinary product, except that the order of the various
terms is preserved. Now, we know that ṙ = v = p/m and ṗ = f. Hence, we obtain
dl p×p
= + r × f. (9.6)
dt m
However, p × p = 0, since the vector product of two parallel vectors is zero. Also,
r × f = τ, (9.7)
where τ is the torque acting on the particle about an axis passing through the
origin. We conclude that
dl
= τ. (9.8)
dt
Of course, this equation is analogous to Eq. (9.2), which suggests that angular
momentum, l, plays the role of linear momentum, p, in rotational dynamics.

For the special case of a particle of mass m executing a circular orbit of ra-
dius r, with instantaneous velocity v and instantaneous angular velocity ω, the
magnitude of the particle’s angular momentum is simply
l = m v r = m ω r2 . (9.9)

205
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.3 Angular momentum of an extended object

9.3 Angular momentum of an extended object

Consider a rigid object rotating about some fixed axis with angular velocity ω.
Let us model this object as a swarm of N particles. Suppose that the ith particle
has mass mi , position vector ri , and velocity vi . Incidentally, it is assumed that
the object’s axis of rotation passes through the origin of our coordinate system.
The total angular momentum of the object, L, is simply the vector sum of the
angular momenta of the N particles from which it is made up. Hence,
X
L= mi ri × vi . (9.10)
i=1,N

Now, for a rigidly rotating object we can write (see Sect. 8.4)

vi = ω × r i . (9.11)

Let
ω = ω k, (9.12)
where k is a unit vector pointing along the object’s axis of rotation (in the sense
given by the right-hand grip rule). It follows that
X
L=ω mi ri × (k × ri ). (9.13)
i=1,N

Let us calculate the component of L along the object’s rotation axis—i.e., the
component along the k axis. We can write
X
Lk = L · k = ω mi k · ri × (k × ri ). (9.14)
i=1,N

However, since a · b × c = a × b · c, the above expression can be rewritten

X X
Lk = ω mi (k × ri ) · (k × ri ) = ω mi |k × ri |2 . (9.15)
i=1,N i=1,N

Now, X
mi |k × ri |2 = Ik , (9.16)
i=1,N

206
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.3 Angular momentum of an extended object

where Ik is the moment of inertia of the object about the k axis. (see Sect. 8.6).
Hence, it follows that
Lk = Ik ω. (9.17)

According to the above formula, the component of a rigid body’s angular mo-
mentum vector along its axis of rotation is simply the product of the body’s mo-
ment of inertia about this axis and the body’s angular velocity. Does this result
imply that we can automatically write

L = I ω? (9.18)

Unfortunately, in general, the answer to the above question is no! This conclusion
follows because the body may possess non-zero angular momentum components
about axes perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Thus, in general, the angular
momentum vector of a rotating body is not parallel to its angular velocity vector.
This is a major difference from translational motion, where linear momentum is
always found to be parallel to linear velocity.

For a rigid object rotating with angular velocity ω = (ωx , ωy , ωz ), we can

write the object’s angular momentum L = (Lx , Ly , Lz ) in the form

L x = I x ωx , (9.19)
L y = I y ωy , (9.20)
L z = I z ωz , (9.21)

where Ix is the moment of inertia of the object about the x-axis, etc. Here, it is
again assumed that the origin of our coordinate system lies on the object’s axis
of rotation. Note that the above equations are only valid when the x-, y-, and
z-axes are aligned in a certain very special manner—in fact, they must be aligned
along the so-called principal axes of the object (these axes invariably coincide
with the object’s main symmetry axes). Note that it is always possible to find
three, mutually perpendicular, principal axes of rotation which pass through a
given point in a rigid body. Reconstructing L from its components, we obtain

L = I x ωx x ^ + Iz ωz ^z,
^ + I y ωy y (9.22)

207
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.3 Angular momentum of an extended object

where x ^ is a unit vector pointing along the x-axis, etc. It is clear, from the above
equation, that the reason L is not generally parallel to ω is because the moments
of inertia of a rigid object about its different possible axes of rotation are not
generally the same. In other words, if Ix = Iy = Iz = I then L = I ω, and the
angular momentum and angular velocity vectors are always parallel. However, if
Ix 6= Iy 6= Iz , which is usually the case, then L is not, in general, parallel to ω.

Although Eq. (9.22) suggests that the angular momentum of a rigid object is
not generally parallel to its angular velocity, this equation also implies that there
are, at least, three special axes of rotation for which this is the case. Suppose, for
instance, that the object rotates about the z-axis, so that ω = ω z ^z. It follows
from Eq. (9.22) that
L = Iz ωz ^z = Iz ω. (9.23)
Thus, in this case, the angular momentum vector is parallel to the angular velocity
vector. The same can be said for rotation about the x- or y- axes. We conclude
that when a rigid object rotates about one of its principal axes then its angular
momentum is parallel to its angular velocity, but not, in general, otherwise.

How can we identify a principal axis of a rigid object? At the simplest level,
a principal axis is one about which the object possesses axial symmetry. The
required type of symmetry is illustrated in Fig. 86. Assuming that the object
can be modeled as a swarm of particles—for every particle of mass m, located
a distance r from the origin, and subtending an angle θ with the rotation axis,
there must be an identical particle located on diagrammatically the opposite side
of the rotation axis. As shown in the diagram, the angular momentum vectors
of such a matched pair of particles can be added together to form a resultant
angular momentum vector which is parallel to the axis of rotation. Thus, if the
object is composed entirely of matched particle pairs then its angular momentum
vector must be parallel to its angular velocity vector. The generalization of this
argument to deal with continuous objects is fairly straightforward. For instance,
symmetry implies that any axis of rotation which passes through the centre of a
uniform sphere is a principal axis of that object. Likewise, a perpendicular axis
which passes through the centre of a uniform disk is a principal axis. Finally, a
perpendicular axis which passes through the centre of a uniform rod is a principal
axis.

208
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

axis of rotation
ω
l1 l2 l2

v1 v2 l
m m l1

r θ θ r

Figure 86: A principal axis of rotation.

9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

Consider a system consisting of N mutually interacting point particles. Such

a system might represent a true multi-component system, such as an asteroid
cloud, or it might represent an extended body. Let the ith particle, whose mass is
mi , be located at vector displacement ri . Suppose that this particle exerts a force
fji on the jth particle. By Newton’s third law of motion, the force fij exerted by
the jth particle on the ith is given by

fij = −fji . (9.24)

Let us assume that the internal forces acting within the system are central forces—
i.e., the force fij , acting between particles i and j, is directed along the line of
centres of these particles. See Fig. 87. In other words,

fij ∝ (ri − rj ). (9.25)

Incidentally, this is not a particularly restrictive assumption, since most forces

occurring in nature are central forces. For instance, gravity is a central force,
electrostatic forces are central, and the internal stresses acting within a rigid
body are approximately central. Suppose, finally, that the ith particle is subject
to an external force Fi .

209
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

f Fi
ij

mi
line of centres

ri Fj

mj

rj f
ji

Figure 87: A multi-component system with central internal forces.

The equation of motion of the ith particle can be written

j6=i
X
ṗi = fij + Fi . (9.26)
j=1,N

Taking the vector product of this equation with the position vector r i , we obtain
j6=i
X
ri × ṗi = ri × fij + ri × Fi . (9.27)
j=1,N

Now, we have already seen that

d(ri × pi )
ri × ṗi =. (9.28)
dt
We also know that the total angular momentum, L, of the system (about the
origin) can be written in the form
X
L= ri × p i . (9.29)
i=1,N
Hence, summing Eq. (9.27) over all particles, we obtain
Xi6=j X
dL
= ri × fij + ri × Fi . (9.30)
dt i,j=1,N i=1,N

210
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

Consider the first expression on the right-hand side of Eq. (9.30). A general
term, ri × fij , in this sum can always be paired with a matching term, rj × fji , in
which the indices have been swapped. Making use of Eq. (9.24), the sum of a
general matched pair can be written

ri × fij + rj × fji = (ri − rj ) × fij . (9.31)

However, if the internal forces are central in nature then fij is parallel to (ri − rj ).
Hence, the vector product of these two vectors is zero. We conclude that

ri × fij + rj × fji = 0, (9.32)

for any values of i and j. Thus, the first expression on the right-hand side of
Eq. (9.30) sums to zero. We are left with
dL
= τ, (9.33)
dt
where X
τ= ri × Fi (9.34)
i=1,N
is the net external torque acting on the system (about an axis passing through
the origin). Of course, Eq. (9.33) is simply the rotational equation of motion for
the system taken as a whole.

Suppose that the system is isolated, such that it is subject to zero net external
torque. It follows from Eq. (9.33) that, in this case, the total angular momentum
of the system is a conserved quantity. To be more exact, the components of the to-
tal angular momentum taken about any three independent axes are individually
conserved quantities. Conservation of angular momentum is an extremely useful
concept which greatly simplifies the analysis of a wide range of rotating systems.
Let us consider some examples.

Suppose that two identical weights of mass m are attached to a light rigid rod
which rotates without friction about a perpendicular axis passing through its mid-
point. Imagine that the two weights are equipped with small motors which allow
them to travel along the rod: the motors are synchronized in such a manner that
the distance of the two weights from the axis of rotation is always the same. Let

211
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

axle

m m
d d

rod weight

Figure 88: Two movable weights on a rotating rod.

us call this common distance d, and let ω be the angular velocity of the rod. See
Fig. 88. How does the angular velocity ω change as the distance d is varied?

Note that there are no external torques acting on the system. It follows that the
system’s angular momentum must remain constant as the weights move along the
rod. Neglecting the contribution of the rod, the moment of inertia of the system
is written
I = 2 m d2 . (9.35)
Since the system is rotating about a principal axis, its angular momentum takes
the form
L = I ω = 2 m d2 ω. (9.36)
If L is a constant of the motion then we obtain
ω d2 = constant. (9.37)
In other words, the system spins faster as the weights move inwards towards the
axis of rotation, and vice versa. This effect is familiar from figure skating. When
a skater spins about a vertical axis, her angular momentum is approximately a
conserved quantity, since the ice exerts very little torque on her. Thus, if the
skater starts spinning with outstretched arms, and then draws her arms inwards,
then her rate of rotation will spontaneously increase in order to conserve angular
momentum. The skater can slow her rate of rotation by simply pushing her arms
outwards again.

212
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

bullet

M
v b
m
d

pivot

rod

Figure 89: A bullet strikes a pivoted rod.

Suppose that a bullet of mass m and velocity v strikes, and becomes embedded
in, a stationary rod of mass M and length 2 b which pivots about a frictionless
perpendicular axle passing through its mid-point. Let the bullet strike the rod
normally a distance d from its axis of rotation. See Fig. 89. What is the instanta-
neous angular velocity ω of the rod (and bullet) immediately after the collision?

Taking the bullet and the rod as a whole, this is again a system upon which
no external torque acts. Thus, we expect the system’s net angular momentum to
be the same before and after the collision. Before the collision, only the bullet
possesses angular momentum, since the rod is at rest. As is easily demonstrated,
the bullet’s angular momentum about the pivot point is
l = mvd : (9.38)
i.e., the product of its mass, its velocity, and its distance of closest approach to the
point about which the angular momentum is measured—this is a general result
(for a point particle). After the collision, the bullet lodges a distance d from the
pivot, and is forced to co-rotate with the rod. Hence, the angular momentum of
the bullet after the collision is given by
l 0 = m d2 ω, (9.39)
where ω is the angular velocity of the rod. The angular momentum of the rod
after the collision is
L = I ω, (9.40)

213
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

where I = (1/12) M (2 b)2 = (1/3) M b2 is the rod’s moment of inertia (about

a perpendicular axis passing through its mid-point). Conservation of angular
momentum yields
l = l 0 + L, (9.41)
or
mvd
ω= . (9.42)
I + m d2

Worked example 9.1: Angular momentum of a missile

Question: A missile of mass m = 2.3×104 kg flies level to the ground at an altitude

of d = 10, 000 m with constant speed v = 210 m/s. What is the magnitude of the
missile’s angular momentum relative to a point on the ground directly below its
flight path?

θ
v

d r r

O ground

Answer: The missile’s angular momentum about point O is

L = m v r sin θ,
where θ is the angle subtended between the missile’s velocity vector and its posi-
tion vector relative to O. However,
r sin θ = d,
where d is the distance of closest approach of the missile to point O. Hence,
L = m v d = (2.3 × 104 ) × 210 × (1 × 104 ) = 4.83 × 1010 kg m2 /s.

214
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

Worked example 9.2: Angular momentum of a sphere

Question: A uniform sphere of mass M = 5 kg and radius a = 0.2 m spins about

an axis passing through its centre with period T = 0.7 s. What is the angular
momentum of the sphere?

Answer: The angular velocity of the sphere is

2π 2π
ω= = = 8.98 rad./s.
T 0.7
The moment of inertia of the sphere is
2
I = M a2 = 0.4 × 5 × (0.2)2 = 0.08 kg m2 .
5
Hence, the angular momentum of the sphere is
L = I ω = 0.08 × 8.98 = 0.718 kg m2 /s.

Worked example 9.3: Spinning skater

Question: A skater spins at an initial angular velocity of ω1 = 11 rad./s with her

arms outstretched. The skater then lowers her arms, thereby decreasing her mo-
ment of inertia by a factor 8. What is the skater’s final angular velocity? Assume
that any friction between the skater’s skates and the ice is negligible.

Answer: Neglecting any friction between the skates and the ice, we expect the
skater to spin with constant angular momentum. The skater’s initial angular
momentum is
L 1 = I 1 ω1 ,
where I1 is the skater’s initial moment of inertia. The skater’s final angular mo-
mentum is
L 2 = I 2 ω2 ,
where I2 is the skater’s final moment of inertia, and ω2 is her final angular veloc-
ity. Conservation of angular momentum yields L1 = L2 , or
I1
ω2 = ω2 .
I2
215
9 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 9.4 Angular momentum of a multi-component system

Now, we are told that I1 /I2 = 8. Hence,

ω2 = 8 × 11 = 88 rad./s.

216
10 STATICS

10 Statics

10.1 Introduction

Probably the most useful application of the laws of mechanics is the study of situ-
ations in which nothing moves—this discipline is known as statics. The principles
of statics are employed by engineers whenever they design stationary structures,
such as buildings, bridges, and tunnels, in order to ensure that these structures
do not collapse.

10.2 The principles of statics

Consider a general extended body which is subject to a number of external forces.

Let us model this body as a swarm of N point particles. In the limit that N → ∞,
this model becomes a fully accurate representation of the body’s dynamics.

In Sect. 6.3 we determined that the overall translational equation of motion of

a general N-component system can be written in the form
dP
= F. (10.1)
dt
Here, P is the total linear momentum of the system, and
X
F= Fi (10.2)
i=1,N

is the resultant of all the external forces acting on the system. Note that F i is the
external force acting on the ith component of the system.

Equation (10.1) effectively determines the translational motion of the system’s

centre of mass. Note, however, that in order to fully determine the motion of the
system we must also follow its rotational motion about its centre of mass (or any
other convenient reference point). In Sect. 9.4 we determined that the overall
rotational equation of motion of a general N-component system (with central

217
10 STATICS 10.2 The principles of statics

internal forces) can be written in the form

dL
= τ. (10.3)
dt
Here, L is the total angular momentum of the system (about the origin of our
coordinate scheme), and X
τ= ri × Fi (10.4)
i=1,N
is the resultant of all the external torques acting on the system (about the origin
of our coordinate scheme). In the above, ri is the vector displacement of the ith
component of the system.

What conditions must be satisfied by the various external forces and torques
acting on the system if it is to remain stationary in time? Well, if the system
does not evolve in time then its net linear momentum, P, and its net angular
momentum, L, must both remain constant. In other words, dP/dt = dL/dt = 0.
It follows from Eqs. (10.1) and (10.3) that

F = 0, (10.5)
τ = 0. (10.6)

In other words, the net external force acting on system must be zero, and the net
external torque acting on the system must be zero. To be more exact:

The components of the net external force acting along any three independent
directions must all be zero;

and

The magnitudes of the net external torques acting about any three indepen-
dent axes (passing through the origin of the coordinate system) must all be
zero.

In a nutshell, these are the principles of statics.

218
10 STATICS 10.2 The principles of statics

It is clear that the above principles are necessary conditions for a general phys-
ical system not to evolve in time. But, are they also sufficient conditions? In other
words, is it necessarily true that a general system which satisfies these conditions
does not exhibit any time variation? The answer to this question is as follows: if
the system under investigation is a rigid body, such that the motion of any com-
ponent of the body necessarily implies the motion of the whole body, then the
above principles are necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of an
equilibrium state. On the other hand, if the system is not a rigid body, so that
some components of the body can move independently of others, then the above
conditions only guarantee that the system remains static in an average sense.

Before we attempt to apply the principles of statics, there are a couple of

important points which need clarification. Firstly, does it matter about which
point we calculate the net torque acting on the system? To be more exact, if
we determine that the net torque acting about a given point is zero does this
necessarily imply that the net torque acting about any other point is also zero?
Well, X
τ= ri × Fi (10.7)
i=1,N
is the net torque acting on the system about the origin of our coordinate scheme.
The net torque about some general point r0 is simply
X
τ0 = (ri − r0 ) × Fi . (10.8)
i=1,N

However, we can rewrite the above expression as

 
X X
τ0 = ri × Fi − r 0 × 
Fi 
 = τ + r0 × F. (10.9)
i=1,N i=1,N

Now, if the system is in equilibrium then F = τ = 0. Hence, it follows from the

above equation that
τ 0 = 0. (10.10)
In other words, for a system in equilibrium, the determination that the net torque
acting about a given point is zero necessarily implies that the net torque acting
about any other point is also zero. Hence, we can choose the point about which

219
10 STATICS 10.3 Equilibrium of a laminar object in a gravitational field

we calculate the net torque at will—this choice is usually made so as to simplify

the calculation.

Another question which needs clarification is as follows. At which point should

we assume that the weight of the system acts in order to calculate the contribu-
tion of the weight to the net torque acting about a given point? Actually, in
Sect. 8.11, we effectively answered this question by assuming that the weight
acts at the centre of mass of the system. Let us now justify this assumption. The
external force acting on the ith component of the system due to its weight is

Fi = mi g, (10.11)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (which is assumed to be uniform

throughout the system). Hence, the net gravitational torque acting on the system
about the origin of our coordinate scheme is
 
X X
τ= ri × m i g = 

 × g = rcm × M g,
mi ri  (10.12)
i=1,N i=1,N
P P
where M = i=1,N mi is the total mass of the system, and rcm = i=1,N mi ri /M
is the position vector of its centre of mass. It follows, from the above equation,
that the net gravitational torque acting on the system about a given point can be
calculated by assuming that the total mass of the system is concentrated at its
centre of mass.

10.3 Equilibrium of a laminar object in a gravitational field

Consider a general laminar object which is free to pivot about a fixed perpendic-
ular axis. Assuming that the object is placed in a uniform gravitational field (such
as that on the surface of the Earth), what is the object’s equilibrium configuration
in this field?

Let O represent the pivot point, and let C be the centre of mass of the ob-
ject. See Fig. 90. Suppose that r represents the distance between points O and
C, whereas θ is the angle subtended between the line OC and the downward

220
10 STATICS 10.3 Equilibrium of a laminar object in a gravitational field

d
O

θ r
h

Mg

Figure 90: A laminar object pivoting about a fixed point in a gravitational field.

vertical. There are two external forces acting on the object. First, there is the
downward force, M g, due to gravity, which acts at the centre of mass. Second,
there is the reaction, R, due to the pivot, which acts at the pivot point. Here, M
is the mass of the object, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Two conditions must be satisfied in order for a given configuration of the object
shown in Fig. 90 to represent an equilibrium configuration. First, there must be
zero net external force acting on the object. This implies that the reaction, R, is
equal and opposite to the gravitational force, M g. In other words, the reaction
is of magnitude M g and is directed vertically upwards. The second condition
is that there must be zero net torque acting about the pivot point. Now, the
reaction, R, does not generate a torque, since it acts at the pivot point. Moreover,
the torque associated with the gravitational force, M g, is simply the magnitude
of this force times the length of the lever arm, d (see Fig. 90). Hence, the net
torque acting on the system about the pivot point is

τ = M g d = M g r sin θ. (10.13)

Setting this torque to zero, we obtain sin θ = 0, which implies that θ = 0 ◦ . In

other words, the equilibrium configuration of a general laminar object (which is
free to rotate about a fixed perpendicular axis in a uniform gravitational field) is
that in which the centre of mass of the object is aligned vertically below the pivot
point.

221
10 STATICS 10.3 Equilibrium of a laminar object in a gravitational field

Incidentally, we can use the above result to experimentally determine the cen-
tre of mass of a given laminar object. We would need to suspend the object from
two different pivot points, successively. In each equilibrium configuration, we
would mark a line running vertically downward from the pivot point, using a
plumb-line. The crossing point of these two lines would indicate the position of
the centre of mass.

Our discussion of the equilibrium configuration of the laminar object shown in

Fig. 90 is not quite complete. We have determined that the condition which must
be satisfied by an equilibrium state is sin θ = 0. However, there are, in fact, two
physical roots of this equation. The first, θ = 0◦ , corresponds to the case where
the centre of mass of the object is aligned vertically below the pivot point. The
second, θ = 180◦ , corresponds to the case where the centre of mass is aligned
vertically above the pivot point. Of course, the former root is far more important
than the latter, since the former root corresponds to a stable equilibrium, whereas
the latter corresponds to an unstable equilibrium. We recall, from Sect. 5.7, that
when a system is slightly disturbed from a stable equilibrium then the forces and
torques which act upon it tend to return it to this equilibrium, and vice versa for an
unstable equilibrium. The easiest way to distinguish between stable and unstable
equilibria, in the present case, is to evaluate the gravitational potential energy of
the system. The potential energy of the object shown in Fig. 90, calculated using
the height of the pivot as the reference height, is simply

U = −M g h = −M g r cos θ. (10.14)

(Note that the gravitational potential energy of an extended object can be calcu-
lated by imagining that all of the mass of the object is concentrated at its centre
of mass.) It can be seen that θ = 0◦ corresponds to a minimum of this poten-
tial, whereas θ = 180◦ corresponds to a maximum. This is in accordance with
Sect. 5.7, where it was demonstrated that whenever an object moves in a con-
servative force-field (such as a gravitational field), the stable equilibrium points
correspond to minima of the potential energy associated with this field, whereas
the unstable equilibrium points correspond to maxima.

222
10 STATICS 10.4 Rods and cables

10.4 Rods and cables

Consider a uniform rod of mass M and length l which is suspended horizontally

via two vertical cables. Let the points of attachment of the two cables be located
distances x1 and x2 from one of the ends of the rod, labeled A. It is assumed that
x2 > x1 . See Fig. 91. What are the tensions, T1 and T2 , in the cables?

Let us first locate the centre of mass of the rod, which is situated at the rod’s
mid-point, a distance l/2 from reference point A (see Fig. 91). There are three
forces acting on the rod: the gravitational force, M g, and the two tension forces,
T1 and T2 . Each of these forces is directed vertically. Thus, the condition that zero
net force acts on the system reduces to the condition that the net vertical force is
zero, which yields
T1 + T2 − M g = 0. (10.15)

Consider the torques exerted by the three above-mentioned forces about point
A. Each of these torques attempts to twist the rod about an axis perpendicular
to the plane of the diagram. Hence, the condition that zero net torque acts on
the system reduces to the condition that the net torque at point A, about an
axis perpendicular to the plane of the diagram, is zero. The contribution of each
force to this torque is simply the product of the magnitude of the force and the
length of the associated lever arm. In each case, the length of the lever arm is
equivalent to the distance of the point of action of the force from A, measured
along the length of the rod. Hence, setting the net torque to zero, we obtain
l
x 1 T1 + x 2 T2 − M g = 0. (10.16)
2
Note that the torque associated with the gravitational force, M g, has a minus sign
in front, because this torque obviously attempts to twist the rod in the opposite
direction to the torques associated with the tensions in the cables.

The previous two equations can be solved to give

 
x2 − l/2 
T1 =  M g, (10.17)
x2 − x 1

223
10 STATICS 10.4 Rods and cables

x2

x1 T1 T2
A
l/2

Mg

Figure 91: A horizontal rod suspended by two vertical cables.

 
l/2 − x1 
T2 =  M g. (10.18)
x2 − x 1
Recall that tensions in flexible cables can never be negative, since this would
imply that the cables in question were being compressed. Of course, when cables
are compressed they simply collapse. It is clear, from the above expressions, that
in order for the tensions T1 and T2 to remain positive (given that x2 > x1 ), the
following conditions must be satisfied:
l
x1 < , (10.19)
2
l
x2 > . (10.20)
2
In other words, the attachment points of the two cables must straddle the centre
of mass of the rod.

Consider a uniform rod of mass M and length l which is free to rotate in the
vertical plane about a fixed pivot attached to one of its ends. The other end of
the rod is attached to a fixed cable. We can imagine that both the pivot and the
cable are anchored in the same vertical wall. See Fig. 92. Suppose that the rod is
level, and that the cable subtends an angle θ with the horizontal. Assuming that
the rod is in equilibrium, what is the magnitude of the tension, T , in the cable,
and what is the direction and magnitude of the reaction, R, at the pivot?

224
10 STATICS 10.4 Rods and cables

wall
cable

pivot T
R
φ θ

l
Mg
rod

Figure 92: A rod suspended by a fixed pivot and a cable.

As usual, the centre of mass of the rod lies at its mid-point. There are three
forces acting on the rod: the reaction, R; the weight, M g; and the tension, T .
The reaction acts at the pivot. Let φ be the angle subtended by the reaction with
the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 92. The weight acts at the centre of mass of the
rod, and is directed vertically downwards. Finally, the tension acts at the end of
the rod, and is directed along the cable.

Resolving horizontally, and setting the net horizontal force acting on the rod
to zero, we obtain
R cos φ − T cos θ = 0. (10.21)
Likewise, resolving vertically, and setting the net vertical force acting on the rod
to zero, we obtain
R sin φ + T sin θ − M g = 0. (10.22)
The above constraints are sufficient to ensure that zero net force acts on the rod.

Let us evaluate the net torque acting at the pivot point (about an axis perpen-
dicular to the plane of the diagram). The reaction, R, does not contribute to this
torque, since it acts at the pivot point. The length of the lever arm associated
with the weight, M g, is l/2. Simple trigonometry reveals that the length of the
lever arm associated with the tension, T , is l sin θ. Hence, setting the net torque

225
10 STATICS 10.5 Ladders and walls

about the pivot point to zero, we obtain

l
Mg − T l sin θ = 0. (10.23)
2
Note that there is a minus sign in front of the second torque, since this torque
clearly attempts to twist the rod in the opposite sense to the first.

Equations (10.21) and (10.22) can be solved to give

cos φ
T = M g, (10.24)
sin(θ + φ)
cos θ
R = M g. (10.25)
sin(θ + φ)
Substituting Eq. (10.24) into Eq. (10.23), we obtain
sin(θ + φ) = 2 sin θ cos φ. (10.26)
The physical solution of this equation is φ = θ (recall that sin 2 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ),
which determines the direction of the reaction at the pivot. Finally, Eqs. (10.24)
and (10.25) yield
Mg
T =R= , (10.27)
2 sin θ
which determines both the magnitude of the tension in the cable and that of the
reaction at the pivot.

One important point to note about the above solution is that if φ = θ then the
lines of action of the three forces—R, M g, and T —intersect at the same point,
as shown in Fig. 92. This is an illustration of a general rule. Namely, whenever a
rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, then these forces are
either mutually parallel, as shown in Fig. 91, or their lines of action pass through
the same point, as shown in Fig. 92.

10.5 Ladders and walls

Suppose that a ladder of length l and negligible mass is leaning against a vertical
wall, making an angle θ with the horizontal. A workman of mass M climbs

226
10 STATICS 10.5 Ladders and walls

wall

S ladder

workman

x R
l
Mg ground

θ
f

Figure 93: A ladder leaning against a vertical wall.

a distance x along the ladder, measured from the bottom. See Fig. 93. Suppose
that the wall is completely frictionless, but that the ground possesses a coefficient
of static friction µ. How far up the ladder can the workman climb before it slips
along the ground? Is it possible for the workman to climb to the top of the ladder
without any slippage occurring?

There are four forces acting on the ladder: the weight, M g, of the workman;
the reaction, S, at the wall; the reaction, R, at the ground; and the frictional
force, f, due to the ground. The weight acts at the position of the workman, and
is directed vertically downwards. The reaction, S, acts at the top of the ladder,
and is directed horizontally (i.e., normal to the surface of the wall). The reaction,
R, acts at the bottom of the ladder, and is directed vertically upwards (i.e., normal
to the ground). Finally, the frictional force, f, also acts at the bottom of the ladder,
and is directed horizontally.

Resolving horizontally, and setting the net horizontal force acting on the ladder
to zero, we obtain
S − f = 0. (10.28)
Resolving vertically, and setting the net vertically force acting on the ladder to
zero, we obtain
R − M g = 0. (10.29)
Evaluating the torque acting about the point where the ladder touches the ground,
we note that only the forces M g and S contribute. The lever arm associated with
the force M g is x cos θ. The lever arm associated with the force S is l sin θ. Fur-

227
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

thermore, the torques associated with these two forces act in opposite directions.
Hence, setting the net torque about the bottom of the ladder to zero, we obtain

M g x cos θ − S l sin θ = 0. (10.30)

The above three equations can be solved to give

R = M g, (10.31)

and
x
f=S= M g. (10.32)
l tan θ

Now, the condition for the ladder not to slip with respect to the ground is

f < µ R. (10.33)

This condition reduces to

x < l µ tan θ. (10.34)
Thus, the furthest distance that the workman can climb along the ladder before
it slips is
xmax = l µ tan θ. (10.35)
Note that if tan θ > 1/µ then the workman can climb all the way along the ladder
without any slippage occurring. This result suggests that ladders leaning against
walls are less likely to slip when they are almost vertical (i.e., when θ → 90 ◦ ).

10.6 Jointed rods

Suppose that three identical uniform rods of mass M and length l are joined
together to form an equilateral triangle, and are then suspended from a cable, as
shown in Fig. 94. What is the tension in the cable, and what are the reactions at
the joints?

Let X1 , X2 , and X3 be the horizontal reactions at the three joints, and let Y1 , Y2 ,
and Y3 be the corresponding vertical reactions, as shown in Fig. 94. In drawing
this diagram, we have made use of the fact that the rods exert equal and opposite

228
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

cable
Y1 Y3
T
A l B
X1 X3
X1 X3
θ θ

Mg
Y1 Y3
Y2
rod θ
Mg Mg
X2 X2
C

Y2

Figure 94: Three identical jointed rods.

reactions on one another, in accordance with Newton’s third law. Let T be the
tension in the cable.

Setting the horizontal and vertical forces acting on rod AB to zero, we obtain
X1 − X3 = 0, (10.36)
T + Y1 + Y3 − M g = 0, (10.37)
respectively. Setting the horizontal and vertical forces acting on rod AC to zero,
we obtain
X2 − X1 = 0, (10.38)
Y2 − Y1 − M g = 0, (10.39)
respectively. Finally, setting the horizontal and vertical forces acting on rod BC
to zero, we obtain
X3 − X2 = 0, (10.40)
−Y2 − Y3 − M g = 0, (10.41)
respectively. Incidentally, it is clear, from symmetry, that X1 = X3 and Y1 = Y3 .
Thus, the above equations can be solved to give
T = 3 M g, (10.42)

229
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

Y2 = 0, (10.43)
X1 = X2 = X3 = X, (10.44)
Y1 = Y3 = −M g. (10.45)

There now remains only one unknown, X.

Now, it is clear, from symmetry, that there is zero net torque acting on rod AB.
Let us evaluate the torque acting on rod AC about point A. (By symmetry, this is
the same as the torque acting on rod BC about point B). The two forces which
contribute to this torque are the weight, M g, and the reaction X2 = X. (Recall
that the reaction Y2 is zero). The lever arms associated with these two torques
(which act in the same direction) are (l/2) cos θ and l sin θ, respectively. Thus,
setting the net torque to zero, we obtain

M g (l/2) cos θ + X l sin θ = 0, (10.46)

which yields
Mg Mg
X=− =− √ , (10.47)
2 tan θ 2 3
√
since θ = 60◦ , and tan 60◦ = 3. We have now fully determined the tension in
the cable, and all the reactions at the joints.

Worked example 10.1: Equilibrium of two rods

Question: Suppose that two uniform rods (of negligible thickness) are welded
together at right-angles, as shown in the diagram below. Let the first rod be
of mass m1 = 5.2 kg and length l1 = 1.3 m. Let the second rod be of mass
m2 = 3.4 kg and length l2 = 0.7 m. Suppose that the system is suspended from
a pivot point located at the free end of the first rod, and then allowed to reach
a stable equilibrium state. What angle θ does the first rod subtend with the
downward vertical in this state?

Answer: Let us adopt a coordinate system in which the x-axis runs parallel to the
second rod, whereas the y-axis runs parallel to the first. Let the origin of our

230
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

pivot
x

l1

l2

coordinate system correspond to the pivot point. The centre of mass of the first
rod is situated at its mid-point, whose coordinates are

(x1 , y1 ) = (0, l1 /2).

Likewise, the centre of mass of the second rod is situated at its mid-point, whose
coordinates are
(x2 , y2 ) = (l2 /2, l1 ).
It follows that the coordinates of the centre of mass of the whole system are given
by
m 1 x1 + m 2 x2 1 m 2 l2 3.4 × 0.7
xcm = = = = 0.138 m,
m1 + m 2 2 m1 + m 2 2 × 8.6
and
m 1 y1 + m 2 y2 m1 l1 /2 + m2 l1 5.2 × 1.3/2 + 3.4 × 1.3
ycm = = = = 0.907 m.
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2 8.6
The angle θ subtended between the line joining the pivot point and the overall
centre of mass, and the first rod is simply
xcm
!
−1
θ = tan = tan−1 0.152 = 8.65◦ .
ycm
When the system reaches a stable equilibrium state then its centre of mass is
aligned directly below the pivot point. This implies that the first rod subtends an
angle θ = 8.65◦ with the downward vertical.

231
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

Worked example 10.2: Rod supported by a cable

Question: A uniform rod of mass m = 15 kg and length l = 3 m is supported in

a horizontal position by a pin and a cable, as shown in the figure below. Masses
m1 = 36 kg and m2 = 24 kg are suspended from the rod at positions l1 = 0.5 m
and l2 = 2.3 m. The angle θ is 40◦ . What is the tension T in the cable?

rod θ

pin l1
cable
l2
m1 m2

Answer: Consider the torque acting on the rod about the pin. Note that the
reaction at the pin makes no contribution to this torque (since the length of the
associated lever arm is zero). The torque due to the weight of the rod is m g l/2
(i.e., the weight times the length of the lever arm). Note that the weight of the
rod acts at its centre of mass, which is located at the rod’s mid-point. The torque
due to the weight of the first mass is m1 g l1 . The torque due to the weight of
the second mass is m2 g l2 . Finally, the torque due to the tension in the cable is
−T l sin θ (this torque is negative since it twists the rod in the opposite sense to
the other three torques). Hence, setting the net torque to zero, we obtain
l
mg + m1 g l1 + m2 g l2 − T l sin θ = 0,
2
or
[m/2 + m1 (l1 /l) + m2 (l2 /l)] g
T =
sin θ
[0.5 × 15 + 36 × (0.5/3) + 24 × (2.3/3)] × 9.81
=
sin 40◦
= 486.84 N.

232
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

Worked example 10.3: Leaning ladder

Question: A uniform ladder of mass m = 40 kg and length l = 10 m is leaned

against a smooth vertical wall. A person of mass M = 80 kg stands on the ladder
a distance x = 7 m from the bottom, as measured along the ladder. The foot of
the ladder is d = 1.2 m from the bottom of the wall. What is the force exerted
by the wall on the ladder? What is the normal force exerted by the floor on the
ladder?
wall

S ladder

person

l x R
Mg ground

mg θ
f

Answer: The angle θ subtended by the ladder with the ground satisfies
θ = cos−1 (d/l) = cos−1 (1.2/10) = 83.11◦ .
Let S be the normal reaction at the wall, let R be the normal reaction at the
ground, and let f be the frictional force exerted by the ground on the ladder,
as shown in the diagram. Consider the torque acting on the ladder about the
point where it meets the ground. Only three forces contribute to this torque:
the weight, m g, of the ladder, which acts half-way along the ladder; the weight,
M g, of the person, which acts a distance x along the ladder; and the reaction, S,
at the wall, which acts at the top of the ladder. The lever arms associated with
these three forces are (l/2) cos θ, x cos θ, and l sin θ, respectively. Note that the
reaction force acts to twist the ladder in the opposite sense to the two weights.
Hence, setting the net torque to zero, we obtain
l
mg cos θ + M g x cos θ − S l sin θ = 0,
2
233
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

which yields
(m g/2 + M g x/l) (0.5 × 40 × 9.81 + 80 × 9.81 × 7/10)
S= = = 90.09 N.
tan θ tan 83.11◦

The condition that zero net vertical force acts on the ladder yields

R − m g − M g = 0.

Hence,
R = (m + M) g = (40 + 80) × 9.81 = 1177.2 N.

Worked example 10.4: Truck crossing a bridge

Question: A truck of mass M = 5000 kg is crossing a uniform horizontal bridge

of mass m = 1000 kg and length l = 100 m. The bridge is supported at its two
end-points. What are the reactions at these supports when the truck is one third
of the way across the bridge?
R truck S
l/3

Mg mg bridge

Answer: Let R and S be the reactions at the bridge supports. Here, R is the
reaction at the support closest to the truck. Setting the net vertical force acting
on the bridge to zero, we obtain

R + S − M g − m g = 0.

Setting the torque acting on the bridge about the left-most support to zero, we
get
M g l/3 + m g l/2 − S l = 0.

234
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

Here, we have made use of the fact that centre of mass of the bridge lies at its
mid-point. It follows from the above two equations that
S = M g/3 + m g/2 = 5000 × 9.81/3 + 1000 × 9.81/2 = 2.13 × 104 N,
and
R = M g + m g − S = (5000 + 1000) × 9.81 − 2.13 × 104 = 3.76 × 104 N.

Worked example 10.5: Rod supported by a strut

Question: A uniform horizontal rod of mass m = 15 kg is attached to a vertical

wall at one end, and is supported, from below, by a light rigid strut at the other.
The strut is attached to the rod at one end, and the wall at the other, and subtends
an angle of θ = 30◦ with the rod. Find the horizontal and vertical reactions at the
point where the strut is attached to the rod, and the points where the rod and the
strut are attached to the wall.
X1 rod X3
Y1
Y3
θ

X2 mg Y3 X3

Y2 strut

wall

Answer: Let us call the vertical reactions at the joints X1 , X2 , and X3 . Let the
corresponding horizontal reactions be Y1 , Y2 , and Y3 . See the diagram. Here, we
have made use of the fact that the strut and the rod exert equal and opposite
reactions on one another, in accordance with Newton’s third law. Setting the net
vertical force on the rod to zero yields
X1 + X3 − m g = 0.

235
10 STATICS 10.6 Jointed rods

Setting the net horizontal force on the rod to zero gives

Y1 + Y3 = 0.
Setting the net vertical force on the strut to zero yields
X2 − X3 = 0.
Finally, setting the net horizontal force on the strut to zero yields
Y2 − Y3 = 0.
The above equations can be solved to give
−Y1 = Y2 = Y3 = Y,
and
X2 = X3 = X,
with
X1 = m g − X.
There now remain only two unknowns, X and Y.

Setting the net torque acting on the rod about the point where it is connected
to the wall to zero, we obtain
m g l/2 − X3 l = 0,
where l is the length of the rod. Here, we have used the fact that the centre of
gravity of the rod lies at its mid-point. The above equation implies that
X3 = X = m g/2 = 15 × 9.81/2 = 73.58 N.
We also have X1 = m g − X = 73.58 N. Setting the net torque acting on the strut
about the point where it is connected to the wall to zero, we find
Y3 h sin θ − X3 h cos θ = 0,
where h is the length of the strut. Thus,
X 73.58
Y3 = Y = = = 127.44 N.
tan θ tan 30◦

In summary, the vertical reactions are X1 = X2 = X3 = 73.58 N, and the hori-

zontal reactions are −Y1 = Y2 = Y3 = 127.44 N.

236
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION

11 Oscillatory motion

11.1 Introduction

We have seen previously (for instance, in Sect. 10.3) that when systems are per-
turbed from a stable equilibrium state they experience a restoring force which acts
to return them to that state. In many cases of interest, the magnitude of the
restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. In
this section, we shall investigate the motion of systems subject to such a force.

11.2 Simple harmonic motion

Let us reexamine the problem of a mass on a spring (see Sect. 5.6). Consider
a mass m which slides over a horizontal frictionless surface. Suppose that the
mass is attached to a light horizontal spring whose other end is anchored to an
immovable object. See Fig. 42. Let x be the extension of the spring: i.e., the dif-
ference between the spring’s actual length and its unstretched length. Obviously,
x can also be used as a coordinate to determine the horizontal displacement of
the mass.

The equilibrium state of the system corresponds to the situation where the
mass is at rest, and the spring is unextended (i.e., x = 0). In this state, zero net
force acts on the mass, so there is no reason for it to start to move. If the system
is perturbed from this equilibrium state (i.e., if the mass is moved, so that the
spring becomes extended) then the mass experiences a restoring force given by
Hooke’s law:
f = −k x. (11.1)
Here, k > 0 is the force constant of the spring. The negative sign indicates that
f is indeed a restoring force. Note that the magnitude of the restoring force
is directly proportional to the displacement of the system from equilibrium (i.e.,
f ∝ x). Of course, Hooke’s law only holds for small spring extensions. Hence,
the displacement from equilibrium cannot be made too large. The motion of this

237
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.2 Simple harmonic motion

system is representative of the motion of a wide range of systems when they are
slightly disturbed from a stable equilibrium state.

Newton’s second law gives following equation of motion for the system:

m ẍ = −k x. (11.2)

This differential equation is known as the simple harmonic equation, and its solu-
tion has been known for centuries. In fact, the solution is

x = a cos(ω t − φ), (11.3)

where a, ω, and φ are constants. We can demonstrate that Eq. (11.3) is in-
deed a solution of Eq. (11.2) by direct substitution. Substituting Eq. (11.3) into
Eq. (11.2), and recalling from calculus that d(cos θ)/dθ = − sin θ and d(sin θ)/dθ =
cos θ, we obtain

− m ω2 a cos(ω t − φ) = −k a cos(ω t − φ). (11.4)

It follows that Eq. (11.3) is the correct solution provided

v
k
u
u
ω= t
. (11.5)
m

Figure 95 shows a graph of x versus t obtained from Eq. (11.3). The type
of motion shown here is called simple harmonic motion. It can be seen that the
displacement x oscillates between x = −a and x = +a. Here, a is termed the
amplitude of the oscillation. Moreover, the motion is periodic in time (i.e., it
repeats exactly after a certain time period has elapsed). In fact, the period is
2π
T= . (11.6)
ω
This result is easily obtained from Eq. (11.3) by noting that cos θ is a periodic
function of θ with period 2 π. The frequency of the motion (i.e., the number of
oscillations completed per second) is
1 ω
f= = . (11.7)
T 2π
238
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.2 Simple harmonic motion

ωt − φ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦

x +a 0 −a 0
ẋ 0 −ω a 0 +ω a
2 2
ẍ −ω a 0 +ω a 0

Table 4: Simple harmonic motion.

Figure 95: Simple harmonic motion.

It can be seen that ω is the motion’s angular frequency (i.e., the frequency f
converted into radians per second). Finally, the phase angle φ determines the
times at which the oscillation attains its maximum amplitude, x = a: in fact,
φ
!
tmax =T n+ . (11.8)
2π
Here, n is an arbitrary integer.

Table 4 lists the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the mass at various
phases of the simple harmonic cycle. The information contained in this table can
easily be derived from the simple harmonic equation, Eq. (11.3). Note that all
of the non-zero values shown in this table represent either the maximum or the
minimum value taken by the quantity in question during the oscillation cycle.

We have seen that when a mass on a spring is disturbed from equilibrium it

239
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.2 Simple harmonic motion

executes simple harmonic motion about its equilibrium state. In physical terms,
if the initial displacement is positive (x > 0) then the restoring force overcom-
pensates, and sends the system past the equilibrium state (x = 0) to negative
displacement states (x < 0). The restoring force again overcompensates, and
sends the system back through x = 0 to positive displacement states. The motion
then repeats itself ad infinitum. The frequency of the oscillation is determined by
the spring stiffness, k, and the system inertia, m, via Eq. (11.5). In contrast, the
amplitude and phase angle of the oscillation are determined by the initial condi-
tions. Suppose that the instantaneous displacement and velocity of the mass at
t = 0 are x0 and v0 , respectively. It follows from Eq. (11.3) that

x0 = x(t = 0) = a cos φ, (11.9)

v0 = ẋ(t = 0) = a ω sin φ. (11.10)

Here, use has been made of the well-known identities cos(−θ) = cos θ and
sin(−θ) = − sin θ. Hence, we obtain
q
a = x02 + (v0 /ω)2 , (11.11)

and
v0
!
−1
φ = tan , (11.12)
ω x0
since sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 and tan θ = sin θ/ cos θ.

The kinetic energy of the system is written

1 2 m a2 ω2 sin2 (ω t − φ)
K = m ẋ = . (11.13)
2 2
Recall, from Sect. 5.6, that the potential energy takes the form
1 2 k a2 cos2 (ω t − φ)
U= kx = . (11.14)
2 2
Hence, the total energy can be written
a2 k
E=K+U= , (11.15)
2

240
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.3 The torsion pendulum

fixed support

torsion wire

disk

Figure 96: A torsion pendulum.

since m ω2 = k and sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. Note that the total energy is a constant of
the motion, as expected for an isolated system. Moreover, the energy is propor-
tional to the amplitude squared of the motion. It is clear, from the above expres-
sions, that simple harmonic motion is characterized by a constant backward and
forward flow of energy between kinetic and potential components. The kinetic
energy attains its maximum value, and the potential energy attains it minimum
value, when the displacement is zero (i.e., when x = 0). Likewise, the potential
energy attains its maximum value, and the kinetic energy attains its minimum
value, when the displacement is maximal (i.e., when x = ±a). Note that the
minimum value of K is zero, since the system is instantaneously at rest when the
displacement is maximal.

11.3 The torsion pendulum

Consider a disk suspended from a torsion wire attached to its centre. See Fig. 96.
This setup is known as a torsion pendulum. A torsion wire is essentially inexten-
sible, but is free to twist about its axis. Of course, as the wire twists it also causes
the disk attached to it to rotate in the horizontal plane. Let θ be the angle of
rotation of the disk, and let θ = 0 correspond to the case in which the wire is
untwisted.

Any twisting of the wire is inevitably associated with mechanical deformation.

The wire resists such deformation by developing a restoring torque, τ, which acts

241
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.4 The simple pendulum

to restore the wire to its untwisted state. For relatively small angles of twist, the
magnitude of this torque is directly proportional to the twist angle. Hence, we
can write
τ = −k θ, (11.16)
where k > 0 is the torque constant of the wire. The above equation is essentially
a torsional equivalent to Hooke’s law. The rotational equation of motion of the
system is written
I θ̈ = τ, (11.17)
where I is the moment of inertia of the disk (about a perpendicular axis through
its centre). The moment of inertia of the wire is assumed to be negligible. Com-
bining the previous two equations, we obtain
I θ̈ = −k θ. (11.18)

Equation (11.18) is clearly a simple harmonic equation [cf., Eq. (11.2)]. Hence,
we can immediately write the standard solution [cf., Eq. (11.3)]
θ = a cos(ω t − φ), (11.19)
where [cf., Eq. (11.5)] v
uk
u
ω= t
. (11.20)
I
We conclude that when a torsion pendulum is perturbed from its equilibrium state
(i.e., θ = 0), it executes torsional oscillations about this state at a fixed frequency,
ω, which depends only on the torque constant of the wire and the moment of
inertia of the disk. Note, in particular, that the frequency is independent of the
amplitude of the oscillation [provided θ remains small enough that Eq. (11.16)
still applies]. Torsion pendulums are often used for time-keeping purposes. For
instance, the balance wheel in a mechanical wristwatch is a torsion pendulum in
which the restoring torque is provided by a coiled spring.

11.4 The simple pendulum

Consider a mass m suspended from a light inextensible string of length l, such

that the mass is free to swing from side to side in a vertical plane, as shown in

242
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.4 The simple pendulum

fixed support

pivot point
l
θ
T

mg

Figure 97: A simple pendulum.

Fig. 97. This setup is known as a simple pendulum. Let θ be the angle subtended
between the string and the downward vertical. Obviously, the equilibrium state of
the simple pendulum corresponds to the situation in which the mass is stationary
and hanging vertically down (i.e., θ = 0). The angular equation of motion of the
pendulum is simply
I θ̈ = τ, (11.21)
where I is the moment of inertia of the mass, and τ is the torque acting on the
system. For the case in hand, given that the mass is essentially a point particle,
and is situated a distance l from the axis of rotation (i.e., the pivot point), it is
easily seen that I = m l2 .

The two forces acting on the mass are the downward gravitational force, m g,
and the tension, T , in the string. Note, however, that the tension makes no con-
tribution to the torque, since its line of action clearly passes through the pivot
point. From simple trigonometry, the line of action of the gravitational force
passes a distance l sin θ from the pivot point. Hence, the magnitude of the grav-
itational torque is m g l sin θ. Moreover, the gravitational torque is a restoring
torque: i.e., if the mass is displaced slightly from its equilibrium state (i.e., θ = 0)
then the gravitational force clearly acts to push the mass back toward that state.

243
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.4 The simple pendulum

Thus, we can write

τ = −m g l sin θ. (11.22)
Combining the previous two equations, we obtain the following angular equation
of motion of the pendulum:
l θ̈ = −g sin θ. (11.23)
Unfortunately, this is not the simple harmonic equation. Indeed, the above equa-
tion possesses no closed solution which can be expressed in terms of simple func-
tions.

Suppose that we restrict our attention to relatively small deviations from the
equilibrium state. In other words, suppose that the angle θ is constrained to take
fairly small values. We know, from trigonometry, that for |θ| less than about 6 ◦ it
is a good approximation to write

sin θ ' θ. (11.24)

Hence, in the small angle limit, Eq. (11.23) reduces to

l θ̈ = −g θ, (11.25)

which is in the familiar form of a simple harmonic equation. Comparing with

our original simple harmonic equation, Eq. (11.2), and its solution, we conclude
that the angular frequency of small amplitude oscillations of a simple pendulum
is given by
g
s
ω= . (11.26)
l
In this case, the pendulum frequency is dependent only on the length of the
pendulum and the local gravitational acceleration, and is independent of the
mass of the pendulum and the amplitude of the pendulum swings (provided that
sin θ ' θ remains a good approximation). Historically, the simple pendulum
was the basis of virtually all accurate time-keeping devices before the advent of
electronic clocks. Simple pendulums can also be used to measure local variations
in g.

244
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.5 The compound pendulum

Pivot point P
d
θ

C Centre of mass

Mg

Figure 98: A compound pendulum.

11.5 The compound pendulum

Consider an extended body of mass M with a hole drilled though it. Suppose that
the body is suspended from a fixed peg, which passes through the hole, such that
it is free to swing from side to side, as shown in Fig. 98. This setup is known as a
compound pendulum.

Let P be the pivot point, and let C be the body’s centre of mass, which is located
a distance d from the pivot. Let θ be the angle subtended between the downward
vertical (which passes through point P) and the line PC. The equilibrium state of
the compound pendulum corresponds to the case in which the centre of mass lies
vertically below the pivot point: i.e., θ = 0. See Sect. 10.3. The angular equation
of motion of the pendulum is simply
I θ̈ = τ, (11.27)
where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the pivot point, and τ is the
torque. Using similar arguments to those employed for the case of the simple
pendulum (recalling that all the weight of the pendulum acts at its centre of
mass), we can write
τ = −M g d sin θ. (11.28)

245
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion

Note that the reaction, R, at the peg does not contribute to the torque, since
its line of action passes through the pivot point. Combining the previous two
equations, we obtain the following angular equation of motion of the pendulum:

I θ̈ = −M g d sin θ. (11.29)

Finally, adopting the small angle approximation, sin θ ' θ, we arrive at the simple
harmonic equation:
I θ̈ = −M g d θ. (11.30)
It is clear, by analogy with our previous solutions of such equations, that the
angular frequency of small amplitude oscillations of a compound pendulum is
given by v
uM g d
u
ω=t . (11.31)
I

It is helpful to define the length

I
L= . (11.32)
Md
Equation (11.31) reduces to
g
s
ω= , (11.33)
L
which is identical in form to the corresponding expression for a simple pendulum.
We conclude that a compound pendulum behaves like a simple pendulum with
effective length L.

11.6 Uniform circular motion

Consider an object executing uniform circular motion of radius a. Let us set up a

cartesian coordinate system whose origin coincides with the centre of the circle,
and which is such that the motion is confined to the x-y plane. As illustrated in
Fig. 99, the instantaneous position of the object can be conveniently parameter-
ized in terms of an angle θ.

246
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion

a a sinθ

θ
x
a cos θ

Figure 99: Uniform circular motion.

Since the object is executing uniform circular motion, we expect the angle θ to
increase linearly with time. In other words, we can write
θ = ω t, (11.34)
where ω is the angular rotation frequency (i.e., the number of radians through
which the object rotates per second). Here, it is assumed that θ = 0 at t = 0, for
the sake of convenience.

From simple trigonometry, the x- and y-coordinates of the object can be writ-
ten
x = a cos θ, (11.35)
y = a sin θ, (11.36)
respectively. Hence, combining the previous equations, we obtain
x = a cos(ω t), (11.37)
y = a cos(ω t − π/2). (11.38)
Here, use has been made of the trigonometric identity sin θ = cos(θ − π/2). A
comparison of the above two equations with the standard equation of simple har-
monic motion, Eq. (11.3), reveals that our object is executing simple harmonic

247
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion

motion simultaneously along both the x- and the y -axes. Note, however, that
these two motions are 90◦ (i.e., π/2 radians) out of phase. Moreover, the am-
plitude of the motion equals the radius of the circle. Clearly, there is a close
relationship between simple harmonic motion and circular motion.

Worked example 11.1: Piston in steam engine

Question: A piston in a stream engine executes simple harmonic motion. Given

that the maximum displacement of the piston from its centre-line is ±7 cm, and
that the mass of the piston is 4 kg, find the maximum velocity of the piston when
the steam engine is running at 4000 rev./min. What is the maximum accelera-
tion?

Answer: We are told that the amplitude of the oscillation is a = 0.07 m. Moreover,
when converted to cycles per second (i.e., hertz), the frequency of the oscillation
becomes
4000
f= = 66.6666 Hz.
60
Hence, the angular frequency is

ω = 2 π f = 418.88 rad./sec.

Consulting Tab. 4, we note that the maximum velocity of an object executing

simple harmonic motion is vmax = a ω. Hence, the maximum velocity is

vmax = a ω = 0.07 × 418.88 = 29.32 m/s.

Likewise, according to Tab. 4, the maximum acceleration is given by

amax = a ω2 = 0.07 × 418.88 × 418.88 = 1.228 × 104 m/s2 .

Worked example 11.2: Block and spring

Question: A block attached to a spring executes simple harmonic motion in a

horizontal plane with an amplitude of 0.25 m. At a point 0.15 m away from the

248
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion

equilibrium position, the velocity of the block is 0.75 m/s. What is the period of
oscillation of the block?

Answer: The equation of simple harmonic motion is

x = a cos(ω t − φ),
where x is the displacement, and a is the amplitude. We are told that a = 0.25 m.
The velocity of the block is obtained by taking the time derivative of the above
expression:
ẋ = −a ω sin(ω t − φ).
We are told that at t = 0 (say), x = 0.15 m and ẋ = 0.75 m/s. Hence,
0.15 = 0.25 cos(φ),
0.75 = 0.25 ω sin(φ).
The first equation gives φ = cos−1 (0.15/0.25) = 53.13◦ . The second equation
yields
0.75
ω= = 3.75 rad./s.
0.25 × sin(53.13◦ )
Hence, the period of the motion is
2π
T= = 1.676 s.
ω

Worked example 11.3: Block and two springs

Question: A block of mass m = 3 kg is attached to two springs, as shown below,

and slides over a horizontal frictionless surface. Given that the force constants
of the two springs are k1 = 1200 N/m and k2 = 400 N/m, find the period of
oscillation of the system.

Answer: Let x1 and x2 represent the extensions of the first and second springs,
respectively. The net displacement x of the mass from its equilibrium position is
then given by
x = x1 + x2 .

249
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion

k1 k2
m

Let f1 = k1 x1 and f2 = k2 x2 be the magnitudes of the forces exerted by the

first and second springs, respectively. Since the springs (presumably) possess
negligible inertia, they must exert equal and opposite forces on one another. This
implies that f1 = f2 , or
k 1 x1 = k 2 x2 .
Finally, if f is the magnitude of the restoring force acting on the mass, then force
balance implies that f = f1 = f2 , or

f = keff x = k1 x1 .

Here, keff is the effective force constant of the two springs. The above equations
can be combined to give
k 1 x1 k1 k1 k2
keff = = = .
x1 + x 2 1 + k1 /k2 k1 + k 2
Thus, the problem reduces to that of a block of mass m = 3 kg attached to a
spring of effective force constant
k1 k2 1200 × 400
keff = = = 300 N/m.
k1 + k 2 1200 + 400
The angular frequency of oscillation is immediately given by the standard formula
v v
u keff u 300
u u
ω= t
= t
= 10 rad./s.
m 3
Hence, the period of oscillation is
2π
T= = 0.6283 s.
ω

250
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion

Worked example 11.4: Energy in simple harmonic motion

Question: A block of mass m = 4 kg is attached to a spring, and undergoes simple

harmonic motion with a period of T = 0.35 s. The total energy of the system is
E = 2.5 J. What is the force constant of the spring? What is the amplitude of the
motion?

Answer: The angular frequency of the motion is

2π 2π
ω= = = 17.95 rad./s.
T 0.35
q
Now, ω = k/m for a mass on a spring. Rearrangement of this formula yields
k = m ω2 = 4 × 17.95 × 17.95 = 1289.1 N/m.
The total energy of a system executing simple harmonic motion is E = a2 k/2.
Rearrangement of this formula gives
v v
u2 E u2× 2.5
u u
a= t
= t
= 0.06228 m.
k 1289.1
Thus, the force constant is 1289.1 N/m and the amplitude is 0.06228 m.

Worked example 11.5: Gravity on a new planet

Question: Having landed on a newly discovered planet, an astronaut sets up a

simple pendulum of length 0.6 m, and finds that it makes 51 complete oscillations
in 1 minute. The amplitude of the oscillations is small compared to the length of
the pendulum. What is the surface gravitational acceleration on the planet?

Answer: The frequency of the oscillations is

51
f= = 0.85 Hz.
60
Hence, the angular frequency is
ω = 2 π f = 2 × π × 1.833 = 5.341 rad./s.

251
11 OSCILLATORY MOTION 11.6 Uniform circular motion
q
Now, ω = g/l for small amplitude oscillations of a simple pendulum. Rear-
rangement off this formula gives

g = ω2 l = 5.341 × 5.341 × 0.6 = 17.11 m/s2 .

Hence, the surface gravitational acceleration is 17.11 m/s2 .

Worked example 11.6: Oscillating disk

Question: A uniform disk of radius r = 0.8 m and mass M = 3 kg is freely sus-

pended from a horizontal pivot located a radial distance d = 0.25 m from its
centre. Find the angular frequency of small amplitude oscillations of the disk.

Answer: The moment of inertia of the disk about a perpendicular axis passing
through its centre is I = (1/2) M r2 . From the parallel axis theorem, the moment
of inertia of the disk about the pivot point is
3 × 0.8 × 0.8
I 0 = I + M d2 = + 3 × 0.25 × 0.25 = 1.1475 kg m2 .
2
The angular frequency of small amplitude oscillations of a compound pendulum
is given by v v
uM g d u 3 × 9.81 × 0.25
u u
ω= t
0
= t
= 2.532 rad./s.
I 1.1475
Hence, the answer is 2.532 rad./s.

252
12 ORBITAL MOTION

12 Orbital motion

12.1 Introduction

We have spent this course exploring the theory of motion first outlined by Sir
Isaac Newton in his Principia (1687). It is, therefore, interesting to discuss
the particular application of this theory which made Newton an international
celebrity, and which profoundly and permanently changed humankind’s outlook
on the Universe. This application is, of course, the motion of the Solar System.

12.2 Historical background

Humankind has always been fascinated by the night sky, and, in particular, by
the movements of the Sun, the Moon, and the objects which the ancient Greeks
called plantai (“wanderers”), and which we call planets. In ancient times, much
of this interest was of a practical nature. The Sun and the Moon were impor-
tant for determining the calendar, and also for navigation. Moreover, the planets
were vital to astrology: i.e., the belief—almost universally prevalent in the an-
cient world—that the positions of the planets in the sky could be used to foretell
important events.

Actually, there were only seven “wandering” heavenly bodies visible to ancient
peoples: the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn. The ancients believed that the stars were fixed to a “celestial sphere”
which formed the outer boundary of the Universe. However, it was recognized
that the wandering bodies were located within this sphere: e.g., because the
Moon clearly passes in front of, and blocks the light from, stars in its path. It
was also recognized that some bodies were closer to the Earth than others. For
instance, ancient astronomers noted that the Moon occasionally passes in front
of the Sun and each of the planets. Moreover, Mercury and Venus can sometimes
be seen to transit in front of the Sun.

The first scientific model of the Solar System was outlined by the Greek philoso-

253
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

pher Eudoxas of Cnidus (409–356 BC). According to this model, the Sun, the
Moon, and the planets all execute uniform circular orbits around the Earth—
which is fixed, and non-rotating. The order of the orbits is as follows: Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn—with the Moon closest to the Earth.
For obvious reasons, Eudoxas’ model became known as the geocentric model of
the Solar System. Note that orbits are circular in this model for philosophical
reasons. The ancients believed the heavens to be the realm of perfection. Since
a circle is the most “perfect” imaginable shape, it follows that heavenly objects
must execute circular orbits.

A second Greek philosopher, Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC), proposed an

alternative model in which the Earth and the planets execute uniform circular
orbits around the Sun—which is fixed. Moreover, the Moon orbits around the
Earth, and the Earth rotates daily about a North-South axis. The order of the
planetary orbits is as follows: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn—with
Mercury closest to the Sun. This model became known as the heliocentric model
of the Solar System.

The heliocentric model was generally rejected by the ancient philosophers for
three main reasons:

1. If the Earth is rotating about its axis, and orbiting around the Sun, then the
Earth must be in motion. However, we cannot “feel” this motion. Nor does
this motion give rise to any obvious observational consequences. Hence, the
Earth must be stationary.
2. If the Earth is executing a circular orbit around the Sun then the positions of
the stars should be slightly different when the Earth is on opposite sides of
the Sun. This effect is known as parallax. Since no stellar parallax is observ-
able (at least, with the naked eye), the Earth must be stationary. In order
to appreciate the force of this argument, it is important to realize that an-
cient astronomers did not suppose the stars to be significantly further away
from the Earth than the planets. The celestial sphere was assumed to lie just
beyond the orbit of Saturn.
3. The geocentric model is far more philosophically attractive than the helio-

254
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

epicycle

deferant
planet
P
centre of deferant

Earth
+
C E

equant

Figure 100: The Ptolemaic system.

centric model, since in the former model the Earth occupies a privileged
position in the Universe.

The geocentric model was first converted into a proper scientific theory, ca-
pable of accurate predictions, by the Alexandrian philosopher Claudius Ptolemy
(85–165 AD). The theory that Ptolemy proposed in his famous book, now known
as the Almagest, remained the dominant scientific picture of the Solar System for
over a millennium. Basically, Ptolemy acquired and extended the extensive set
of planetary observations of his predecessor Hipparchus, and then constructed a
geocentric model capable of accounting for them. However, in order to fit the
observations, Ptolemy was forced to make some significant modifications to the
original model of Eudoxas. Let us discuss these modifications.

First, we need to introduce some terminology. As shown in Fig. 100, deferants

are large circles centred on the Earth, and epicyles are small circles whose cen-
tres move around the circumferences of the deferants. In the Ptolemaic system,
instead of traveling around deferants, the planets move around the circumfer-
ence of epicycles, which, in turn, move around the circumference of deferants.
Ptolemy found, however, that this modification was insufficient to completely ac-
count for all of his data. Ptolemy’s second modification to Eudoxas’ model was

255
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

to displace the Earth slightly from the common centre of the deferants. More-
over, Ptolemy assumed that the Sun, Moon, and planets rotate uniformly about
an imaginary point, called the equant, which is displaced an equal distance in the
opposite direction to the Earth from the centre of the deferants. In other words,
Ptolemy assumed that the line EP, in Fig. 100, rotates uniformly, rather than the
line CP.

Figure 101 shows more details of the Ptolemaic model.2 Note that this dia-
gram is not drawn to scale, and the displacement of the Earth from the centre
of the deferants has been omitted for the sake of clarity. It can be seen that the
Moon and the Sun do not possess epicyles. Moreover, the motions of the inferior
planets (i.e., Mercury and Venus) are closely linked to the motion of the Sun. In
fact, the centres of the inferior planet epicycles move on an imaginary line con-
necting the Earth and the Sun. Furthermore, the radius vectors connecting the
superior planets (i.e., Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) to the centres of their epicycles
are always parallel to the geometric line connecting the Earth and the Sun. Note
that, in addition to the motion indicated in the diagram, all of the heavenly bodies
(including the stars) rotate clockwise (assuming that we are looking down on the
Earth’s North pole in Fig. 101) with a period of 1 day. Finally, there are epicycles
within the epicycles shown in the diagram. In fact, some planets need as many
as 28 epicycles to account for all the details of their motion. These subsidiary
epicycles are not shown in the diagram, for the sake of clarity.

As is quite apparent, the Ptolemaic model of the Solar System is extremely

complicated. However, it successfully accounted for the relatively crude naked
eye observations made by the ancient Greeks. The Sun-linked epicyles of the
inferior planets are needed to explain why these objects always remain close to
the Sun in the sky. The epicycles of the superior planets are needed to account for
their occasional bouts of retrograde motion: i.e., motion in the opposite direction
to their apparent direction of rotation around the Earth. Finally, the displacement
of the Earth from the centre of the deferants, as well as the introduction of the
equant as the centre of uniform rotation, is needed to explain why the planets
speed up slightly when they are close to the Earth (and, hence, appear brighter
in the night sky), and slow down when they are further away.
2
R.A. Hatch, University of Florida, http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/rhatch/

256
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

Stars
29.46 y

11.86 y

1.88 y

Mars
1y

1y
1y

1y

27 1/3 d
Venus
Earth Mercury Sun
88 d
225 d
Moon

Jupiter

1y

Saturn

1y

Figure 101: The Ptolemaic model of the Solar System.

257
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

Ptolemy’s model of the Solar System was rescued from the wreck of ancient
European civilization by the Roman Catholic Church, which, unfortunately, con-
verted it into a minor article of faith, on the basis of a few references in the Bible
which seemed to imply that the Earth is stationary and the Sun is moving (e.g.,
Joshua 10:12-13, Habakkuk 3:11). Consequently, this model was not subject to
proper scientific criticism for over a millennium. Having said this, few medieval
or renaissance philosophers were entirely satisfied with Ptolemy’s model. Their
dissatisfaction focused, not on the many epicycles (which to the modern eye seem
rather absurd), but on the displacement of the Earth from the centre of the defer-
ants, and the introduction of the equant as the centre of uniform rotation. Recall,
that the only reason planetary orbits are constructed from circles in Ptolemy’s
model is to preserve the assumed ideal symmetry of the heavens. Unfortunately,
this symmetry is severely compromised when the Earth is displaced from the
apparent centre of the Universe. This problem so perplexed the Polish priest-
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) that he eventually decided to re-
ject the geocentric model, and revive the heliocentric model of Aristarchus. After
many years of mathematical calculations, Copernicus published a book entitled
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the revolutions of the celestial spheres)
in 1543 which outlined his new heliocentric theory.

Copernicus’ model is illustrated in Fig. 102. Again, this diagram is not to scale.
The planets execute uniform circular orbits about the Sun, and the Moon orbits
about the Earth. Finally, the Earth revolves about its axis daily. Note that there is
no displacement of the Sun from the centres of the planetary orbits, and there is
no equant. Moreover, in this model, the inferior planets remain close to the Sun
in the sky without any special synchronization of their orbits. Furthermore, the
occasional retrograde motion of the superior planets has a more natural explana-
tion than in Ptolemy’s model. Since the Earth orbits more rapidly than the supe-
rior planets, it occasionally “overtakes” them, and they appear to move backward
in the night sky, in much the same manner that slow moving cars on a freeway
appears to move backward to a driver overtaking them. Copernicus accounted
for the lack of stellar parallax, due to the Earth’s motion, by postulating that the
stars were a lot further away than had previously been supposed, rendering any
parallax undetectably small. Unfortunately, Copernicus insisted on retaining uni-

258
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

29.46 y

11.86 y
Stars

1.88 y

1y
Mars

225 d

Venus
88 d

Mercury Moon
Sun
Earth
27 1/3 d

Jupiter

Saturn

Figure 102: The Copernican model of the Solar System.

259
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

form circular motion in his model (after all, he was trying to construct a more
symmetric model than that of Ptolemy). Consequently, Copernicus also had to
resort to epicycles to fit the data. In fact, Copernicus’ model ended up with more
epicycles than Ptolemy’s!

The real breakthrough in the understanding of planetary motion occurred—as

most breakthroughs in physics occur—when better data became available. The
data in question was produced by the Dane Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), who de-
voted his life to making naked eye astronomical observations of unprecedented
accuracy and detail. This data was eventually inherited by Brahe’s pupil and assis-
tant, the German scientist Johannes Kepler (1571–1630). Kepler fully accepted
Copernicus’ heliocentric theory of the Solar System. Moreover, he was just as
firm a believer as Copernicus in the perfection of the heavens, and the conse-
quent need for circular motion of planetary bodies. The main difference was that
Kepler’s observational data was considerably better than Copernicus’. After years
of fruitless effort, Kepler eventually concluded that no combination of circular
deferants and epicycles could completely account for his data. At this stage, he
started to think the unthinkable. Maybe, planetary motion was not circular after
all? After more calculations, Kepler was eventually able to formulate three ex-
traordinarily simple laws which completely accounted for Brahe’s observations.
These laws are as follows:

1. The planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
2. A line from the Sun to any given planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.
3. The square of a planet’s period is proportional to the cube of the planet’s
mean distance from the Sun.

Note that there are no epicyles or equants in Kepler’s model of the Solar System.

Figure 103 illustrates Kepler’s second law. Here, the ellipse represents a plan-
etary orbit, and S represents the Sun, which is located at one of the focii of the
ellipse. Suppose that the planet moves from point A to point B in the same time
it takes to move from point C to point D. According the Kepler’s second law,

260
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.2 Historical background

C
B
S

A
D

Figure 103: Kepler’s second law.

Planet a(AU) T (yr) a3 /T 2

Mercury 0.387 0.241 0.998
Venus 0.723 0.615 0.999
Earth 1.000 1.000 1.000
Mars 1.524 1.881 1.000
Jupiter 5.203 11.862 1.001
Saturn 9.516 29.458 0.993

Table 5: Kepler’s third law. Here, a is the mean distance from the Sun, measured in Astronomical
Units (1 AU is the mean Earth-Sun distance), and T is the orbital period, measured in years.

the areas of the elliptic segments ASB and CSD are equal. Note that this law
basically mandates that planets speed up when they move closer to the Sun.

Table 5 illustrates Kepler’s third law. The mean distance, a, and orbital period,
T , as well as the ratio a3 /T 2 , are listed for each of the first six planets in the Solar
System. It can be seen that the ratio a3 /T 2 is indeed constant from planet to
planet.

Since we have now definitely adopted a heliocentric model of the Solar Sys-
tem, let us discuss the ancient Greek objections to such a model, listed earlier.
We have already dealt with the second objection (the absence of stellar parallax)
by stating that the stars are a lot further away from the Earth than the ancient
Greeks supposed. The third objection (that it is philosophically more attractive
to have the Earth at the centre of the Universe) is not a valid scientific criticism.
What about the first objection? If the Earth is rotating about its axis, and also

261
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.3 Gravity

orbiting the Sun, why do we not “feel” this motion? At first sight, this objec-
tion appears to have some force. After all, the rotation velocity of the Earth’s
surface is about 460 m/s. Moreover, the Earth’s orbital velocity is approximately
30 km/s. Surely, we would notice if we were moving this rapidly? Of course, this
reasoning is faulty because we know, from Newton’s laws of motion, that we only
“feel” the acceleration associated with motion, not the motion itself. It turns out
that the acceleration at the Earth’s surface due to its axial rotation is only about
0.034 m/s2 . Moreover, the Earth’s acceleration due to its orbital motion is only
0.0059 m/s2 . Nowadays, we can detect such small accelerations, but the ancient
Greeks certainly could not.

Kepler correctly formulated the three laws of planetary motion in 1619. Al-
most seventy years later, in 1687, Isaac Newton published his Principia, in which
he presented, for the first time, a universal theory of motion. Newton then went
on to illustrate his theory by using it to deriving Kepler’s laws from first principles.
Let us now discuss Newton’s monumental achievement in more detail.

12.3 Gravity

There is one important question which we have avoided discussing until now.
Why do objects fall towards the surface of the Earth? The ancient Greeks had
a very simple answer to this question. According to Aristotle, all objects have
a natural tendency to fall towards the centre of the Universe. Since the centre
of the Earth coincides with the centre of the Universe, all objects also tend to
fall towards the Earth’s surface. So, an ancient Greek might ask, why do the
planets not fall towards the Earth? Well, according to Aristotle, the planets are
embedded in crystal spheres which rotate with them whilst holding them in place
in the firmament. Unfortunately, Ptolemy seriously undermined this explanation
by shifting the Earth slightly from the centre of the Universe. However, the coup
de grace was delivered by Copernicus, who converted the Earth into just another
planet orbiting the Sun.

So, why do objects fall towards the surface of the Earth? The first person,
after Aristotle, to seriously consider this question was Sir Isaac Newton. Since

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.3 Gravity

2
f = G m 1 m2 / r

m2
−f
r

f
m1

Figure 104: Newton’s law of gravity.

the Earth is not located in a special place in the Universe, Newton reasoned,
objects must be attracted toward the Earth itself. Moreover, since the Earth is just
another planet, objects must be attracted towards other planets as well. In fact,
all objects must exert a force of attraction on all other objects in the Universe.
What intrinsic property of objects causes them to exert this attractive force—
which Newton termed gravity—on other objects? Newton decided that the crucial
property was mass. After much thought, he was eventually able to formulate his
famous law of universal gravitation:

Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. The direction of the force is along the
line joining the particles.

Incidentally, Newton adopted an inverse square law because he knew that this
was the only type of force law which was consistent with Kepler’s third law of
planetary motion.

Consider two point objects of masses m1 and m2 , separated by a distance r.

As illustrated in Fig. 104, the magnitude of the force of attraction between these
objects is
m1 m2
f=G . (12.1)
r2
The direction of the force is along the line joining the two objects.

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.3 Gravity

Let r1 and r2 be the vector positions of the two objects, respectively. The vector
gravitational force exerted by object 2 on object 1 can be written
r2 − r 1
f12 = G . (12.2)
|r2 − r1 |3
Likewise, the vector gravitational force exerted by object 1 on object 2 takes the
form
r1 − r 2
f21 = G = −f21 . (12.3)
|r1 − r2 |3

The constant of proportionality, G, appearing in the above formulae is called

the gravitational constant. Newton could only estimate the value of this quantity,
which was first directly measured by Henry Cavendish in 1798. The modern
value of G is
G = 6.6726 × 10−11 N m2 /kg2 . (12.4)
Note that the gravitational constant is numerically extremely small. This implies
that gravity is an intrinsically weak force. In fact, gravity usually only becomes
significant if at least one of the masses involved is of astronomical dimensions
(e.g., it is a planet, or a star).

Let us use Newton’s law of gravity to account for the Earth’s surface gravity.
Consider an object of mass m close to the surface of the Earth, whose mass and
radius are M⊕ = 5.97 × 1024 kg and R⊕ = 6.378 × 106 m, respectively. Newton
proved, after considerable effort, that the gravitational force exerted by a spher-
ical body (outside that body) is the same as that exerted by an equivalent point
mass located at the body’s centre. Hence, the gravitational force exerted by the
Earth on the object in question is of magnitude
m M⊕
f=G , (12.5)
R⊕2
and is directed towards the centre of the Earth. It follows that the equation of
motion of the object can be written
m M⊕
m r̈ = −G ^z, (12.6)
R⊕2

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.4 Gravitational potential energy

where ^z is a unit vector pointing straight upwards (i.e., away from the Earth’s
centre). Canceling the factor m on either side of the above equation, we obtain

r̈ = −g⊕ ^z, (12.7)

where
G M⊕ (6.673 × 10−11 ) × (5.97 × 1024 )
g⊕ = 2
= 6 2
= 9.79 m/s2 . (12.8)
R⊕ (6.378 × 10 )
Thus, we conclude that all objects on the Earth’s surface, irrespective of their
mass, accelerate straight down (i.e., towards the Earth’s centre) with a constant
acceleration of 9.79 m/s2 . This estimate for the acceleration due to gravity is
slightly off the conventional value of 9.81 m/s2 because the Earth is actually not
quite spherical.

Since Newton’s law of gravitation is universal, we immediately conclude that

any spherical body of mass M and radius R possesses a surface gravity g given by
the following formula:
g M/M⊕
= . (12.9)
g⊕ (R/R⊕ )2
Table 6 shows the surface gravity of various bodies in the Solar System, estimated
using the above expression. It can be seen that the surface gravity of the Moon is
only about one fifth of that of the Earth. No wonder Apollo astronauts were able
to jump so far on the Moon’s surface! Prospective Mars colonists should note that
they will only weigh about a third of their terrestrial weight on Mars.

12.4 Gravitational potential energy

We saw earlier, in Sect. 5.5, that gravity is a conservative force, and, therefore,
has an associated potential energy. Let us obtain a general formula for this energy.
Consider a point object of mass m, which is a radial distance r from another point
object of mass M. The gravitational force acting on the first mass is of magnitude
f = G M/r2 , and is directed towards the second mass. Imagine that the first
mass moves radially away from the second mass, until it reaches infinity. What

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.4 Gravitational potential energy

Body M/M⊕ R/R⊕ g/g⊕

Sun 3.33 × 105 109.0 28.1
Moon 0.0123 0.273 0.17
Mercury 0.0553 0.383 0.38
Venus 0.816 0.949 0.91
Earth 1.000 1.000 1.000
Mars 0.108 0.533 0.38
Jupiter 318.3 11.21 2.5
Saturn 95.14 9.45 1.07

Table 6: The mass, M, radius, R, and surface gravity, g, of various bodies in the Solar System. All
quantities are expressed as fractions of the corresponding terrestrial quantity.

is the change in the potential energy of the first mass associated with this shift?
According to Eq. (5.33),
Z∞
U(∞) − U(r) = − [−f(r)] dr. (12.10)
r

There is a minus sign in front of f because this force is oppositely directed to the
motion. The above expression can be integrated to give
GMm
U(r) = − . (12.11)
r
Here, we have adopted the convenient normalization that the potential energy
at infinity is zero. According to the above formula, the gravitational potential
energy of a mass m located a distance r from a mass M is simply −G M m/r.

Consider an object of mass m moving close to the Earth’s surface. The potential
energy of such an object can be written
G M⊕ m
U=− , (12.12)
R⊕ + z
where M⊕ and R⊕ are the mass and radius of the Earth, respectively, and z is the
vertical height of the object above the Earth’s surface. In the limit that z  R ⊕ ,
the above expression can be expanded using the binomial theorem to give
G M⊕ m G M⊕ m
U'− + z, (12.13)
R⊕ R⊕2
266
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.4 Gravitational potential energy

Since potential energy is undetermined to an arbitrary additive constant, we

could just as well write
U ' m g z, (12.14)
where g = G M⊕ /R⊕2 is the acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface
[see Eq. (12.8)]. Of course, the above formula is equivalent to the formula (5.3)
derived earlier on in this course.

For an object of mass m and speed v, moving in the gravitational field of a

fixed object of mass M, we expect the total energy,
E = K + U, (12.15)
to be a constant of the motion. Here, the kinetic energy is written K = (1/2) m v 2 ,
whereas the potential energy takes the form U = −G M m/r. Of course, r is the
distance between the two objects. Suppose that the fixed object is a sphere of
radius R. Suppose, further, that the second object is launched from the surface
of this sphere with some velocity vesc which is such that it only just escapes the
sphere’s gravitational influence. After the object has escaped, it is a long way
away from the sphere, and hence U = 0. Moreover, if the object only just escaped,
then we also expect K = 0, since the object will have expended all of its initial
kinetic energy escaping from the sphere’s gravitational well. We conclude that
our object possesses zero net energy: i.e., E = K + U = 0. Since E is a constant of
the motion, it follows that at the launch point
1 2 GMm
E= m vesc − = 0. (12.16)
2 R
This expression can be rearranged to give
v
u2 G M
u
vesc = t
. (12.17)
R
The quantity vesc is known as the escape velocity. Objects launched from the sur-
face of the sphere with velocities exceeding this value will eventually escape from
the sphere’s gravitational influence. Otherwise, the objects will remain in orbit
around the sphere, and may eventually strike its surface. Note that the escape
velocity is independent of the object’s mass and launch direction (assuming that
it is not straight into the sphere).

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.5 Satellite orbits

The escape velocity for the Earth is

v v
u 2 G M⊕ u2 × (6.673 × 10−11 ) × (5.97 × 1024 )
u u
vesc = t = t
= 11.2 km/s. (12.18)
R⊕ 6.378 × 106
Clearly, NASA must launch deep space probes from the surface of the Earth with
velocities which exceed this value if they are to have any hope of eventually
reaching their targets.

12.5 Satellite orbits

Consider an artificial satellite executing a circular orbit of radius r around the

Earth. Let ω be the satellite’s orbital angular velocity. The satellite experiences
an acceleration towards the Earth’s centre of magnitude ω2 r. Of course, this
acceleration is provided by the gravitational attraction between the satellite and
the Earth, which yields an acceleration of magnitude G M⊕ /r2 . It follows that
G M⊕
ω2 r = . (12.19)
r2

Suppose that the satellite’s orbit lies in the Earth’s equatorial plane. Moreover,
suppose that the satellite’s orbital angular velocity just matches the Earth’s angu-
lar velocity of rotation. In this case, the satellite will appear to hover in the same
place in the sky to a stationary observer on the Earth’s surface. A satellite with
this singular property is known as a geostationary satellite.

Virtually all of the satellites used to monitor the Earth’s weather patterns are
geostationary in nature. Communications satellites also tend to be geostationary.
Of course, the satellites which beam satellite-TV to homes across the world must
be geostationary—otherwise, you would need to install an expensive tracking
antenna on top of your house in order to pick up the transmissions. Incidentally,
the person who first envisaged rapid global telecommunication via a network of
geostationary satellites was the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke in 1945.

Let us calculate the orbital radius of a geostationary satellite. The angular

268
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

velocity of the Earth’s rotation is

2π
ω= = 7.27 × 10−5 rad./s. (12.20)
24 × 60 × 60
It follows from Eq. (12.19) that
!1/3 1/3
(6.673 × 10−11 ) × (5.97 × 1024 ) 

G M⊕
rgeo = = 
ω2 (7.27 × 10−5 )2
= 4.22 × 107 m = 6.62 R⊕ . (12.21)
Thus, a geostationary satellite must be placed in a circular orbit whose radius is
exactly 6.62 times the Earth’s radius.

12.6 Planetary orbits

Let us now see whether we can use Newton’s universal laws of motion to derive
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Consider a planet orbiting around the Sun. It
is convenient to specify the planet’s instantaneous position, with respect to the
Sun, in terms of the polar coordinates r and θ. As illustrated in Fig. 105, r is the
radial distance between the planet and the Sun, whereas θ is the angular bearing
of the planet, from the Sun, measured with respect to some arbitrarily chosen
direction.

Let us define two unit vectors, er and eθ . (A unit vector is simply a vector
whose length is unity.) As shown in Fig. 105, the radial unit vector er always
points from the Sun towards the instantaneous position of the planet. Moreover,
the tangential unit vector eθ is always normal to er , in the direction of increasing
θ. In Sect. 7.5, we demonstrated that when acceleration is written in terms of
polar coordinates, it takes the form
a = a r er + a θ eθ , (12.22)
where
ar = r̈ − r θ̇2 , (12.23)
aθ = r θ̈ + 2 ṙ θ̇. (12.24)

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

eθ
er

Planet

θ
Sun

Figure 105: A planetary orbit.

These expressions are more complicated that the corresponding cartesian expres-
sions because the unit vectors er and eθ change direction as the planet changes
position.

Now, the planet is subject to a single force: i.e., the force of gravitational
attraction exerted by the Sun. In polar coordinates, this force takes a particularly
simple form (which is why we are using polar coordinates):
GM m
f=− er . (12.25)
r2
The minus sign indicates that the force is directed towards, rather than away
from, the Sun.

According to Newton’s second law, the planet’s equation of motion is written

m a = f. (12.26)

The above four equations yield

GM
r̈ − r θ̇2 = − , (12.27)
r2
r θ̈ + 2 ṙ θ̇ = 0. (12.28)

270
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

δθ
P’

P
S
r

Figure 106: The origin of Kepler’s second law.

Equation (12.28) reduces to

d 2
(r θ̇) = 0, (12.29)
dt
or
r2 θ̇ = h, (12.30)
where h is a constant of the motion. What is the physical interpretation of h?
Recall, from Sect. 9.2, that the angular momentum vector of a point particle can
be written
l = m r × v. (12.31)
For the case in hand, r = r er and v = ṙ er + r θ̇ eθ [see Sect. 7.5]. Hence,

l = m r vθ = m r2 θ̇, (12.32)

yielding
l
h= . (12.33)
m
Clearly, h represents the angular momentum (per unit mass) of our planet around
the Sun. Angular momentum is conserved (i.e., h is constant) because the force
of gravitational attraction between the planet and the Sun exerts zero torque on
the planet. (Recall, from Sect. 9, that torque is the rate of change of angular mo-
mentum.) The torque is zero because the gravitational force is radial in nature:
i.e., its line of action passes through the Sun, and so its associated lever arm is of
length zero.

The quantity h has another physical interpretation. Consider Fig. 106. Sup-
pose that our planet moves from P to P 0 in the short time interval δt. Here, S

271
12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

represents the position of the Sun. The lines SP and SP 0 are both approximately
of length r. Moreover, using simple trigonometry, the line PP 0 is of length r δθ,
where δθ is the small angle through which the line joining the Sun and the planet
rotates in the time interval δt. The area of the triangle PSP 0 is approximately
1
δA = × r δθ × r : (12.34)
2
i.e., half its base times its height. Of course, this area represents the area swept
out by the line joining the Sun and the planet in the time interval δt. Hence, the
rate at which this area is swept is given by

δA 1 2 δθ r2 θ̇ h
lim = r lim = = . (12.35)
δt→0 δt 2 δt→0 δt 2 2
Clearly, the fact that h is a constant of the motion implies that the line joining the
planet and the Sun sweeps out area at a constant rate: i.e., the line sweeps equal
areas in equal time intervals. But, this is just Kepler’s second law. We conclude
that Kepler’s second law of planetary motion is a direct manifestation of angular
momentum conservation.

Let
1
r= , (12.36)
u
where u(t) ≡ u(θ) is a new radial variable. Differentiating with respect to t, we
obtain
u̇ θ̇ du du
ṙ = − 2 = − 2 = −h . (12.37)
u u dθ dθ
The last step follows from the fact that θ̇ = h u2 . Differentiating a second time
with respect to t, we obtain
d du d2 u d2 u
!
r̈ = −h = −h θ̇ 2 = −h2 u2 2 . (12.38)
dt dθ dθ dθ
Equations (12.27) and (12.38) can be combined to give
d2 u GM
+ u = . (12.39)
dθ2 h2

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

This equation possesses the fairly obvious general solution

GM
u = A cos(θ − θ0 ) + , (12.40)
h2
where A and θ0 are arbitrary constants.

The above formula can be inverted to give the following simple orbit equation
for our planet:
1
r= . (12.41)
A cos(θ − θ0 ) + G M /h2
The constant θ0 merely determines the orientation of the orbit. Since we are only
interested in the orbit’s shape, we can set this quantity to zero without loss of
generality. Hence, our orbit equation reduces to
1+e
r = r0 , (12.42)
1 + e cos θ
where
A h2
e= , (12.43)
GM
and
h2
r0 = . (12.44)
G M (1 + e)

Formula (12.42) is the standard equation of an ellipse (assuming e < 1), with
the origin at a focus. Hence, we have now proved Kepler’s first law of planetary
motion. It is clear that r0 is the radial distance at θ = 0. The radial distance at
θ = π is written
1+e
r1 = r 0 . (12.45)
1−e
Here, r0 is termed the perihelion distance (i.e., the closest distance to the Sun)
and r1 is termed the aphelion distance (i.e., the furthest distance from the Sun).
The quantity
r1 − r 0
e= (12.46)
r1 + r 0
is termed the eccentricity of the orbit, and is a measure of its departure from
circularity. Thus, e = 0 corresponds to a purely circular orbit, whereas e →

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

Planet e
Mercury 0.206
Venus 0.007
Earth 0.017
Mars 0.093
Jupiter 0.048
Saturn 0.056

Table 7: The orbital eccentricities of various planets in the Solar System.

1 corresponds to a highly elongated orbit. As specified in Tab. 7, the orbital

eccentricities of all of the planets (except Mercury) are fairly small.

According to Eq. (12.35), a line joining the Sun and an orbiting planet sweeps
area at the constant rate h/2. Let T be the planet’s orbital period. We expect the
line to sweep out the whole area of the ellipse enclosed by the planet’s orbit in
the time interval T . Since the area of an ellipse is π a b, where a and b are the
semi-major and semi-minor axes, we can write
πab
T= . (12.47)
h/2
Incidentally, Fig. 107 illustrates the relationship between the aphelion distance,
the perihelion distance, and the semi-major and semi-minor axes of a planetary
orbit. It is clear, from the figure, that the semi-major axis is just the mean of the
aphelion and perihelion distances: i.e.,
r0 + r 1
a= . (12.48)
2
Thus, a is essentially the planet’s mean distance from the Sun. Finally, the rela-
tionship between a, b, and the eccentricity, e, is given by the well-known formula
b q
= 1 − e2 . (12.49)
a
This formula can easily be obtained from Eq. (12.42).

Equations (12.44), (12.45), and (12.48) can be combined to give

h2 1 1 h2
!
a= + = . (12.50)
2GM 1+e 1−e G M (1 − e2 )
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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

focus
b

r0 a
r1

Figure 107: Anatomy of a planetary orbit.

It follows, from Eqs. (12.47), (12.49), and (12.50), that the orbital period can be
written
2π
T=√ a3/2 . (12.51)
GM
Thus, the orbital period of a planet is proportional to its mean distance from
the Sun to the power 3/2—the constant of proportionality being the same for all
planets. Of course, this is just Kepler’s third law of planetary motion.

Worked example 12.1: Gravity on Callisto

Question: Callisto is the eighth of Jupiter’s moons: its mass and radius are
M = 1.08 × 1023 kg and R = 2403 km, respectively. What is the gravitational
acceleration on the surface of this moon?

Answer: The surface gravitational acceleration on a spherical body of mass M

and radius R is simply
GM
g= 2 .
R
Hence,
(6.673 × 10−11 ) × (1.08 × 1023 )
g= 6 2
= 1.25 m/s2 .
(2.403 × 10 )

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

Worked example 12.2: Acceleration of a rocket

Question: A rocket is located a distance 3.5 times the radius of the Earth above
the Earth’s surface. What is the rocket’s free-fall acceleration?

Answer: Let R⊕ be the Earth’s radius. The distance of the rocket from the centre
of the Earth is r1 = (3.5 + 1) R⊕ = 4.5 R⊕ . We know that the free-fall acceleration
of the rocket when its distance from the Earth’s centre is r0 = R⊕ (i.e., when it is
at the Earth’s surface) is g0 = 9.81 m/s2 . Moreover, we know that gravity is an
inverse-square law (i.e., g ∝ 1/r2 ). Hence, the rocket’s acceleration is
!2
r0 9.81 × 1
g1 = g 0 = 2
= 0.484 m/s2 .
r1 (4.5)

Worked example 12.3: Circular Earth orbit

Question: A satellite moves in a circular orbit around the Earth with speed v =
6000 m/s. Determine the satellite’s altitude above the Earth’s surface. Determine
the period of the satellite’s orbit. The Earth’s mass and radius are M ⊕ = 5.97 ×
1024 kg and R⊕ = 6.378 × 106 m, respectively.

Answer: The acceleration of the satellite towards the centre of the Earth is v 2 /r,
where r is its orbital radius. This acceleration must be provided by the accelera-
tion G M⊕ /r2 due to the Earth’s gravitational attraction. Hence,
v2 G M⊕
= .
r r2
The above expression can be rearranged to give
G M⊕ (6.673 × 10−11 ) × (5.97 × 1024 )
r= 2
= 2
= 1.107 × 107 m.
v (6000)
Thus, the satellite’s altitude above the Earth’s surface is

h = r − R⊕ = 1.107 × 107 − 6.378 × 106 = 4.69 × 106 m.

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

The satellite’s orbital period is simply

2 π r 2 × π × (1.107 × 107 )
T= = = 3.22 hours.
v 6000

Worked example 12.4: Halley’s comet

Question: The distance of closest approach of Halley’s comet to the Sun is 0.57 AU.
(1 AU is the mean Earth-Sun distance.) The greatest distance of the comet from
the Sun is 35 AU. The comet’s speed at closest approach is 54 km/s. What is its
speed when it is furthest from the Sun?

Answer: At perihelion and aphelion, the comet’s velocity is perpendicular to its

position vector from the Sun. Hence, at these two special points, the comet’s
angular momentum (around the Sun) takes the particularly simple form
l = m r u.
Here, m is the comet’s mass, r is its distance from the Sun, and u is its speed.
According to Kepler’s second law, the comet orbits the Sun with constant angular
momentum. Hence, we can write
r0 u 0 = r 1 u 1 ,
where r0 and u0 are the perihelion distance and speed, respectively, and r1 and
u1 are the corresponding quantities at aphelion. We are told that r 0 = 0.57 AU,
r1 = 35 AU, and u0 = 54 km/s. It follows that
u 0 r0 54 × 0.57
u1 = = = 0.879 km/s.
r1 35

Worked example 12.5: Mass of star

Question: A planet is in circular orbit around a star. The period and radius of the
orbit are T = 4.3 × 107 s and r = 2.34 × 1011 m, respectively. Calculate the mass
of the star.

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12 ORBITAL MOTION 12.6 Planetary orbits

Answer: Let ω be the planet’s orbital angular velocity. The planet accelerates
towards the star with acceleration ω2 r. The acceleration due to the star’s gravi-
tational attraction is G M∗ /r2 , where M∗ is the mass of the star. Equating these
accelerations, we obtain
G M∗
ω2 r = .
r2
Now,
2π
T= .
ω
Hence, combining the previous two expressions, we get
4 π 2 r3
M∗ = .
G T2
Thus, the mass of the star is
4 × π2 × (2.34 × 1011 )3
M∗ = −11 7 2
= 4.01 × 1030 kg.
(6.673 × 10 ) × (4.3 × 10 )

Worked example 12.6: Launch energy

Question: What is the minimum energy required to launch a probe of mass m =

120 kg into outer space? The Earth’s mass and radius are M⊕ = 5.97 × 1024 kg
and R⊕ = 6.378 × 106 m, respectively.

Answer: The energy which must be given to the probe should just match the
probe’s gain in potential energy as it travels from the Earth’s surface to outer
space. By definition, the probe’s potential energy in outer space is zero. The
potential energy of the probe at the Earth’s surface is
G M⊕ m (6.673 × 10−11 ) × (5.97 × 1024 ) × 120
U=− = 6
= −7.495 × 109 J.
R⊕ (6.378 × 10 )
Thus, the gain in potential energy, which is the same as the minimum launch
energy, is 7.495 × 109 J.

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13 WAVE MOTION

13 Wave motion

13.1 Introduction

Waves are small amplitude perturbations which propagate through continuous

media: e.g., gases, liquids, solids, or—in the special case of electromagnetic
waves—a vacuum. Wave motion is a combination of oscillatory and translational
motion. Waves are important because they are the means through which virtually
all information regarding the outside world is transmitted to us. For instance, we
hear things via sound waves propagating through the air, and we see things via
light waves. Now, the physical mechanisms which underlie sound and light wave
propagation are completely different. Nevertheless, sound and light waves pos-
sesses a number of common properties which are intrinsic to wave motion itself.
In this section, we shall concentrate on the common properties of waves, rather
than those properties which are peculiar to particular wave types.

13.2 Waves on a stretched string

Probably the simplest type of wave is that which propagates down a stretched
string. Consider a straight string which is stretched such that it is under uniform
tension T . Let the string run along the x-axis. Suppose that the string is subject
to a small amplitude displacement, in the y-direction, which can vary along its
length. Let y(x, t) be the string’s displacement at position x and time t. What is
the equation of motion for y(x, t)?

Consider an infinitesimal segment of the string which extends from x − δx/2

to x + δx/2. As shown in Fig. 108, this segment is subject to opposing tension
forces, T , at its two ends, which act along the local tangent line to the string.
Here, we are assuming that the string displacement remains sufficiently small
that the tension does not vary in magnitude along the string. Suppose that the
local tangent line to the string subtends angles δθ1 and δθ2 with the x-axis at
x − δx/2 and x + δx/2, respectively—as shown in Fig. 108. Note that these
angles are written as infinitesimal quantities because the string displacement is

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13 WAVE MOTION 13.2 Waves on a stretched string

y −>
T

δθ 2

δθ1

T x − δ x/2 x + δ x/2 x −>

Figure 108: Forces acting on a segment of a stretched string.

assumed to be infinitesimally small, which implies that the string is everywhere

almost parallel with the x-axis (the string displacement is greatly exaggerated in
Fig. 108, for the sake of clarity).

Consider the y-component of the string segment’s equation of motion. The net
force acting on the segment in the y-direction takes the form

fy (x, t) = T sin δθ2 − T sin δθ1 ' T (δθ2 − δθ1 ), (13.1)

since sin θ ' θ when θ is small. Now, from calculus,

∂y(x − δx/2, t)
= tan δθ1 ' δθ1 , (13.2)
∂x
∂y(x + δx/2, t)
= tan δθ2 ' δθ2 , (13.3)
∂x
since the gradient, dy(x)/dx, of the curve y(x) is equal to the tangent of the angle
subtended by this curve with the x-axis. Note that tan θ ' θ when θ is small. The
quantity ∂y(x, t)/∂x refers to the derivative of y(x, t) with respect to x, keeping
t constant—such a derivative is known as a partial derivative. Equations (13.1)–
(13.3) can be combined to give
∂2 y(x, t)
 
∂y(x + δx/2, t) ∂y(x − δx/2, t) 
fy (x, t) = T  − = T δx . (13.4)
∂x ∂x ∂x2

280
13 WAVE MOTION 13.2 Waves on a stretched string

Here, ∂2 y(x, t)/∂x2 is the second derivative of y(x, t) with respect to x, keeping t
constant.

Suppose that the string has a mass per unit length µ. It follows that the y
equation of motion of our string segment takes the form
∂2 y(x, t)
µ δx = fy (x, t), (13.5)
∂t2
Here, ∂2 y(x, t)/∂t2 —the second derivative of y(x, t) with respect to t, keeping
x constant—is the y-acceleration of the string segment at position x and time t.
Equations (13.4) and (13.5) yield the final expression for the string’s equation of
motion:
∂2 y T ∂2 y
= . (13.6)
∂t2 µ ∂x2

Equation (13.6) is an example of a wave equation. In fact, all small amplitude

waves satisfy an equation of motion of this basic form. A particular solution of
this type of equation has been known for centuries: i.e.,
y(x, t) = y0 cos (k x − ω t), (13.7)
where y0 , k, and ω are constants. We can demonstrate that (13.7) satisfies (13.6)
by direct substitution. Thus,
∂y
= y0 ω sin (k x − ω t), (13.8)
∂t
∂2 y
2
= −y0 ω2 cos (k x − ω t), (13.9)
∂t
and
∂y
= −y0 k sin (k x − ω t), (13.10)
∂x
∂2 y
2
= −y0 k2 cos (k x − ω t). (13.11)
∂x
Substituting Eqs. (13.9) and (13.11) into Eq. (13.6), we find that the latter equa-
tion is satisfied provided
ω2 T
= . (13.12)
k2 µ
281
13 WAVE MOTION 13.2 Waves on a stretched string

Equation (13.7) describes a pattern of motion which is periodic in both space

and time. This periodicity follows from the well-known periodicity property of the
cosine function: namely, cos(θ + 2 π) = cos θ. Thus, the wave pattern is periodic
in space,
y(x + λ, t) = y(x, t), (13.13)
with periodicity length
2π
λ= . (13.14)
k
Here, λ is known as the wavelength, whereas k is known as the wavenumber. The
wavelength is the distance between successive wave peaks. The wave pattern is
periodic in time,
y(x, t + T ) = y(x, t), (13.15)
with period
2π
T= . (13.16)
ω
The wave period is the oscillation period of the wave disturbance at a given point
in space. The wave frequency (i.e., the number of cycles per second the wave
pattern executes at a given point in space) is written
1 ω
f= = . (13.17)
T 2π
The quantity ω is termed the angular frequency of the wave. Finally, at any given
point in space, the displacement y oscillates between +y0 and −y0 (since the
maximal values of cos θ are ±1). Hence, y0 corresponds to the wave amplitude.

Equation (13.7) also describes a sinusoidal pattern which propagates along the
x-axis without changing shape. We can see this by examining the motion of the
wave peaks, y = +y0 , which correspond to

k x − ω t = n 2 π, (13.18)

where n is an integer. Differentiating the above expression with respect to time,

we obtain
dx ω
= . (13.19)
dt k

282
13 WAVE MOTION 13.2 Waves on a stretched string

Figure 109: A sinusoidal wave propagating down the x-axis. The solid, dotted, dashed, and dot-
dashed curves show the wave displacement at four successive and equally spaced times.

In other words, the wave peaks all propagate along the x-axis with uniform speed
ω
v= . (13.20)
k
It is easily demonstrated that the wave troughs, y = −y0 , propagate with the
same speed. Thus, it is fairly clear that the whole wave pattern moves with speed
v—see Fig. 109. Equations (13.14), (13.17), and (13.20) yield

v = fλ : (13.21)

i.e., a wave’s speed is the product of its frequency and its wavelength. This is true
for all types of (sinusoidal) wave.

Equations (13.12) and (13.20) imply that

v
uT
u
v= t . (13.22)
µ
In other words, all waves that propagate down a stretched string do so with the
same speed. This common speed is determined by the properties of the string: i.e.,
its tension and mass per unit length. Note, from Eq. (13.7), that the wavelength

283
13 WAVE MOTION 13.3 General waves

λ is arbitrary. However, once the wavelength is specified, the wave frequency

f is fixed via Eqs. (13.21) and (13.22). It follows that short wavelength waves
possess high frequencies, and vice versa.

13.3 General waves

By analogy with the previous discussion, a general wave disturbance propagating

along the x-axis satisfies
∂2 y 2
2 ∂ y
=v , (13.23)
∂t2 ∂x2
where v is the common wave speed. In general, v is determined by the properties
of the medium through which the wave propagates. Thus, for waves propagating
along a string, the wave speed is determined by the string tension and mass
per unit length; for sound waves propagating through a gas, the wave speed
is determined by the gas pressure and density; and for electromagnetic waves
propagating through a vacuum, the wave speed is a constant of nature: i.e.,
c = 3 × 108 m/s2 .

One solution of Eq. (13.23) is

y(x, t) = y0 cos [k (x − v t)]. (13.24)
This is interpreted as a (sinusoidal) wave of amplitude y0 and wavelength λ =
2 π/k which propagates in the +x direction with speed v. It is easily demonstrated
that another equally good solution of Eq. (13.23) is
y(x, t) = y0 cos [k (x + v t)]. (13.25)
This is interpreted as a (sinusoidal) wave of amplitude y0 and wavelength λ =
2 π/k which propagates in the −x direction with speed v.

Equation (13.23) is a linear partial differential equation (PDE): i.e., it is in-

variant under the transformation y → a y + b, where a and b are arbitrary
constants. One important mathematical property of linear PDEs is that their so-
lutions are superposable: i.e., they can be added together and still remain solu-
tions. Thus, if y1 (x, t) and y2 (x, t) are two distinct solutions of Eq. (13.23) then

284
13 WAVE MOTION 13.4 Wave-pulses

x −>

Figure 110: A wave-pulse propagating down the x-axis. The solid, dotted, and dashed curves show
the wave displacement at three successive and equally spaced times.

a y1 (x, t) + b y2 (x, t) (where a and b are arbitrary constants) is also a solution—

this can be seen from inspection of Eq. (13.23). To be more exact, if

y1 (x, t) = a1 cos [k1 (x − v t)] (13.26)

represents a wave of amplitude a1 and wavenumber k1 which propagates in the

+x direction, and
y2 (x, t) = a2 cos [k2 (x + v t)] (13.27)
represents a wave of amplitude a2 and wavenumber k2 which propagates in the
−x direction, then
y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) (13.28)
is a valid solution of the wave equation, and represents the two aforementioned
waves propagating in the same region without affecting one another.

13.4 Wave-pulses

As is easily demonstrated, the most general solution of the wave equation (13.23)
is written
F(x − v t), (13.29)

285
13 WAVE MOTION 13.4 Wave-pulses

where F(p) is an arbitrary function. The above solution is interpreted as a pulse

of arbitrary shape which propagates in the +x direction with speed v, without
changing shape—see Fig. 110. Likewise,

G(x + v t) (13.30)

represents another arbitrary pulse which propagates in the −x direction with

speed v, without changing shape. Note that, unlike our previous sinusoidal wave
solutions, a general wave-pulse possesses a definite propagation speed but does
not possess a definite wavelength or frequency.

What is the relationship between these new wave-pulse solutions and our pre-
vious sinusoidal wave solutions? It turns out that any wave-pulse can be built up
from a suitable linear superposition of sinusoidal waves. For instance, if F(x − v t)
represents a wave-pulse propagating down the x-axis, then we can write
Z∞
F(x − v t) = F̄(k) cos [k (x − v t)] dk, (13.31)
0

where we have assumed that F(−p) = F(p), for the sake of simplicity. The above
formula is basically a recipe for generating the propagating wave-pulse F(x − v t)
from a suitable admixture of sinusoidal waves of definite wavelength and fre-
quency: F̄(k) specifies the required amplitude of the wavelength λ = 2 π/k com-
ponent. How do we determine F̄(k) for a given wave-pulse? Well, a mathematical
result known as Fourier’s theorem yields
Z
2 ∞
F̄(k) = F(p) cos (k p) dp, (13.32)
π 0
The above expression essentially tells us the strength of the wavenumber k com-
ponent of the wave-pulse F(x − v t). Note that the function F̄(k) is known as the
Fourier spectrum of the wave-pulse F(x − v t).

Figures 111 and 112 show two different wave-pulses and their associated
Fourier spectra. Note how, by combining sinusoidal waves of varying wavenum-
ber in different proportions, it is possible to build up wave-pulses of completely
different shape.

286
13 WAVE MOTION 13.4 Wave-pulses

Figure 111: A propagating wave-pulse, F(x − v t), and its associated Fourier spectrum, F̄(k).

287
13 WAVE MOTION 13.4 Wave-pulses

Figure 112: A propagating wave-pulse, F(x − v t), and its associated Fourier spectrum, F̄(k).

288
13 WAVE MOTION 13.5 Standing waves

13.5 Standing waves

Up to now, all of the wave solutions that we have investigated have been propa-
gating solutions. Is it possible to construct a wave solution which does not prop-
agate? Suppose we combine a sinusoidal wave of amplitude y0 and wavenumber
k which propagates in the +x direction,
y1 (x, t) = y0 cos (k x − ω t), (13.33)
with a second sinusoidal wave of amplitude y0 and wavenumber k which propa-
gates in the −x direction,
y2 (x, t) = y0 cos (k x + ω t). (13.34)
The net result is
y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) = y0 [cos (k x − ω t) + cos (k x + ω t)] . (13.35)
Making use of the standard trigonometric identity
x+y x−y
! !
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos , (13.36)
2 2
we obtain
y(x, t) = 2 y0 cos (k x) cos (ω t). (13.37)
The pattern of motion specified by the above expression is illustrated in Fig. 113.
It can be seen that the wave pattern does not propagate along the x-axis. Note,
however, that the amplitude of the wave now varies with position. At certain
points, called nodes, the amplitude is zero. At other points, called anti-nodes,
the amplitude is maximal. The nodes are halfway between successive anti-nodes,
and both nodes and anti-nodes are evenly spaced half a wavelength apart.

The standing wave shown in Fig. 113 can be thought of as the interference
pattern generated by combining the two traveling wave solutions y1 (x, t) and
y2 (x, t). At the anti-nodes, the waves reinforce one another, so that the oscillation
amplitude becomes double that associated with each wave individually—this is
termed constructive interference. At the nodes, the waves completely cancel one
another out—this is termed destructive interference.

289
13 WAVE MOTION 13.5 Standing waves

node

anti−node

Figure 113: A standing wave. The various curves show the wave displacement at different times.

Most musical instruments work by exciting standing waves. For instance,

stringed instruments excite standing waves on strings, whereas wind instruments
excite standing waves in columns of air. Consider a guitar string of length L.
Suppose that the string runs along the x-axis, and extends from x = 0 to x = L.
Since the ends of the string are fixed, any wave excited on the string must satisfy
the constraints
y(0, t) = y(L, t) = 0. (13.38)
It is fairly clear that no propagating wave solution of the form y 0 cos [k (x ±
v t)] can satisfy these constraints. However, a standing wave can easily satisfy
the constraints, provided two of its nodes coincide with the ends of the string.
Since the nodes in a standing wave pattern are spaced half a wavelength apart,
it follows that the wave frequency must be adjusted such that an integer number
of half-wavelengths fit on the string. In other words,
λ
L=n , (13.39)
2
where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. Now, from Eqs. (13.21) and (13.22),
v
uT
u
fλ = t , (13.40)
µ
290
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

where T and µ are the tension and mass per unit length of the string, respectively.
The above two equations can be combined to give
v
uT
n u
f= t . (13.41)
2L µ
Thus, the standing waves that can be excited on a guitar string have frequencies
f0 , 2 f0 , 3 f0 , etc., which are integer multiples of
v
uT
1 u
f0 = t . (13.42)
2L µ
These frequencies are transmitted to our ear, via sound waves which oscillate in
sympathy with the guitar string, and are interpreted as musical notes. To be more
exact, the frequencies correspond to notes spaced an octave apart. The frequency
f0 is termed the fundamental frequency, whereas the frequencies 2 f0 , 3 f0 , etc. are
termed the overtone harmonic frequencies. When a guitar string is plucked an
admixture of standing waves, consisting predominantly of the fundamental har-
monic wave, is excited on the string. The fundamental harmonic determines the
musical note which the guitar string plays. However, it is the overtone harmonics
which give the note its peculiar timbre. Thus, a trumpet sounds different to a
guitar, even when they are both playing the same note, because a trumpet excites
a different mix of overtone harmonics than a guitar.

13.6 The Doppler effect

Consider a sinusoidal wave of wavenumber k and angular frequency ω propagat-

ing in the +x direction:

y(x, t) = y0 cos (k x − ω t). (13.43)

The wavelength and frequency of the wave, as seen by a stationary observer, are
λ = 2 π/k and f = ω/2 π, respectively. Consider a second observer moving with
uniform speed vo in the +x direction. What are the wavelength and frequency of
the wave, as seen by the second observer? Well, the x-coordinate in the moving
observer’s frame of reference is x 0 = x − v0 t (see Sect. 4.9). Of course, both

291
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

observers measure the same time. Hence, in the second observer’s frame of ref-
erence the wave takes the form

y(x 0 , t) = y0 cos (k x 0 − ω 0 t), (13.44)

where
ω 0 = ω − k vo . (13.45)
Here, we have simply replaced x by x 0 + vo t in Eq. (13.43). Clearly, the moving
observer sees a wave possessing the same wavelength (i.e., the same k) but a
different frequency (i.e., a different ω) to that seen by the stationary observer.
This phenomenon is called the Doppler effect. Since v = ω/k, it follows that the
wave speed is also shifted in the moving observer’s frame of reference. In fact,

v 0 = v − vo , (13.46)

where v 0 is the wave speed seen by the moving observer. Finally, since v = f λ,
and the wavelength is the same in both the moving and stationary observers’
frames of reference, the wave frequency experienced by the moving observer is
vo
!
0
f = 1− f. (13.47)
v
Thus, the moving observer sees a lower frequency wave than the stationary ob-
server. This occurs because the moving observer is traveling in the same direction
as the wave, and is therefore effectively trying to catch it up. It is easily demon-
strated that an observer moving in the opposite direction to a wave sees a higher
frequency than a stationary observer. Hence, the general Doppler shift formula
(for a moving observer and a stationary wave source) is
vo
!
0
f = 1∓ f, (13.48)
v
where the upper/lower signs correspond to the observer moving in the same/opposite
direction to the wave.

Consider a stationary observer measuring a wave emitted by a source which is

moving towards the observer with speed vs . Let v be the propagation speed of the
wave. Consider two neighbouring wave crests emitted by the source. Suppose

292
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

that the first is emitted at time t = 0, and the second at time t = T , where
T = 1/f is the wave period in the frame of reference of the source. At time t, the
first wave crest has traveled a distance d1 = v t towards the observer, whereas
the second wave crest has traveled a distance d2 = v (t − T ) + vs T (measured
from the position of the source at t = 0). Here, we have taken into account the
fact that the source is a distance vs T closer to the observer when the second wave
crest is emitted. The effective wavelength, λ 0 , seen by the observer is the distance
between neighbouring wave crests. Hence,
λ 0 = d1 − d2 = (v − vs ) T. (13.49)
Since v = f 0 λ 0 , the effective frequency f 0 seen by the observer is
f
f0 = , (13.50)
1 − vs /v
where f is the wave frequency in the frame of reference of the source. We con-
clude that if the source is moving towards the observer then the wave frequency
is shifted upwards. Likewise, if the source is moving away from the observer
then the frequency is shifted downwards. This manifestation of the Doppler effect
should be familiar to everyone. When an ambulance passes us on the street, its
siren has a higher pitch (i.e., a high frequency) when it is coming towards us than
when it is moving away from us. Of course, the oscillation frequency of the siren
never changes. It is the Doppler shift induced by the motion of the siren with
respect to a stationary listener which causes the frequency change.

The general formula for the shift in a wave’s frequency induced by relative
motion of the observer and the source is
 
1 ∓ v o /v
f0 =   f, (13.51)
1 ± vs /v
where vo is the speed of the observer, and vs is the speed of the source. The
upper/lower signs correspond to relative motion by which the observer and the
source move apart/together.

Probably the most notorious use of the Doppler effect in everyday life is in
police speed traps. In a speed trap, a policeman fires radar waves (i.e., electro-
magnetic waves of centimeter wavelength) of fixed frequency at an oncoming

293
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

car. These waves reflect off the car, which effectively becomes a moving source.
Hence, by measuring the frequency increase of the reflected waves, the policeman
can determine the car’s speed.

Worked example 13.1: Piano range

Question: A piano emits sound waves whose frequencies range from fl = 28 Hz to

fh = 4200 Hz. What range of wavelengths is spanned by these waves? The speed
of sound in air is v = 343 m/s.

Answer: The relationship between a wave’s frequency, f, wavelength, λ, and

speed, v, is
v = f λ.
Hence, λ = v/f. The shortest wavelength (which corresponds to the highest
frequency) is
v 343
λl = = = 8.1667 × 10−2 m.
fh 4200
The longest wavelength (which corresponds to the lowest frequency) is
v 343
λh = = = 12.250 m.
fl 28

Worked example 13.2: Middle C

Question: A steel wire in a piano has a length of L = 0.9 m and a mass of m =

5.4 g. To what tension T must this wire be stretched so that its fundamental
vibration corresponds to middle C: i.e., the vibration possess a frequency f =
261.6 Hz.

Answer: The fundamental standing wave on a stretched wire is such that the
length L of the wire corresponds to half the wavelength λ of the wave. Hence,

λ = 2 L = 1.80 m.

294
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

The propagation speed of waves on the wire is given by

v = f λ = 261.6 × 1.80 = 470.88 m/s.
Furthermore, the string’s mass per unit length is
m 5.4 × 10−3
µ= = = 6.00 × 10−3 kg/m.
L 0.9
Now, the relationship between the wave propagation speed, v, the mass per unit
length, µ, and the tension, T , of a stretched wire is
v
uT
u
v= t .
µ
Thus,
T = v2 µ = (470.88)2 × 6.00 × 10−3 = 1.330 × 103 N.

Worked example 13.3: Sinusoidal wave

Question: A wave is described by

y = A sin (k x − ω t),
where A = 4 cm, k = 2.65 rad./m, and ω = 4.78 rad./s. Moreover, x is in meters
and t is in seconds. What are the wavelength, frequency, and propagation speed
of the wave?

Answer: We identify A as the wave amplitude, k as the wavenumber, and ω as

the angular frequency. Now, k = 2 π/λ, where λ is the wavelength. Hence,
2π 2 × π
λ= = = 2.371 m.
k 2.65
Furthermore, ω = 2 π f, where f is the frequency. Hence,
ω 4.78
f= = = 0.7608 Hz.
2π 2 × π
Finally, v = f λ, where v is the propagation speed. Thus,
v = 0.7608 × 2.371 = 1.804 m/s.

295
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

Worked example 13.4: Truck passing stationary siren

Question: A truck, moving at vo = 80 km/hr, passes a stationary police car whose

siren has a frequency of f = 500 Hz. What is the frequency change heard by the
truck driver as the truck passes the police car? The speed of sound is v = 343 m/s.

Answer: The truck’s speed is

80 × 1000
vo = = 22.22 m/s.
3600
When the truck is moving towards the police car, the siren’s apparent frequency
is
vo 22.22
! !
f1 = 1 + f= 1+ × 500 = 532.39 Hz.
v 343
When the truck is moving away from the police car, the siren’s apparent frequency
is
vo 22.22
! !
f2 = 1 − f= 1− × 500 = 467.61 Hz.
v 343
Hence, the frequency shift is
∆f = f1 − f2 = 532.39 − 467.61 = 64.79 Hz.

Worked example 13.5: Ambulance and car

Question: An ambulance is traveling down a straight road at speed vs = 42 m/s.

The ambulance approaches a car which is traveling on the same road, in the same
direction, at speed vo = 33 m/s. The ambulance driver hears his/her siren at a
frequency of f = 500 Hz. At what frequency does the driver of the car hear the
siren? The speed of sound is v = 343 m/s.

Answer: The apparent frequency f 0 of a sound wave is given by

 
1 − vo /v 
f0 =  f,
1 − vs /v
where vo is the speed of the observer (i.e., the car driver), vs is the speed of the
source (i.e., the ambulance), v is the speed of sound, and f is the wave frequency

296
13 WAVE MOTION 13.6 The Doppler effect

in the frame of reference of the source. We have chosen a minus sign in the
numerator of the above formula because the observer is moving away from the
source, leading to a downward Doppler shift. We have chosen a minus sign in
the denominator of the above formula because the source is moving towards the
observer, leading to a upward Doppler shift. Hence,
 
0 1 − 33/343 
f = × 500 = 514.95 Hz.
1 − 42/343

297