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EE351 Automatic Control Systems Lectures

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228 views176 pages

EE351 Automatic Control Systems Lectures

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Sultan Qahtani

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(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬

‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein
Chapter # 1
1. Introduction

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and

forces of nature for the benefit of humankind. Control system engineers are
concerned with understanding and controlling segments of their environment,
often called systems, to provide useful economic products for society. The twin
goals of understanding and controlling are complementary because effective
systems control requires that the systems be understood and modeled.
Control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and
electrical engineering. For example, a control system often includes electrical,
mechanical, and chemical components. Furthermore, as the understanding of the
dynamics of business, social and political systems increases, the ability to
control these systems will also increase.

2. Control System Structure

A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired system response. The components
(process to be controlled, controller or actuator) can be represented by a block,
as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig.1.1 Control system components

1 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

Control systems can be divided into two categories: the open-loop and the
closed-loop systems.
An open-loop system (Fig. 1.1) is a system whose input u(t) does not depend on
the output y(t). We can say u(t) is not a function of y(t).
In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes
an additional measure of the actual output to compare it with the desired output
response. The measure of the output is called the feedback signal as shown in
Fig. 1.2. Therefore, a closed-loop system is a system whose input u(t) depends
on the output y(t). We can say u(t) is a function of y(t).

Fig. 1.2. Closed-loop control system

A very simple introductory example of an open-loop system is that of the
clothes washing machine, shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Washing machine as an example of open-loop system

Here, the reference signal designates the various operating conditions that we
set on the ‘‘programmer,’’ such as water temperature, duration of various
washing cycles, duration of clothes wringing, etc. These operating conditions
are carefully chosen so as to achieve satisfactory clothes washing. The
controller is the ‘‘programmer,’’ whose output is the control signal u(t). This
control signal is the input to the washing machine and forces the washing
machine to execute the desired operations pre-assigned in the reference signal.

2 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The output of the system y(t) is the ‘‘quality’’ of washing, i.e., how well the
clothes have been washed. It is well known that during the operation of the
washing machine, the output (i.e., whether the clothes are well washed or not) it
not taken into consideration. The washing machine performs only a series of
operations contained in u(t) without being influenced at all by y(t). It is clear
that here u(t) is not a function of y(t) and, therefore, the washing machine is a
typical example of an open-loop system. Another example of open-loop systems
are the electric microwave.
A very simple introductory example of a closed-loop system is that of the water
heater shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4. Water heater as an example of closed-loop system

Here, the system is the water heater and the output y(t) is the water temperature.
The reference signal r(t) designates the desired range of the water temperature.
Let this desired temperature lie in the range from 65 to 70ºC. In this example,
the water is heated by electric power, i.e., by a resistor that is supplied by an
electric current. The controller of the system is a thermostat, which works as a
switch as follows: when the temperature of the water reaches 70ºC, the switch
opens and the electric supply is interrupted. As a result, the water temperature
starts falling and when it reaches 65ºC, the switch closes and the electric supply
is back on again. Subsequently, the water temperature rises again to 70ºC, the
switch opens again, and so on. This procedure is continuously repeated, keeping
the temperature of the water in the desired temperature range.

3 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Due to the increasing complexity of the system under control and the interest in
achieving optimum performance, the importance of control system engineering
has grown in the past decade. Furthermore, as the systems become more
complex, the interrelationship of many controlled variables must be considered
in the control scheme. A block diagram depicting a multivariable control system
is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5. Multivariable closed-loop control system

3. Brief History Of Automatic Control

Control systems have been in existence since ancient times. A well-known ancient
automatic control system is the regulator of Heron of Alexandria as shown in Fig.
1.6. This control system was designed to open the doors of a temple automatically
when a fire was lit at the altar located outside the temple and to close the doors
when the fire was put out. In particular, the regulator operated in the following
way: the fire, acting as the input to the system, heated the air underneath the altar
and the warm (expanded) air pushed the water from the water container (pot 1) to
the bucket (pot 2). The position of the water container was fixed, while the bucket
was hanging from ropes wrapped around a mechanism (the door spindles) with a
counterweight W. When pot 2 was empty, this mechanism, under the pull of the
counterweight W, held the doors closed. When pot 2 was filled with adequate
amount of water from pot 1, it moved downwards, while the counterweight W
moved upwards. As a result of the downward motion of pot 2, the door spindles

4 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

turned and the doors opened. When the fire was put out, water from pot 2 returned
to pot 1, and the counterweight W moved downwards forcing the gates to close.
Apparently, this control system was used to impress believers, since it was not
visible or known to the masses (it was hidden underground).

Fig. 1.6 The regulator of Temple gate

The first historical feedback system, claimed by Russia, is the water-level float
regulator said to have been invented by I. Polzunov in 1765. The level regulator
system is shown in Fig. 1.7. The float detects the water level and controls the valve
that covers the water inlet in the boiler.

Fig. 1.7 Water level regulator

The use of control started to advance in the second half of the 18th century, due
to James Watt, who, in 1769, invented the first centrifugal speed regulator (Fig.

5 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

1.8) which subsequently has been widely used in practice, most often for the
control of locomotives.

Fig. 1.8. James Watt speed regulator

In particular, this regulator was used to control the speed of the steam engine.
This is accomplished as follows: as the angular velocity of the steam engine
increases, the centrifugal force pushes the masses (m) upwards and the steam
valve closes. As the steam valve closes, the steam entering the engine from the
boiler is reduced and the steam engine’s angular velocity decreases, and vice
versa: as the angular velocity of the steam engine decreases, the masses (m) go
down, the steam valve opens, the amount of steam entering the engine increases,
resulting in an increase of the angular velocity. This way, one can regulate the
speed of the engine.

Automatic control theory and its applications have developed rapidly in the
last 60 years or so. The period 1930–1940 was important in the history of control,
since remarkable theoretical and practical results, such as those of Nyquist and

6 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Black, were reported. During the following years and until about 1960, further
significant research and development was reported, due mainly to Ziegler and
Nichols, Bode, Wiener and Evans. All the results of the last century, and up to
about 1960, constitute what has been termed classical control. Progress from 1960
to date has been especially impressive, from both the theoretical and the practical
point of view. This last period has been characterized as that of modern control,
the most significant results of which have been due to L. Zadeh, Kalman and many
others.

7 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein

Chapter # 2
1. Basic Control Signals
There are many signals are used for testing the control systems. Some of them
are called the basic signals, such as the step function, impulse function, ramp
function and sinusoidal function. These signals are of major importance for
control applications.

1.1 Unit Step Function

The unit step function is designated by u(t - T) and is defined as follows:

The graphical representation of the unit step function is shown in Fig. 2.1. The
amplitude of u(t - T), for t > T, is equal to 1. This is why the function u(t - T) is
called the ‘‘unit’’ step function. If the value of the function equals something
rather than "1", it called Step function.

Fig. 2.1 Unit step function

A physical example of the step function is the electrical switch of the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.2. It is obvious that the voltage vR(t) is given by:

8 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 2.2 Electrical switch represent a step function

The unit gate function g(t), shown in Fig. 2.3, can be derived from the unit step
function as g(t) = u(t – T1) - u(t – T2) where T1 < T2, and is defined as follows:

Fig. 2.3 Unit gate function

The unit gate function is usually used to zero all values of another function,
outside a certain time interval. Consider for example the function f(t), then, the
function y(t) = f(t) × g(t) is represented as follows:

9 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

1.2 Unit Impulse Function

The unit impulse function, which is also called the Dirac function, is designated
by δ(t – T) and is defined as follows:

The graphical representation of δ(t – T) is given in Fig. 2.4. In Fig. 2.5 δ(t – T) is
defined in a different way as follows: the area c(t) of the parallelogram is

As a becomes larger, the base of the parallelogram 1/a becomes smaller. In the
limit, as the height a tends to infinity, the base 1/a tends to zero, i.e.,

From the above definition, we conclude that

This shows that the area of the unit impulse function is equal to 1(this is why it
is called the ‘‘unit’’ impulse function).
The functions u(t - T) and δ(t – T) are related as follows:

Fig. 2.4 Unit impulse function

Fig. 2.5 Area of function c(t) used in explanation of impulse function

10 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

1.3 The Ramp Function

The ramp function is designated by r(t - T) and is defined as follows:

The graphical representation of r(t - T) is shown in Fig. 2.6. It is obvious that

u(t - T) and r(t - T) are related as follows:

Fig. 2.6 Unit ramp function

Note: All the above functions are usually applied when T = 0. In cases of T > 0,
then the function is delayed by T units of time. Whereas when T < 0, the
function is preceding by T units of time.

2. Laplace Transform
To study and design any control system, one relies to a great
extent on a set of mathematical tools. As example of these
mathematical tools is the Laplace transform which is very
important for the study and design of such systems. The definition
of the Laplace transform of a function f(t) is as follows:

where L designates the Laplace transform and s is the complex variable defined
as σ + jɷ. Usually, the time function f(t) is written with a small f , while the
complex variable function F(s) is written with a capital F.

11 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Let L{ f(t)} = F(s). Then, the inverse Laplace transform of F(s) is also a linear
integral transform, defined as follows:

Clearly, the Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which transforms a

function from one domain to another. In particular, it transforms a time-domain
function to a function in the frequency domain and vice versa. This gives the
flexibility to study a function in both the time domain and the frequency
domain, which results in a better understanding of the function, its properties,
and its time-domain, frequency-domain properties.

For example, consider the exponential function shown

12 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Another example, consider the Step function with value A as shown

For the unit step function, substitute A =1 in the above equation, F(s) = 1/S
Another example, consider the Ramp function with value A as shown

To evaluate the above integral we use the formula for the integration by parts

For unit ramp, substitute A=1 in the above equation. F(s) = 1/S2

13 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

2.1 Complex Variable S

A complex variable S has two components: a real component σ and an
imaginary component jɷ. Graphically, the real component of s is represented by
a σ axis in the horizontal direction, and the imaginary component is measured
along the vertical jɷ axis, in the complex s-plane. Fig. 2.7 illustrates the
complex s-plane, in which any arbitrary point s = s1 is defined by the
coordinates σ = σ 1, and jɷ = jɷ1, or simply s1 = σ 1 + jɷ1.

Fig. 2.7 The complex S-plan

2.2 Pole-Zero Map

Consider a complex function G(S). Therefore, G(S) is said to be analytic in a
region if G(S) and all of its derivatives exist in that region.
If G(S) = 1/(S+1),

14 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

2.3 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform

2.3.1 Linearity
Laplace transform is a linear transformation, the following relation holds

2.3.2 Laplace Transform of Derivative of a Function

Where f(0) is the initial value at (t = 0) of the function f(t).

Working in the same way for the Laplace transform of the second derivative

For the general case we have

15 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

2.3.3 Laplace Transform of Integral of a Function

For the nth integral of the function f(t) we have,

Therefore, assuming zero initial conditions of the function f(t), then

The important feature of the Laplace transform is that it greatly simplifies the
procedure of taking the derivative and/or the integral of a function f(t). Indeed,
the Laplace transform ‘‘transforms’’ the derivative of f(t) in the time domain
into multiplying F(s) by s in the frequency domain. Furthermore, it
‘‘transforms’’ the integral of f(t) in the time domain into dividing F(s) by s in
the frequency domain.

2.3.4 Time Scaling

Consider the functions f(t) and f(at), where a is a positive number. The function
f(at) differs from f(t), in time scaling, by a units. For these two functions, it
holds that:

16 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

2.3.5 Shift in the Frequency Domain

It holds that:

This means, the Laplace transform of the product of the functions e-at and f(t),
leads to shifting of F(s) = L{ f(t)} by a units.

2.3.6 Shift in the Time Domain

Consider the function f(t) u(t). Then, the function f(t-T) u(t-T) is the same
function shifted to the right of f(t) u(t) by T units (Fig. 2.8). The Laplace
transform of the initial function f(t) u(t) and of the shifted (delayed) function
f(t-T) u(t-T), are related as follows:

Fig. 2.8 Time delayed function

2.3.7 The Initial Value Theorem
This theorem refers to the behavior of the function f(t) as t → 0 and, for this
reason, is called the initial value theorem. This theorem is given by the relation

2.3.8 The Final Value Theorem

This theorem refers to the behavior of the function f(t) as t → ∞ and, for this
reason, it is called the final value theorem. This theorem is given by the relation

17 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر ‪(3511‬‬ ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز ‪ -‬كلية الھندسة‬
‫د‪ .‬أحمد مصطفى حسين‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

‫‪Examples‬‬
‫)‪1‬‬

‫)‪2‬‬

‫)‪3‬‬

‫)‪4‬‬

‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

5) Known that

Therefore, multiplying these functions by exponential function give that:

6) Given that

Based on final value theorem

19 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫)‪8‬‬

‫)‪9‬‬

‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫)‪10‬‬

‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪11) Solving linear D.E. using Laplace transform‬‬

‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫)‪12‬‬

‫)‪13‬‬

‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫)‪14‬‬

‫‪15) Find Laplace transform F(S) of the function f(t) shown in Fig. 2.9‬‬

‫‪Fig. 2.9‬‬

‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

3. Second order systems

Any 2nd order control system can be represented in general as shown in Fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.9 second-order system

The closed-loop transfer function C(s) / R(s) can be given by:

This form is called the standard form of the second-order system.

The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can then be described in
terms of two parameters, which are the damping ratio (ζ) and the undamped
natural frequency (ωn).
If 0 < ζ < 1, the closed-loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left-half
side of S plane. The system is then called underdamped, and the transient
response is oscillatory. If ζ = 0, the oscillation does not die out, and the system
is called undamped system or continuous oscillatory system. The closed-loop
poles lie on the imaginary axis. If ζ = 1, the system is called critically damped
and the system has no oscillation and the closed-loop poles are equal and real.
The dynamic response at different values of ζ is shown in Fig. 2.10. From that
figure, we see that an underdamped system with ζ between 0.5 and 0.8 gets
close to the final value more rapidly than a critically damped system. Also we
can see the continuous oscillation of the system when ζ equal zero.

Fig. 2.10 Dynamic behavior of the 2nd order system at different damping ratios

27 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 1(Laplace Transform) ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬

1- For the following waveforms, find the function f(t), then calculate F(S).
f(t) f(t) f(t) f(t)
2

t t a b t 2 4 t
1 3 T

2- Find the function F(S) of the following systems

-t -2t
a) f(t) = 3e – e
-t 4 -(t-10)
b) f(t) = 2 e cos(10t) – t + 6 e
c) f(t) = cos [2(t-1)] + sin [2(t-1)]
-4t
d) f(t) = e + sin(t-2) + t2 e-2t
3- Find the function f(t) using Laplace transform tables of the following systems:
1
a) F(S) =
S(S + 1)
2 (S + 1)
b) F(S) =
S (S + 3) (S + 5) 2
S
c) F(S) =
(S + 2) (S + 1) 2
(S + 3) (S + 4) (S + 5)
d) F(S) =
(S + 2) (S + 1)
10
e) F(S) =
(S + 4) (S + 1) 3
4- a) Find the solution of the control system described by the following
differential equation (D.E.):
d 3 y( t ) d 2 y( t ) dy( t ) d 2 x(t)
+3 − + 6 y( t ) = − x(t)
dt 3 dt 2 dt dt 2

28 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Where y(t) and x(t) are the system output and input, respectively. Also, y(0) = 0
dy ( t ) d 2 y( t )
& = 0 and =1
dt dt 2

b) Find the free response and the forced response of the system.

5- For the second-order system whose output y(t) is and input x(t) is and
described by the D.E. :
•• •

y (t ) + 5 y (t ) + 9 y (t ) = 9 x (t )
Find

• Undamped Natural Frequency (ωn)

• Damping Ratio (ζ)
• Damped Natural Frequency (ωd)
• Time Constant (τ)

6- Find the poles and zeros of the system given in problem (3), Mark the poles
with "X" and the zeros with "O" in the s-plane.

7- A closed-loop control system whose Transfer Function (T.F.) is:

C(S) 5A
= 2
R (S) S + 34.5 S + 5A

Assuming A=200, find the time response C(t) when applying a unit step function as
an input. Calculate the output value at t = 3 sec.

8- A closed-loop control system whose Transfer Function (T.F.) is:

C(S) 2S + 1
= 2
R (S) S + 2 S + 1

Find the time response C(t) when applying a unit step function as an input. Calculate
the output value at t = 6 sec.

29 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein

Lecture # 3
1. Introduction
Block Diagram is defined as a pictorial representation of functions performed
by each component of a system and that of flow of signals. Each block is
characterized by an input–output description as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1 Single block diagram representation

In general, the block diagram consists of blocks, arrows, take (pick) off points
and/or summing points. Fig. 3.2 shows these elements of the block diagram.

Fig. 3.2 Basic elements of block diagram

2. Terminology

30 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 3.3 Block diagram components

Regarding the closed-loop control system shown in Fig. 3.3, we can define the
following terms;
Plant: A physical object to be controlled. The Plant G2 (s), is the controlled
system, of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled.
Feedback Control System (Closed‐loop Control System): A system which
compares output to some reference input and keeps output as close as possible
to this reference.
Open‐loop Control System: Output of the system is not feedback to the system.
Control Element G1(s), also called the controller, are the components required
to generate the appropriate control signal M (s) applied to the plant
Feedback Element H(s) is the component required to establish the functional
relationship between the primary feedback signal B (s) and the controlled output
C(s).
Reference Input R (s) is an external signal applied to a feedback control system
in order to command a specified action of the plant. It often represents ideal
plant output behavior.
Controlled Output C(s) is that quantity or condition of the plant which is
controlled

31 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Actuating Signal E(s), also called the error or control action, is the algebraic
sum consisting of the reference input R (s) plus or minus (usually minus) the
primary feedback B (s).
Manipulated Variable M (s) (control signal) is that quantity or condition which
the control elements G1 (s) apply to the plant G2 (s).
Disturbance U (s) is an undesired input signal which affects the value of the
controlled output C(s). It may enter the plant by summation with M (s), or via an
intermediate point, as shown in the block diagram of the figure above.
Forward Path is the transmission path from the actuating signal E(s) to the
output C(s).
Feedback Path is the transmission path from the output C(s) to the feedback
signal B (s).
Summing Point: A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing
point. The (+) or (−) sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to
be added or subtracted.
Branch(pick/take off) Point: A branch point is a point from which the signal
from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points.

We can conclude the above information by the following definitions:

According to the control system shown in Fig 3.4;

Fig. 3.4 Block diagram of a closed‐loop system with a feedback element.

32 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

3. Block Diagrams & Their Simplification

3.1 Cascade (Series) Connection

Fig. 3.5 (a) Original Block Diagram (b) Equivalent Block Diagram

3.2 Parallel Connection

Fig. 3.6 (a) Original Block Diagram (b) Equivalent Block Diagram

33 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

3.3 Feedback Connections

Fig. 3.7 Feedback connection

We know that C(s) =G(s) E(s) & B(s) = H(s)C(s)
Where E (s) =R(s) − B(s) = R(s) − H(s)C(s)
Eliminating E(s) from these equations gives
C(s) = G(s) [R(s)−H(s)C(s)] This can be written in the form
[1+G(s) H (s)] C(s) = G(s) R(s) OR

The Characteristic equation of the system is defined as an equation obtained by

setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. The
Characteristic equation for the above system is:

3.4 Block Diagram Algebra for Summing points

34 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

3.5 Block Diagram Algebra for Pick/take off points

4. Block Diagram Reduction Rules

In many practical situations, the block diagram of a Single Input‐Single Output
(SISO), feedback control system may involve several feedback loops, summing points
and/or take off points. In principle, the block diagram of (SISO) closed loop system,
no matter how complicated it is, it can be reduced to the standard single loop form
(Canonical form) shown in Fig. 3.7. The basic approach to simplify a block diagram
can be summarized in the following Table;
1. Combine all cascade blocks
2. Combine all parallel blocks
3. Eliminate all minor (interior) feedback loops
4. Shift summing points to left
5. Shift take off points to the right
6. Repeat Steps 1 to 5 until the canonical form is obtained

35 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪5. Some Basic Rules with Block Diagram Transformation‬‬

‫‪Example 1‬‬

‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

Example 2

Example 3: The main problem here is the feed‐forward of V3(s). Solution is to move
this pickoff point forward.

37 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Example 4:‬‬

‫‪38‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

Example 5:
Use block diagram reduction to simplify the block diagram below into a single block
relating Y(s) to R(s).

39 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

6. Multiple‐‐Inputs cases
In feedback control system, we often encounter multiple inputs to represent a
disturbance or something else. For a linear system, we can apply the superposition
principle to solve this type of problems, i.e. to treat each input one at a time while
setting all other inputs to zeros, and then algebraically add all the outputs as follows:

1. Set all inputs to zero except one

2. Transform the block diagram to solvable form
3. Find the output response due to the chosen input action alone
4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs
5. Algebraically sum all the output responses obtained in Step 3

Example 6: Determine the output C(S) of the following system

Using the superposition principle, the procedure is illustrated in the following steps:

40 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Step1: Put D(s) ≡ 0 as shown in Fig.

(a).
Step2: Reduce The block diagrams
to the block shown in Fig. (b)

Step 3: The output CR due to input

R(s) is shown in Fig. (c) and is given
by the relationship

Step 4: Put R(s) ≡ 0 as shown in Fig.

(d).
Step 5: Put ‐1 into a block,
representing the negative feedback
effect as shown in Fig. (d)
Step 6: Rearrange the block
diagrams as shown in Fig. (e).

Step 7: Let the ‐1 block be absorbed

into the summing point as shown in
Fig. (f).

Step 8: The output CD due to input

D(S) is :

=
1 +
The total output is C:
C(s) = CR + CD

= +
1 +

41 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Example 7:‬‬

‫‪42‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 2 (Block Diagram) ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬

Problem #1

Simplify the following control systems using block diagram algebra, and then find the
transfer function C(s) / R(s).

(b) (a)

(c)

Problem #2

For the control system shown in Fig. (b) below,

a) Determine G(s) and H(s) that are equivalent to the block diagram of fig. (a)
b) Determine the transfer function C(s)/R(s)

43 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

_ C(S)
R(S) + +
(a)
_

R(S)
+ C(S)
G(s)
_ (b)

H(s)

Problem #3

Simplify the following control systems using block diagram algebra, and then find the
transfer function Y(s) / R(s).

(a)

(b)

44 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫)‪(c‬‬

‫)‪(d‬‬

‫)‪(e‬‬

‫‪45‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

(f)

(g)

Problem #4

Obtain the transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/D(s) of the systems shown below

46 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Obtain the transfer functions Y(s)/R1(s) and Y(s)/R2(s) of the system shown below

Problem #5

The control system, shown in Fig. below, has two inputs and two outputs. Find
C1(s)/R1(s), C1(s)/R2(s), C2(s)/R1(s) and C2(s)/R2(s).

Problem #6

For the control system shown below, find the transfer function C(s) / R(s).

Find α, K, K1, K2 and K3 if Known that

10 + 1
=
+ 3 + 12 + 10

47 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

+ C(S)

R(S) +
_ K
_ +
_

Problem #7

Simplify the block diagram shown below and then obtain the closed–loop transfer
function C(s)/R(s).

C(S)

R(S) +
_
G1 G2

G3 G4 G5

+ +
G6 G7
_ +

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

48 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein

Chapter # 4 Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

1. Introduction
For complex control systems, the block diagram reduction technique is cumbersome.
An alternative method for determining the relationship between system variables has
been developed by Mason and is based on a signal flow graph. A signal flow graph is
a diagram that consists of nodes that are connected by branches. A node is assigned to
each variable of interest in the system, and branches are used to relate the different
variables. The main advantage for using SFG is that a straight forward procedure is
available for finding the transfer function in which it is not necessary to move pickoff
point around or to redraw the system several times as with block diagram
manipulations.
SFG is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations
which describe a system. Let us consider an equation, = . It may be represented
graphically as,

2. Terminology
Node: A junction denoting a variable or a signal.
Branch: A unidirectional path that relates the dependency of an input and an output.
Relation between variables is written next to the directional arrow.
Path: A branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one
node to another

Forward Path: A path from input to output node.

Loop: A closed path that originates at one node and terminates at the same node.

49 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Along the path no node is touched twice.

Non-Touching Loops: Loops with no common nodes

Examples: L1 and L2 are touching loops
L1 and L3 are non-touching loops, also
L2 and L3 are non-touching loops.
Input node (Source): node having only outgoing branches
Output node (Sink): node having only incoming branches
Mixed node: A node that has both incoming and outgoing branches.

3. Construction of SFG from D.E.

SFG of a system can be constructed from the describing equations:
x 2 = a 1 2 x1 + a 3 2 x 3
x 3 = a 1 3 x1 + a 2 3 x 2 + a 3 3 x 3
x 4 = a 24 x 4 + a 34 x3

4. SFG from Block Diagram

50 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪51‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪Example 1‬‬
‫)‪Find the T.F. Y(s)/X(s‬‬

‫‪52‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪Example 2‬‬
‫)‪Find the T.F. Y(s)/X(s‬‬

‫‪53‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪Example 3‬‬
‫)‪Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. Y(s)/X(s‬‬

‫‪54‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪Example 4‬‬
‫)‪Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s‬‬

‫‪55‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and the output
C(s). The forward path gain is

we see that there are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are

Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no non-touching
loops. Hence, the determinant ∆ is given by

The cofactor ∆ l of the determinant along the forward path connecting the input node
and output node is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops that touch this path. Since
path P1 touches all three loops, we obtain

56 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

∆1 = 1
Therefore, the overall
ll gain between the input R(s) and the output C(s), or the closed-
loop transfer function, is given by

Example 5
Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s)

Example 6
Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F. C(s)/R(s)

57 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

In this system, there are three forward paths between the input R(s) and the output
C(s). The forward path gains are

There are four individual loops, the gains of these loops are

Loop L1 does not touch loop L2; Hence, the determinant ∆ is given by

The cofactor ∆1, is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops that touch path PI.
Therefore, by removing L1, L2, L3, L4, and L1, L2 from ∆ equation, we obtain
∆1 = 1
By the same way ∆2 = 1
The cofactor ∆3 is obtained by removing L2, L3, L4, and L1, L2 from ∆ Equation, giving
∆3 = 1- L1
The closed-loop transfer function

58 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 3 (Signal Flow Graph) ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬

Problem #1
For the control systems represented by block diagrams shown in figure below, Draw
the corresponding signal flow graph (SFG), then using Mason's rule to obtain the
system transfer function.

59 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Problem #2‬‬
‫‪Using Mason's Rule, find the transfer function for the following SFG's‬‬

‫‪60‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪G8‬‬
‫‪G7‬‬

‫)‪X(s‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪G1‬‬ ‫‪G2‬‬ ‫‪G3‬‬ ‫‪G4‬‬ ‫‪G5‬‬ ‫‪G6‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫)‪Y(s‬‬

‫‪-H4‬‬ ‫‪-H1‬‬
‫‪-H2‬‬

‫‪-H3‬‬

‫‪G6‬‬

‫‪̶ H5‬‬
‫‪G5‬‬

‫)‪R(S‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪G3‬‬ ‫‪G4‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫)‪C(S‬‬

‫‪G1‬‬ ‫‪G2‬‬

‫‪̶ H1‬‬ ‫‪̶ H2‬‬ ‫‪̶ H3‬‬ ‫‪̶ H4‬‬

‫‪̶ H6‬‬

‫‪61‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪62‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪63‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein
Chapter # 5 Transient Response Analyses
1. Introduction
It was stated previously in lecture #1 that the first step in analyzing a control system
was to derive a mathematical model of the system. Once such a model is obtained,
various methods are available for the analysis of system performance.
Typical Test Signals: The commonly used test input signals are those of step
functions, ramp functions, acceleration functions, impulse functions, sinusoidal
functions, and the like. With these test signals, mathematical and experimental
analyses of control systems can be carried out easily since the signals are very simple
functions of time.
If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing functions of time, then a ramp
function of time may be a good test signal. Similarly, if a system is subjected to
sudden disturbances, a step function of time may be a good test signal; and for a
system subjected to shock inputs, an impulse function may be best. Once a control
system is designed on the basis of test signals, the performance of the system in
response to actual inputs is generally satisfactory. The use of such test signals enables
one to compare the performance of all systems on the same basis.
The time response of a control system consists of two parts as shown in Fig. 1;
a) Transient response b) Steady-state response.

Fig. 1, Time response

64 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

By transient response, we mean that which goes from the initial state to the final state.
By steady-state response, we mean the manner in which the system output behaves as
t approaches infinity. Thus the system response C(t) may be written as

where Ctr(t) is the transient response and Css(t) is the steady-state response.
The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillations
before reaching a steady state. If the output of a system at steady state does not exactly
agree with the input, the system is said to have steady state error. This error is
indicative of the accuracy of the system. In analyzing a control system, we must
examine transient-response behavior and steady-state behavior.

2. Transient Response
2.1 First-Order system
Consider the first-order system shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2, Block diagram and its simplification

The input-output relationship is given by

For a unit step input whose Laplace transform is 1/S, the output C(S) is given by

Using partial fraction,

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

65 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The above equation indicates that initially (at t = 0) the output c(t) is zero and finally
(at t = ∞) it becomes unity as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Time response of a first-order system

One important characteristic of such an exponential response curve c(t) is that at t = T
the value of c(t) is 0.632, or the response c(t) has reached 63.2% of its final value. This
may be easily seen by substituting t = T in c(t). That is,

By the same way, in two time constants (t = 2T), the response reaches 86.5% of the
final value. At t = 3T, the response reaches 95% of its final value. At t = 4T, the
system response reaches 98.2% of its final value. Finally at t = 5T, the response
reaches 99.3% of the final value. Thus, for t ≥ 4T, the response remains within 2% of
the final value. As seen from the equation of c(t), the steady state value (c(t) = 1) is
reached mathematically only after an infinite time. In practice, however, a reasonable
estimate of the response time is the length of time the response curve needs to reach
and stay within the 2% line of the final value, or four time constants.

2.2 Second-Order Systems

66 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

Consider the 2nd order control system shown in Fig. 4, whose T.F. is given as:

This form is called the standard form of the second-order system, where ζ and ωn are
the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency, respectively.

Fig. 4. Standard form of Second-order control system

For a unit-step input ( R(S) = 1/S ), C(s) can be written

Using partial fraction,

The frequency ωd, is called the damped natural frequency.

= 1 −

Taking inverse Laplace for the output C(s),

67 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

This result can be obtained directly by using a table of Laplace transforms tables.

If we plot the output C(t) versus time, such kind of plot is dependent on the two
parameters ζ and ωn. A family of curves at different values of ζ is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Transient response of 2nd order system at different ζ.

The characteristic equation of any 2nd order system is given by:

Complete square of the above equation we get;

As the parameters ζ changes, the location of the system poles S1 and S2 are change.
Therefore, the dynamic behavior of the second-order system is also changes. The
nature of the roots s1 and s2 of the characteristic equation with varying values of
damping ratio ζ can be shown in the complex plane as shown in Fig. 6.

68 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Fig. 6. Closed loop poles and transient response‬‬

‫‪69‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

2.2.1 Transient‐‐Response Specifications

The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped oscillations
before reaching a steady state. In specifying the transient‐response characteristics of a
control system to a unit‐step input, it is common to name the following terms:

These specifications are shown graphically in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Transient response specifications

Delay Time: The delay time td is the time needed for the response to reach half (50%)
of its final value.
Delay time can be calculated from this formula;

Rise Time: The rise time tr is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
90%. Or the time required to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value.

70 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

We obtain the rise time tr by letting c(tr) = 1

Since !" #$
≠ 0, therefore

Where β is defined by Fig. 8, as the angle in radians.

Fig. 8. Definition of angle β

Peak Time: The peak time tp is the time required for the response to reach the first
peak of the overshoot.
We may obtain the peak time by differentiating c(t) with respect to time and letting
this derivative equal zero.

71 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The cosine terms in the above equation cancel each other. Therefore, dc(t)/dt,
evaluated at t = tp, can be simplified to

This means
Since the peak time corresponds to the first peak overshoot, %& = '

Maximum (percent Overshoot): The maximum percent overshoot Mp is the maximum

peak value of the response curve [the curve of c(t) versus t ], measured from c (∞) . If
c (∞) =1, the maximum percent overshoot is Mp × 100%. If the final steady state
value c (∞) of the response differs from unity, then it is common practice to use the
following definition:

The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time. Therefore

)

(& =
*

Settling Time: The settling time ts is the time required for the response curve to reach
and stay within ± 2% of the final value. In some cases, 5% instead of 2%, is used as
the percentage of the final value. The settling time is the largest time constant of the
system.
The settling time corresponding to ± 2% or ± 5% tolerance band may be measured in
terms of the time constant {T = l/ (ζ ωn)}
72 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

Based on 2% criteria, it is found that Ts = 4T

Based on 5% criteria, it is found that Ts = 3T

Summary:

Example #1

73 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Consider the system shown in Fig. 9, where ζ = 0.6 and ωn = 5 rad/sec. Let us obtain
the rise time tr, peak time tp, maximum overshoot Mp, and settling time tp when the
system is subjected to a unit-step input.

Fig. 9.

Example #2
Consider the control system whose closed loop poles are given in Fig. 10.
74 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

Fig. 10.

Find

Example #3
Determine the values of Td, Tr, Tp and Ts for the control system shown in Fig. 11.

75 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 11

The rise time is given by

So we must calculate the angle β first based on Fig. 12, as follows:

Fig. 12

76 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Example #4
For the system shown in Fig. 13, determine the values of gain K and velocity feedback
constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in the unit-step response is 0.2 and the
peak time is 1 sec.
With these values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time and settling time. Assume that J =
1 kg-m2 and B = 1 N-m/rad/sec.

Fig. 13, Block diagram of a servo system

The simplified block diagram of the system is:

The overall T.F. is given by:

77 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

By comparing, we find that

Since Mp = 0.2;

Since Peak time = 1, then

Then kh can be determined as:

Therefore the rise time (tr) can be calculated as:

78 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Example #5
When the system shown in Fig. 14 (a) is subjected to a unit-step input, the system
output responds as shown in Fig.14 (b). Determine the values of K and T from the
response curve.

Fig. 14, Control system and its step response

From the time response curve we can obtain that:

79 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Mp = 0.254 ζ = 0.4

Report:

Determine the values, of K and k of the closed-loop system shown in Fig. so that the
maximum overshoot in unit-step response is 25% and the peak time is 2 sec. Assume
that J = 1 kg-m2.

80 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein
Lecture # 6 Steady-State Response Analyses
1. Introduction
The steady state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the
nature of the inputs, system type and from nonlinearities of system components such
as static friction, backlash, etc. These are generally aggravated by amplifiers drifts,
aging or deterioration. The steady state performance of a stable control system is
generally judged by its steady state error to step, ramp and parabolic inputs.
Consider a unity feedback system as shown in the Fig. 1. The input is R(s) , the output
is C(s), the feedback signal H(s) and the difference between input and output is the
error signal E(s).

Fig.1 Closed-loop unity feedback control system

The closed loop transfer function (CLTF) is:

As we know
Therefore,

Steady-state error ess may be found using the Final Value Theorem (FVT) as follows:

81 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The above equation shows that the steady state error depends upon the input R(s) and
the forward transfer function G(s) . The expression for steady-state errors for various
types of standard test signals are derived in the following sections:

2. Steady state error and standard test input

2.1 Step input

Where Kp is the position error constant and equals G(0) or +& = lim G S
S→0

2.2 Ramp input

Where Kv is the velocity error constant and equals +2 = lim S G S

S→0

2.3 Parabolic input

Where Ka is the acceleration error constant and equals +3 = lim G S

S→0

82 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

3. Steady state error and system type

The system type refers to the how many poles of G(s) are located at the origin (s = 0).
For G(S) given below, the system is of n-type.

3.1 Type zero system (n=0)

=+
4
56
In that case G(S) =

Thus a system with n = 0, or no integration in G(s) has

• A constant position error,
• Infinite velocity error and
• Infinite acceleration error
3.1 Type one system (n=1)
=
4 4
57 5
In that case G(S) =

Thus a system with n =1, or with one integration in G(s) has

83 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

• A zero position error,

• A constant velocity error and
• Infinite acceleration error

3.1 Type two system (n=2)

4
5*
In that case G(S) =

Thus a system with n = 2, or with one integration in G(s) has

• A zero position error,
• A zero velocity error and
• A constant acceleration error

Summary

84 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Example #1
For the system shown below, find K so that there is 10% error in the steady state

Since the system type is 1, the error stated in the problem must apply to a ramp input;
only a ramp yields a finite error for in a type 1 system. Thus,

85 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

4. Steady state error of non-unity feedback systems

Consider the non-unity feedback control system shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2, non-unity feedback system

Add to the block shown in Fig. 2, two feedback blocks H(S) = +1 and H(S) = −1 as
shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3

Example #2

86 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

For the system shown below, find

• The system type
• Appropriate error constant associated with the system type, and
• The steady state error for unit step input

The equivalent feed-forward transfer function is

System Type: 0
Appropriate error constant is Kp

Steady State Error ess

The negative value for steady state error implies that the output is larger than the input
step.

Example #3

87 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Which represent a type 1 system.‬‬

‫‪88‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

+& = lim G S = ∞
S→0

+2 = lim S G S = 0
S→0
:
99 = = ∞
+2

+2 = lim S G S = ++
S→0

Example #4
Consider the servo system with tachometer feedback shown in Figure.
Obtain the error signal E(s) when both the reference input R(s) and disturbance input
D(s) are present. Obtain also the steady-state error when the system is subjected to a
reference input (unit-ramp input) and disturbance input (step input of magnitude d).

89 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Using super position:‬‬

‫)‪(when D(S) = 0‬‬

‫)‪(when R(S) = 0‬‬

‫‪The overall output is‬‬

‫‪90‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪91‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering ‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 4 (Performance of feedback ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬
control systems)
1) A thermometer requires 1 min to indicate 98% of the response to a step input.
Assuming the thermometer to be a first-order system, find the time constant.

2) Consider the unit-step response of a unity-feedback control system whose open-

loop transfer function is

Obtain the rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, and settling time.
3) Consider the closed-loop system given by

Determine the values of ζ and ωn, so that the system responds to a step input
with approximately 5% overshoot and with a settling time of 2 sec. (Use the 2%
criterion.)

4) Figure 1 is a block diagram of a space-vehicle attitude-control system. Assuming

the time constant T of the controller to be 3 sec and the ratio K/J = 2/9 rad2/sec2
Find the damping ratio of the system, rise time, maximum overshoot and peak
time.

Fig. 1

92 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

5) Consider the system shown in Fig. 2(a). The damping ratio of this system is 0.158
and the undamped natural frequency is 3.16 rad/sec. To improve the relative
stability, we employ tachometer feedback. Fig. 2(b) shows such a tachometer-
feedback system. Determine the value of Kh, so that the damping ratio of the
system is 0.5. Then find the rise time, maximum overshoot and settling time and
compare them with those obtained from the original system.

Fig. 2

6) Referring to the system shown in Fig. 3, determine the values of K and k such that
the system has a damping ratio 0.7 and an undamped natural of 4 rad/sec.

Fig. 3

7) For the system shown in Fig. 4, determine the values of gain K and velocity
feedback constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in the unit-step response is
0.2 and the peak time is 1 sec. With these values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time
and settling time. Assume that J = 1 kg-m2 and B = 1 N-m/rad/sec.

93 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 4

8) When the control system shown in Fig. 5 (a) is subjected to a unit-step input, the
system output responds as shown in Fig. 5 (b). Determine the values of K and T
from the response curve.

Fig. 5

9) For the closed-loop system given by

Calculate the rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, and settling time when R(s) is
considered as unit step input.

10) Figure 6 shows three systems. System I is a positional servo system. System I1
is a positional servo system with PD control action. System I11 is a positional servo
system with velocity feedback. Compare the unit-step response of the three
systems and obtain the best one with respect to the speed of response and
maximum overshoot.

94 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 6

11) For a unity feedback control systems given below, find the position (Kp),
velocity (Kv) and acceleration (Ka) error coefficients.

12) For the system shown in Fig. 7, find K so that there is 10% error in the steady
state

Fig. 7

13) For the system shown in Fig. 8, find

• The system type
• Appropriate error constant associated with the system type, and
• The steady state error for unit step input

95 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 8

;
14) Consider the system shown in Fig. 9. Prove that the steady-state error for a
!" √4 =
unit ramp input is . Also show that the damping ratio is and the undamped

natural frequency is > 1 −

4
=

Fig. 9

15) Consider the system shown in Fig. 10(a). The steady-state error to a unit-ramp
!"
input is ess = . Show that the steady-state error for following a ramp input may
be eliminated if the input is introduced to the system through a proportional-plus-
derivative filter, as shown in Fig. 10(b), and the value of k is properly set.

Fig. 10
(a) (b)

16) Consider servo system with tachometer feedback shown in Fig. 11. Obtain the
error signal E(s) when both the reference input R(s) and disturbance input D(s)
are present. Obtain also the steady-state error when the system is subjected to a
reference input (unit-ramp input) and disturbance input (step input of magnitude
d).

96 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 11

17. For the control system shown in Fig. 12, Determine the steady-state error for a
unit step when K = 0.4 and Gp(s) = 1. Select an appropriate value for Gp(s) so that
the steady-state error is equal to zero for the unit step input.

Fig. 12

18. Consider the closed-loop system in Fig. 13. Determine values of the parameters k
and a so that the following specifications are satisfied:
(a) The steady-state error to a unit step input is zero.

(b) The closed-loop system has a percent overshoot of less than 5%.

Fig. 13

97 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪19.‬‬
‫‪14‬‬

‫‪Fig. 14‬‬

‫‪EE3511 Automatic Control Systems‬‬

‫‪98‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein

Chapter# 7 STABILITY ANALYSIS

1. Stability Conditions Using Rolling Ball and cone

The most important problem in linear control systems concerns stability. That is,
under what conditions will a system become unstable? If it is unstable, how should we
stabilize the system?
Stability may be defined as the ability of a system to restore its equilibrium position
when disturbed or a system which has a bounded response for a bounded output.
Referring to Fig. 1:
(a) if the ball is displaced a small distance from this position and released, it
oscillates but ultimately returns to its rest position at the base as it loses energy
as a result of friction. This is therefore a stable equilibrium point.
(b) The stable position can be represented by a cone rest on its base.
(c) The time response of stable system converges to a certain value as the time
tends to infinity.

(a) Rolling ball (b) Cone (c) time response

Fig. 1, Stable system
On the other hand and referring to Fig. 2:
(a) If the ball is in equilibrium as placed exactly at the top of the surface, but if it is
displaced an extremely small distance to either side, the net gravitational force
acting on it will cause it to roll down the surface and never return to the
equilibrium point. This equilibrium is therefore unstable.
(b) The unstable position can be represented by a cone rest on its tip.

99 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

(a) Rolling ball (b) Cone (c) time response

Fig. 2, Unstable system
Referring to Fig. 3:
(a) The ball neither moves away nor returns to its equilibrium position. The flat
portion represents a neutrally stable region.
(b) The neutrally stable position can be represented by a cone rest on its side.
(c) The time response of neutrally stable system is constant as the time changes.

(a) Rolling ball (b) Cone (c) time response

Fig. 3, neutrally stable system
2. Stability Analysis in the Complex Plane
The stability of a linear closed‐loop system can be determined from the location of the
closed‐loop poles in the s‐plane. If any of these poles lie in the Right‐Half of the
s‐plane (RHS), (either the poles are real or complex as shown in Fig. 4.) then with
increasing time, they give rise to the dominant mode, and the transient response
increases monotonically or oscillate with increasing amplitude. Either of these systems
represents an unstable system.

100 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 4. Poles located in RHS gives unstable response

For such a system, as soon as the power is turned on, the output may increase with
time. If no saturation takes place in the system and no mechanical stop is provided,
then the system may eventually be damaged and fail, since the response of a real
physical system cannot increase indefinitely.

Consider a simple feedback system shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5, closed-loop control system

The overall T.F. is given as:

The characteristic equation is of the above system is 1 + ? = 0

101 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The roots of the characteristic equation are called closed loop poles. The location of
such roots or poles on the s-plane will indicate the condition of stability as shown in
Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Stability condition based on the location of the closed loop poles
3. Routh Stability criterion (Two Necessary But Insufficient Conditions)
The characteristic equation of the simple feedback system can be written as a
polynomial:

There are two necessary but insufficient conditions for the roots of the characteristic
equation to lie in Left Hand Side (LHS) of the S‐plane (i.e., stable region)
1. All the coefficients an, an-1, an-2, ..., a1 and a0 should have the same sign.
2. None of the coefficients vanish (All coefficients of the polynomial should exist).
By this way we judge the absolute stability of the system (stable or unstable).

Example #1
Given the characteristic equation,

Is the system described by this characteristic equation stable?

102 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

One coefficient (‐2) is negative. Therefore, the system does not satisfy the necessary
condition for stability.

Example #2
Given the characteristic equation,

Is the system described by this characteristic equation stable? The term s3 is missing.
Therefore, the system does not satisfy the necessary condition for stability.

4. Hurwitz Stability criterion (Necessary and Sufficient Condition)

Arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows and columns according to the
following pattern:

The process of forming rows continues until we run out of elements. (The total
number of rows is n + 1.) The coefficients b1, b2, b3, and so on, are evaluated as
follows:

The evaluation of the b's is continued until the remaining ones are all zero.

103 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The same pattern of cross-multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows is
followed in evaluating the c's, d's, e's, and so on. That is,

Note that in developing the array an entire row may be divided or multiplied by a
positive number in order to simplify the subsequent numerical calculation without
altering the stability conclusion.
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion states that the number of roots of the characteristic
equation with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of the
coefficients of the first column of the array.
It should be noted that the exact values of the terms in the first column need not be
known; instead, only the signs are needed.

The necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of the characteristic equation lie in
the left-half s plane is that:
a) All the coefficients of the characteristic equation be positive, and
b) All terms in the first column of the array have positive signs.
Example #3
Consider the following polynomial

Let us follow the procedure just presented and construct the array of coefficients. (The
first two rows can be obtained directly from the given polynomial. The remaining
terms are obtained from these. If any coefficients are missing, they may be replaced by
zeros in the array.)

104 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Example #4
Check whether this system is stable or not.

The characteristic equation is:

There are 2 sign changes. There are 2 poles on the right half of the S-plane. Therefore,
the system is unstable.

Special Cases:
1- If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero or
there is no remaining term, then the zero term is replaced by a very small
positive number ε and the rest of the array is evaluated.

Example #5
105 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

Consider the following equation:

The array of coefficients is

If the sign of the coefficient above the zero (ε) is the same as that below it, it indicates
that there is a pair of imaginary roots. Actually, the above equation has two roots at
s = ±j .
If, however, the sign of the coefficient above the zero (ε) is opposite that below it, it
indicates that there is one sign change. For example, for the equation

The array of coefficients is

There are two sign changes of the coefficients in the first column. This agrees with the
correct result indicated by the factored form of the polynomial equation.

2- If all the coefficients in any derived row are zero, it indicates that there are roots
of equal magnitude lying radially opposite in the s plane, that is, two real roots
with equal magnitudes and opposite signs and/or two conjugate imaginary roots.
In such a case, the evaluation of the rest of the array can be continued by forming an
auxiliary polynomial with the coefficients of the last row and by using the coefficients
106 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

of the derivative of this auxiliary polynomial in the next row. Such roots with equal
magnitudes and lying radially opposite in the s plane can be found by solving the
auxiliary polynomial, which is always even.

Example #6
Consider the following equation:

The array of coefficients is

The terms in the s3 row are all zero. (Note that such a case occurs only in an odd
numbered row.) The auxiliary polynomial is then formed from the coefficients of
the s4 row. The auxiliary polynomial P(s) is

We see that there is one change in sign in the first column of the new array. Thus,
the original equation has one root with a positive real part. By solving for roots of
the auxiliary polynomial equation,

107 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

5. Application of Routh Stability Criterion to Control System Analysis

It is possible to determine the effects of changing one or two parameters of a
system by examining the values that cause instability. In the following, we shall
consider the problem of determining the stability range of a parameter value.
Example #7
Consider the system described by a closed-loop transfer function given below, and
we need to determine the range of K for stability.

The characteristic equation is

For stability, K must be positive, and all coefficients in the first column must be
positive. Therefore,

At + =
E
F
the system becomes oscillatory (critically stable) and the oscillation is

sustained at constant amplitude. To get this frequency we form the auxiliary

equation P(S) from the coefficients of the row above that contain + =
E
F
2
P(S) = (7/3) S + (14/9) = 0
Solving this equation to get the frequenciey.
Example #8
In the figure below, determine the range of K for the system to be stable

108 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The characteristic equation is:

Construct Routh array

For the system stability;

For K = 6, the above characteristic equation becomes

The frequency of oscillations in the previous case is √2 rad/s.

‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 5 (Stability of linear systems) ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬

109 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Problem #1

Utilizing the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, determine the stability of the following

polynomials:

(a) q(s) = s2 + 5s + 2
(b) q(s) = s3 + 20s2 + 5s + 100
(c) q(s) = s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 2
(d) q(s) = s3 + 2s2 – 4s + 20
(e) q(s) = s4 + s3 + 2s2 + 10s + 8
(f) q(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + s + 5
(g) q(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + s2 + s + 15
(h) q(s) = s6 + 2s5 + 8s4 + 12s3 + 20s2 + 16s +16
Problem #2

Utilizing the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, determine the range of K that results in a stable
system of the following characteristic equations:

(a) q(s) = s3 + 10s2 + 29s + K

(b) q(s) = s3 + 3s2 + (K + 1)s + 6
(c) q(s) = s3 + (K + 2)s2 + 2Ks + 10
(d) q(s) = s4 + s3 + 3s2 + 2s + K
(e) q(s) = s4 + 2s3 + (4 + K) s2 + 9s + 25
(f) q(s) = s4 + Ks3 + 5s2 + 10s + 10K
(g) q(s) = s4 + Ks3 + 2s2 + (K + 1)s + 10
(h) q(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + s2 + s + K
Problem #3

A feedback control system has a characteristic equation

q(s) = s3 + (1 + K)s2 + 10s + (5 + 15K)

110 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The parameter K must be positive. What is the maximum value K can assume before
the system becomes unstable? When K is equal to the maximum value, the system
oscillates. Determine the frequency of oscillation.

Problem #4

Consider the closed loop system given in Fig. 1. Find the range of values of K for
which the system is stable.

Fig. 1, A closed-loop control system

Problem 5

Designers have developed small, fast, vertical-takeoff fighter aircraft that are invisible
to radar (stealth aircraft). This aircraft concept uses quickly turning jet nozzles to
steer the airplane. The control system for the heading or direction control is shown in
Fig. 2. Determine the maximum gain of the system for stable operation.

Fig. 2, Aircraft heading control

Problem 6

Consider the system given in Fig. 3. Find the range of values of K for which the system
is stable.

111 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 3, A closed-loop system

Problem 7

A closed-loop feedback system is shown in Fig. 4. For what range of values of the
parameters K and p is the system stable?

Fig. 4, Closed-loop system with parameters K and p

Problem 8

Arc welding is one of the most important areas of application for industrial robots. In
most manufacturing welding situations, uncertainties in dimensions of the part,
geometry of the joint, and the welding process itself require the use of sensors for
maintaining weld quality. Several systems use a vision system to measure the
geometry of the puddle of melted metal, as shown in Fig. 5. This system uses a
constant rate of feeding the wire to be melted.

Calculate the maximum value for K for the system that will result in a stable system.

112 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 5, Welder control

Problem 9

A cassette tape storage device has been designed for mass-storage. It is necessary to
control the velocity of the tape accurately. The speed control of the tape drive is
represented by the system shown in Fig. 6. Determine the limiting gain for a stable
system.

Fig. 6, Tape drive control

Problem 10

Robots can be used in manufacturing and assembly operations that require accurate,
fast, and versatile manipulation. The open-loop transfer function of a direct-drive
arm may be approximated by

K ( s + 10)
G(s) H (s) =
s ( s + 3)( s 2 + 4 s + 8)

(a) Determine the value of gain K when the system oscillates,

(b) Calculate the roots of the closed-loop system for the K determined in part (a).

Problem 11

113 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

On July 16,1993, the elevator in Yokohama's 70-story Landmark Tower, operating at

a peak speed of 45 km/hr (28 mph), was inaugurated as the fastest super-fast
elevator. To reach such a speed without inducing discomfort in passengers, the
elevator accelerates for longer periods, rather than more precipitously. Going up, it
reaches full speed only at the 27th floor; it begins decelerating 15 floors later. The
result is a peak acceleration similar to that of other skyscraper elevators—a bit less
than a tenth of the force of gravity. Admirable ingenuity has gone into making this
safe and comfortable. Special ceramic brakes had to be developed; iron ones would
melt. Computer-controlled systems damp out vibrations. The lift has been
streamlined to reduce the wind noise as it speeds up and down. One proposed
control system for the elevator's vertical position is shown in Fig. 7. Determine the
range of K for a stable system.

Fig. 7, Elevator control system

Problem 12

A vertical-liftoff vehicle is shown in Fig. 8(a). The four engines swivel for liftoff. The
control system for aircraft altitude is shown in Fig. 8(b).
(a) For K = 1, determine whether the system is stable.
(b) Determine a range of stability, if any, for K > 0.

Problem 13

(13) A control system is shown in Fig. 9. We want the system to be stable and the
steady-state error for a unit step input to be less than or equal to 0.05 (5%).

(a) Determine the range of α that satisfies the error requirement,

(b) Determine the range of α that satisfies the stability requirement,
(c) Select an α that meets both requirements.

114 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 8 Aircraft control system

(a) Vertical-takeoff aircraft (Courtesy of Moller International) (b) Control system

Fig. 9 Third-order unity feedback system

Problem 14

A bottle-filling line uses a feeder screw mechanism, as shown in Fig. 10. The
tachometer feedback is used to maintain accurate speed control. Determine and plot
the range of K and p that permits stable operation.

115 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

(a) System layout. (b) Block diagram.

Fig. 10, Speed control of a bottle-filling line.

Problem 15

Consider the feedback system shown in Fig. 11. The process transfer function is
marginally stable. The controller is the proportional-derivative (PD) Controller

Gc(s) = KP + KDs

Determine if it is possible to find values of KP and KD such that the closed–loop

system is stable. If so, obtain values of the controller parameters such that the
steady-state tracking error E(s) = R(s) – Y(s) to a unit step input R(s) = 1/s and ess ≤
0.1 and the damping of the closed–loop system is ξ = 0.7071.

116 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 11 A marginally stable plant with a PD controller in the loop

Problem 16

Consider the closed-loop system shown in Fig. 12. Determine the range of K for
stability.

Fig. 12, Closed-loop system

Problem 17

Consider the servo system with tachometer feedback shown in Fig. 13. Determine
the ranges of stability for K and Kh .

Fig. 13 Servo system with tachometer feedback

117 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Problem 18

The loop transfer function of a single–loop feedback control system is given as

K ( s + 5)
G (s) H (s) =
s( s + 2)(1 + Ts )

The parameters K and T may be represented in a plant with K as the horizontal axis
and T as the vertical axis. Determine the regions in T-versus-K parameter plane where
the closed–loop system is asymptotically stable and where it is unstable. Indicate the
boundary on which the system is marginally stable.

Problem 19

Given the forward –path transfer function of a unity feedback control systems,

K ( s + 4)( s + 20)
G (s) =
s 3 ( s + 100)( s + 500)

K ( s + 10)( s + 20)
G(s) =
s 2 ( s + 2)

K
G (s) =
s ( s + 10)( s + 20)

K ( s + 1)
G (s) =
( s + 2 s 2 + 3s + 1)
2

(a) Apply the Routh-Hurwitz criterion to determine the stability of the closed–loop
system as function of K.

(b) Determine the values of K that will cause sustained constant amplitude
oscillations in the system.

(c) Determine the frequency of oscillation.

118 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein

Chapter # 8 ROOT LOCUS

1. Introduction
The basic characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop system is closely
related to the location of the closed-loop poles. If the system has a variable loop
gain, then the location of the closed-loop poles depends on the value of the loop
gain chosen. It is important, therefore, that the designer know how the closed-loop
poles move in the s plane as the loop gain is varied.
A simple method for finding the roots of the characteristic equation has been
developed by W. R. Evans and used extensively in control engineering. This
method, called the root-locus method, is one in which the roots of the characteristic
equation are plotted for all values of a system parameter. The roots corresponding
to a particular value of this parameter can then be located on the resulting graph.
Note that the parameter is usually the gain, but any other variable of the open-loop
transfer function may be used.
By using the root-locus method the control Engineer can predict the effects on the
location of the closed-loop poles with varying the gain value.

2. Root Locus Method

The root locus is the locus of roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop
system as a specific parameter (usually, gain K) is varied from zero to infinity,
giving the method its name. Such a plot clearly shows the contributions of each
open-loop pole or zero to the locations of the closed-loop poles.
By using the root-locus method, it is possible to determine the value of the gain K
that will make the damping ratio of the dominant closed-loop poles as prescribed.

119 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

If the location of an open-loop pole or zero is a system variable, then the root-locus
method suggests the way to choose the location of an open-loop pole or zero.

2.1 Angle and magnitude conditions

Consider the control system shown in Fig. 1, whose closed loop T.F. is;

Fig.1 closed loop control system

The characteristic equation of this system is;

The quantity G(s)H(s) is called loop T.F. or open-loop T.F. Assuming that the loop
T.F. is a rational function including a gain K, this gives

Or + ? = −1 (1)
Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity, eqn. (1) can be split into two equations by
equating the angles and magnitudes of both sides, respectively, to obtain the
following:
Angle condition:

∑ HIJ KL MNK − ∑ HIJ KL OKJ = ±180 (2)

Magnitude condition:

(3)
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of
the characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.

120 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Then the root loci for the system are the loci of the closed-loop poles as the gain K
is varied from zero to infinity.
2.2 Root Locus Skech
To begin sketching the root locus of a system by the root-locus method we must
know the location of the poles and zeros of G(s) H(s)
• Step #1
K=0 points are located at the open-loop poles
• Step #2
K=∞ points are located at the open-loop zeros
The poles and zeros referred above include those at infinity, if any.
EX: Consider the characteristic equation

Dividing both sides by the terms that do not contain K, we get

When K = 0, the three poles of the equation are at s = 0, s = –2, and s = –3 as

shown in Fig. 2.
=0
R = −2S H = 3
= −3

When K is ∞, the three zeros of the equation are at s = –1, s = ∞ and ∞ as shown in
Fig. 2.
= −1
R → ∞S T = 1
→∞

121 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 2, K=0 and K=∞ points of the root locus

Number of branches on the root loci
We must know that, the number of branches of root locus plot equals the number of
poles. In the previous example, there are 3 poles. So that the total number of root
locus branches is THREE. Also for the control system that has 3 poles and shown
in Fig. 3, it has three root locus branches.

Symmetry of The root loci

The root locus is symmetrical with respect to the real axis of the s-plane as shown
in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3, three pole system gives three root locus branches; also the root locus is
symmetrical around the real axis
• Step #3
122 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

Number of Asymptotes if there are zeros located at ∞, there are asymptotes equal
to those zeros at ∞. Simply we can calculate the number of asymptotes by:
Number of asymptotes = |H − T|
For the previous example, since there are TWO zeros at infinity OR n – m = 2,
there are TWO asymptotes.
• Step #4
Angle of Asymptotes we can calculate the angles of asymptotes by
2X + 1180
VW =
|H − T|
Where k = 0, 1, 2, …., |H − T| − 1
Substituting k=0 we get the angle of 1st asymptote
Substituting k=1 we get the angle of 2st asymptote, … etc.
In case of number of asymptotes =2, therefore the angles are θ0 = 90 and θ1 = 270
(as shown in Fig. 4-a)

In case of number of asymptotes =3, therefore the angles are θ0 = 60, θ1 = 180 and
θ2 = 300 (as shown in Fig. 4-b)
In case of number of asymptotes =4, therefore the angles are θ0 = 45, θ1 = 135, θ2 =
225 and θ3 = 315 (as shown in Fig. 4-c)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4, angle of asymptotes
• Step #5

123 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Intersection of Asymptotes with Real Axis The point of intersection of

asymptotes of the root locus lies on the real axis of the s-plane, at σ, where

∑ LZHZ% OKJ KL ? − ∑ LZHZ% MNK KL ?

Y=
H−T

The point of intersection of the asymptotes (σ) represents the center of gravity of
the root locus, and is always a real number. Since the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s)
are either real or in complex-conjugate pairs, the imaginary parts in the numerator
of σ equation always cancel each other out. Thus, the summation terms may be
replaced by the real parts of the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s), respectively. That is,

∑ NJ ON% KL OKJ KL ? − ∑ NJ ON% KL MNK KL ?

Y=
H−T

Example: suppose we have a control system

+ + 1
? =
+ 4 + 1 − \ + 1 + \
The point of intersection of asymptotes with real axis is
0 − 4 − 1 − 1 − −1 −5
Y= = = −1.67
4−1 3

• Step #6
Root Locus on Real Axis
On a given section of the real axis, root locus are found in this section only if the
total number of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) to the right of the section is odd. On
another explanation, for s1 to be a point on the root locus, there must be an odd
number of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) to the right of that point. We can explain
this by the following pole-zero configurations shown in Fig. 5.

124 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 5, root locus on real axis

Where the dotted line shows Inverse Root Locus (IRL) where the system gain K
changes from –∞ to 0 (i.e. K<0).
On the other hand, the solid line shows Root Locus (RL) where the system gain K
changes from 0 to ∞ (i.e. K>0)
• Step #7
Angles of Departure for complex poles OR
And Angles of Arrival for complex zeros
The angle of departure or arrival of a root locus at a pole or zero, respectively, of
G(s)H(s) denotes the angle of the tangent to the locus near the point. The angle of
departure is defined as the angle at which the root locus leaves the pole. The angle
of arrival is defined as the angle at which the root locus moves toward the zero.
We can explain how to calculate the angle of departure by the following example:
Consider the characteristic equation of a control system

S(S+3)(S2+2S+2) + K(S+1) = 0
The angle of departure of the root locus at (s +1– j) is represented by θ2, measured
with respect to the real axis. Let us assign s1 to be a point on the RL leaving the

125 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

pole at (s +1– j) and is very close to the pole as shown in Fig. 6. Then, s1 must
satisfy Eqn. (2). Thus,

Fig. 6, calculation of angle of departure

Based on eqn. 2, since no zeros
0 − a + a + a + aE = 180
a = −180 − a − a − aE = −180 − 135 − 90 − 26.6 = −71.6
Step #8
Intersection of the Root Locus with the Imaginary Axis
The points where the root locus intersect the imaginary axis of the s-plane, and the
corresponding values of K, may be determined by means of the Routh-Hurwitz
criterion explained in the previous lecture.
Step #9
Breakaway Points

126 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Breakaway points on the root locus of an equation correspond to multiple-order

roots of the equation.
Figure (7-a) illustrates a case in which two branches of the root locus meet at the
breakaway point on the real axis and then depart from the axis in opposite
directions. In this case, the breakaway point represents a double root of the
equation when the value of K is assigned the value corresponding to the point.

Fig. 7, break away point

Figure (7-b) shows another common situation when two complex-conjugate root
locus approach the real axis, meet at the breakaway point, and then depart in
opposite directions along the real axis. In general, a breakaway point may involve
more than two root locus. Figure (7-c) illustrates a situation when the breakaway
point represents a fourth-order root.

127 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

A root-locus diagram can have, of course, more than one breakaway point.
Moreover, the breakaway points need not always be on the real axis. Because of
the conjugate symmetry of the root loci, the breakaway points not on the real axis
must be in complex conjugate pairs.
At the breakaway points, the following properties must be satisfied:

1) (3)
where G1(s)H1(s) = K G(s)H(s) setting K=1
2) All real solutions of Eqn. (3) are breakaway points on the root locus for all
values of K, since the entire real axis of the s-plane is occupied by the root
locus.
3) The complex-conjugate solutions of Eqn. (3) are breakaway points only if they
satisfy the characteristic equation or are points on the root locus.

It is important to point out that the condition for the breakaway point given in
Eqn. (3) is necessary but not sufficient.

The angles at which the root locus arrive or depart from a breakaway point depend
on the number of branches that are involved at the point. For example, the root
locus shown in Figs. (7-a) and (7-b) all arrive and break away at 180 apart, whereas
in Fig. (7-c), the four root loci arrive and depart with angles 90 apart. In general,
n root locus branches arrive or depart a breakaway point at 180/n degrees apart.

Example: Consider the second-order equation

128 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The breakaway points on the root loci must satisfy

Or
We find the two breakaway points of the root locus at s = -1.172 and -6.828

Fig. 8 Breakaway points of the example

Figure 8, shows that the two breakaway points are all on the root locus for positive
K. this mean both points are used as breakaway points.

Another example: Consider the equation

129 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 9 Breakaway points of the example

The above derivative can be reduced to

The solution of this equation gives the breakaway

point as s1 = – 0.586 and s2 = –3.414. The root locus shown in Fig. 9, indicates that,
the point S1 is located in IRL portion, this means that it can't be a proper breakaway
point.

Another example:

130 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The solutions of the last equation are s1 = – 2, s2 = –2 + j2.45, and s3 = –2 – j2.45.

As shown in Fig. 10 that the two complex points S2 and S3 are considered as
breakaway points.

Fig. 10 Breakaway points of the example

Another example: In this example, we shall show that not all the solutions of Eqn.
(3) are breakaway points on the root locus. Consider the root loci of the equation

131 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The roots of the above equation is s1= – 0.667 – j0.471 and s2= – 0.667 + j0.471.
From the root locus shown in Fig. 11, these two roots are not breakaway points on
the root loci.

Fig. 11 Breakaway points of the example

2.3 Calculation of K from the Root Locus

Once the root locus is constructed, the values of K at any point (as s1 for example)
on the locus can be determined by using the angle condition described in eqn. (3).
Graphically, the magnitude of K can be written as:

132 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

For the root locus shown in Fig. 12, the value of K at point s1 is given by

where A and B are the lengths of the vectors drawn from the poles of G(s)H(s) to
the point s1, and C is the length of the vector drawn from the zero of G(s)H(s) to s1.
In this case, s1 is on the locus where K is positive

Fig. 12 Calculation of K using magnitude condition

Example (1):
Consider the control system whose characteristic equation is

Dividing both sides of the last equation by the terms that do not contain K, we have

133 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

• K = 0 points: at s = 0, s = –5, and s = –6 and S= –1+j and S= –1–j.

=0
f
= −5 d
R = −6 H=5
= −1 − \ e
d
= −1 + \c
• K = ∞ points, at s = –3.
= −3f
→ ∞d
R
→∞ T=1
→ ∞e
d
→ ∞c
• Number of asymptotes = |H − T|= 5 – 1 = 4
• Angle of asymptotes
θ0 = 45, θ1 = 135, θ2 = 225 and θ3 = 315
• Intersection of asymptotes with real axis:

• Angle of departure: from the angle condition,

26.6 – 135 – 90 – 14 – 11.4 – θD = 180 so that θD = – 43.8

• Intersection of the root locus with the imaginary axis is determined using
Routh’s tabulation.

134 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

We can obtain the value of K to satisfy the stability as:

So that 0 < K < 35

At K = 35, the auxiliary equation A(s) is

Substituting K = 35 in A(s) we find

Then S = ± j 1.34
• Break away points:
Taking the derivative after making K = 1 we can obtain

Since there is only one breakaway expected, only one root of the last
equation is the correct solution of the breakaway point. The five roots of the
above equation are:

Clearly, the breakaway point is at –5.53. The other four solutions do not
satisfy the requirements.

135 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Fig. 13, Root locus of example 1.‬‬

‫‪Example (2):‬‬

‫‪136‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

For the control system described by the block diagram shown in Fig. 14, draw the
root locus.

Fig. 14, Block diagram for example 2.

137 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The root locus of this example is shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15, Root locus of example 2.

Example (3)
Draw the root locus of the control system shown in Fig. 16.

138 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 16, control system of example 3.

Using Routh, we can obtain the intersection of root locus with imaginary axis. From Routh
array, K = 150 at S = ± j5.0

139 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The root locus of this example is shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 17, Root locus of example 3.

Example (4)
Draw the root locus for the control system shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18, Block diagram for example 4.

There are 3 asymptotes

140 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 19, Root locus of example 4.

Example (5)
Draw the root locus for the control system whose T.F. is given below,
+ + 2 + 2
? =
+ 1 + 2 + 6 + 13
a) Find the max value of K to make a sustained oscillation system and find the
frequency of this oscillation.
b) Calculate the value of K at the breakaway point.

141 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Hint: please don’t waste your valuable time in calculating the breakaway points.
There is only ONE breakaway point at S = –0.46

142 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪143‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪144‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪145‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

‫‪Fig. 20 Root locus of example 5.‬‬

‫‪Matlab code to draw the root locus is as follows:‬‬
‫‪146‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬
‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر ‪(3511‬‬ ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز ‪ -‬كلية الھندسة‬
‫د‪ .‬أحمد مصطفى حسين‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

‫)‪Example (6‬‬

‫‪147‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

Consider the characteristic equation S2 (S + a) + K(S + b) = 0

Draw root locus of that system when b = 1 and a = 10, 9, and 8
+ + 1
? =
+
At a = 10, there are TWO breakaway points at S= -2.5 and at S = -4.0 as shown in Fig.
21(a)

At a = 9, there are ONE breakaway point at S= -3.0 as shown in Fig. 21(b)

148 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫)‪At a = 8, there is NO breakaway points as shown in Fig. 21(b‬‬

‫‪Fig. 21, Root locus of example 6.‬‬

‫‪149‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬

Example (7)
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 22. Plot the root locus for this system by
applying the general rules and procedure for constructing root loci, and write the
MATLAB code to get root-locus plots.

Fig. 22, Control system of example 7.

MATLAB Program SHOWN IN Fig. 23 will plot the root-locus diagram for the
system. The plot is shown in Figure 24.

Fig. 23, Matlab code for example 7.

It can be seen from the root-locus plot of Fig. 24 that this system is stable only for
limited ranges of the value of K-that is, 0 < K < 12 and 73 < K < 154. The system
becomes unstable for 12 < K < 73 and 154 < K.

150 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫‪Fig. 24, Matlab root locus obtained from m-code.‬‬

‫‪Example 8‬‬
‫‪151‬‬ ‫‪Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN‬‬
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

A simplified form of the open-loop transfer function of an airplane with an autopilot in

the longitudinal mode is

Sketch the root locus when a = b = 1, damping ratio = 0.5, and ωn = 4. Find the range
of gain K for stability.
The open loop TF is

There are 3 Asymptotes at angles of 60 & 180 & -60

σ = -2/3 = -0.667
Breakaway points at S = 0.45 and at S = -2.26
But the points S = -0.76 ± J 2.16 do not represent break away points
To get intersection of RL with imaginary axis, the characteristic equation is

Routh array is

The values of K that make the s1 term in the first column equal zero are K = 35.7 and
K = 23.3. The crossing points on the imaginary axis can be found by solving the
auxiliary equation obtained from the s2 row, that is, by solving the following equation
for s:

The results are

152 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The angle of departure (θD) of the root locus for the complex poles is calculated as
θD = 180 - 120 - 130.5 - 90 + 106 = -54.5"

153 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 6 (Root Locus) ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬

1) Sketch the root locus diagram for the following control systems:
+ + 2 + + 5
? = ? =
+ 1 + 4 + 2 + 4
+ +
? = ? =
+ 6 + 8 + 1 + 2 + 4
+ +
? = ? =
+ 1 + 3 + 4 + 9
+ + + 8
? = ? =
+ 2 + 10 + 14 + 20 + 110
+ + 1 + 2 + + 3
? = ? =
+ 0.1 − 1 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 6

2) Given the following characteristic equations;

S3 + 5S2 + (6+K)S + 8K = 0
S3 + 3S2 + (K+2)S + 10K = 0

Sketch the root locus then find

- The value of K for all roots to be real, and find the location of roots
- The value of K to give a critically damped system, and find the location of roots
- The value of K to make ζ=0.707, and find the location of roots
- Find the maximum value of K for stability

3) A control system has a forward and feedback T.F. as

K
G (s) = , H(s) = 1
S (S 2 + 4S + 13)
Sketch the root locus then find

154 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

- The value of K to give a damping ratio of 0.2588

- Find the location of the roots at that damping ratio
- The value of K that gives a marginally stable system

4) A unity feedback control system whose forward T.F is

K (S 2 + 14S + 74)
G (s) =
(S + 3) (S + 5) (S + 10)
Sketch the root locus then find
- Maximum value of K that make all roots real, then find the location of roots
- The value of K that make the real root at S= –14, then find the corresponding
damping ratio
- The value of K that gives minimum damping ratio, then find the location of
roots

5) For the control system shown in Fig. 1 below

- Plot the root locus
- Determine the value of K to place the real root at S=-5, then determine the
damping ratio
- Determine the maximum value of K so that ζ=1, then find the location of roots

C(S)

R(S) +
K
_

0.3 0.4

+ +
+
+

Fig. 1

155 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

6) A control system has a closed loop T.F. with unity feedback as

+ + 3
=
+ 2 + + + 3
Draw the R.L. and design the system to have a damping ratio of 0.866, then find the
location of roots.

7) The root locus of the two poles P1 and P2 is shown in Fig. 2. It is found that at
K=10, the damping ratio is 0.707
- Find the two roots P1 and P2
- Find the value of K to give ζ = 0.5, then find the location of roots

ω
jω

ξ = 0.707

10=K

-1 σ
-P1 P2

7) Draw the root locus for the control system whose T.F. is given below,
+ + 2 + 2
? =
+ 1 + 2 + 6 + 13
c) Find the max value of K to make a sustained oscillation system and find the
frequency of this oscillation.
d) Calculate the value of K at the breakaway point.
Hint: There is only ONE breakaway point at S = -0.46

156 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein
Chapter # 9 Control Systems Design by the Root-Locus Method

1. Introduction
Control systems are designed to perform specific tasks or requirements that generally
called performance specifications. These specifications may be given in terms of
transient response (such as the maximum overshoot and settling time in step response)
and/or of steady-state requirements (such as steady-state error in following ramp or
step input). The specifications of a control system must be given before the design
process begins.
The design by the root-locus method is based on reshaping the root locus of the system
by adding poles and zeros to the system's open-loop transfer function and forcing the
root locus to pass through desired closed-loop poles in the s plane. Adding pole or
zero is done by a controller or compensator. This compensator is a device inserted into
the system for the purpose of satisfying the specifications. The compensator
compensates for deficit performance of the original system. Commonly used
compensators and controllers are lead, lag, and lag-lead compensators and PID
controllers.
The TF of the compensator is Gc(s) and may be connected in series as shown in Fig. 1-
a) and is called series compensator. Also it can be connected in feedback as shown in
Fig. 1-b) and is called feedback compensator.

Fig. 1 a) series compensator b) feedback compensator

2. Root-Locus Approach to Control System Design.

157 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

The root-locus method is a graphical method for determining the locations of all
closed-loop poles from knowledge of the locations of the open-loop poles and
zeros as some parameter (usually the gain) is varied from zero to infinity. The
method yields a clear indication of the effects of parameter adjustment.
As an example consider the system represented by
+
? =
+ 1 + 2
As shown from the system root locus (Fig. 2), as the gain increases from K1 to
K2 to K3 the damping ratio decreases affecting the transient performance but
the steady-state error is improved.

Fig. 2, root locus of 2nd order system

In fact, in some cases, the system may not be stable for all values of gain. Or we can't
obtain the required improvement by changing the system gain. Then it is necessary to
reshape the root locus to meet the performance specifications by adding pole(s) and/or
zero(s).
2.1 Effect of adding pole
The addition of a pole to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling the
root locus to the right, tending to lower the system's relative stability and to slow down
the settling of the response. (Remember that the addition of integral part adds a pole at

158 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

the origin, thus making the system less stable. On the other hand it increases the
system type and hence improve the steady state error.)
Figure 3 shows examples of root locus illustrating the effects of the addition of a pole
to a single-pole system and the addition of two poles to a single-pole system.

a) Original system b) adding one pole c) adding two poles

Fig. 3 effect of adding pole(s) to control systems

2.2 Effects of the Addition of Zeros

The addition of a zero to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling the
root locus to the left, tending to make the system more stable and to speed up the
settling of the response. Physically, the addition of a zero in the feed forward transfer
function means the addition of derivative control to the system. The effect of such
control is to introduce a degree of anticipation into the system and speed up the
transient response. Figure 4-a) shows the root locus for a system that is stable for
small gain but unstable for large gain. Figures 4-b), (c), and (d) show root-locus plots
for the system when a zero is added to the open-loop transfer function. Notice that
when a zero is added to the system becomes stable for all values of gain.

159 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 4, effect of adding zero

3. Lead Compensator
The lead compensator T.F. is given by
1
+
g = +g h
1
+
ih
Where α and T are constants. Also α is less than unity.
The procedures for designing a lead compensator for any control system is:
1. From the performance specifications, determine the desired location for the
dominant closed-loop poles.
2. By drawing the root-locus of the uncompensated (original) system G(S), be sure
that the gain adjustment alone can yield the desired closed-loop poles. If not, calculate
160 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

the angle deficiency φ.This angle must be contributed by the lead compensator if the
new root locus is to pass through the desired locations for the dominant closed-loop
poles.
3. determine the value of α and T from the deficiency angle.

Example 1
Consider the unity feedback control system:
+
=
+ 2
It is desired to make the system damping ratio 0.5 with undamped natural frequency
4.0 rad/s. Design the suitable lead compensator and draw the root locus of the
compensated system.
1) Draw the root locus of the original system as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5, root locus of the original system indicating the design point
From the magnitude condition at the closed loop poles, we find K = 4
At ξ = 0.5 it is found that the closed loop poles are located at -2 ± 2√3, therefore the
undamped natural frequency (ωn = 2). But the required value is 4.0

161 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Compute the angle at the design point shown in Fig. 5.

Angle = 0 – ( 120 + 90 ) = – 210
But for the root locus the angle must be ±180, therefore, if we need to force the root
locus to go through the desired closed-loop pole, the lead compensator must contribute
φ = 30̊ at this point. As explained in Fig. 6, the bisector method determine the location
of the compensator pole and zero.

Fig. 6, Bisector method to determine the lead pole and zero

At the design point P connect OP and draw the horizontal line AP. Then measure the
angle OPA. Draw the bisector PB so that it divide the angle OPA equally. From PB
measure half the lead angle φ before and after the bisector to get the line PC and PD,
respectively. So we obtain that

And α = 0.537
Now the compensated system become
4+g + 2.9
=
+ 2 + 5.4

162 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The root locus of the compensated system is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7, root locus of the compensated system

From the magnitude condition at the design point, we calculate the gain 4Kc = 18.7
Therefore, the lead compensator gain Kc = 18.7 / 4 = 4.675

4. Lag Compensator
The lag compensator T.F. is given by
1
+
g = +g h
1
+
jh
Where α and T are constants. Also β is greater than unity.
We select the lag compensator when the system exhibits satisfactory transient-
response characteristics but unsatisfactory steady-state characteristics. Compensation
in this case essentially consists of increasing the open-loop gain without appreciably
changing the transient-response characteristics. This means that the root locus in the
neighborhood of the dominant closed-loop poles should not be changed appreciably,
but the open-loop gain should be increased as much as needed.
163 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN
(3511 ‫أنظمة التحكم التلقائى )كھر‬ ‫ كلية الھندسة‬- ‫جامعة سلمان بن عبد العزيز‬
‫ أحمد مصطفى حسين‬.‫د‬ ‫قسم الھندسة الكھربائية‬

This can be accomplished if a lag compensator is put in cascade with the given feed
forward transfer function. To avoid an appreciable change in the root locus, the angle
contribution of the lag network should be limited to a small amount, say 5̊.To assure
this, we place the pole and zero of the lag network relatively close together and near
the origin of the s plane. Then the closed-loop poles of the compensated system will
be shifted only slightly from their original locations. Hence, the transient-response
characteristics will be changed only slightly.

Example 2
Consider the unity feedback control system:
+
=
+ 1 + 2
At a damping ratio of 0.491, it is required to make the velocity error coefficient = 5,
Design the suitable lag compensator and draw the root locus of the compensated
system.
From the root locus of the uncompensated system, the closed loop poles at ξ = 0.491
are located at S = -0.3307 ± J 0.5864 as shown in Fig. 8.
From the magnitude condition, K = 1.06
The static velocity error coefficient Kv = 1.06 / 2 = 0.53
The required velocity error coefficient Kv is 5, this mean,
1 1
1.06 k + l
1.06
+2 = 5 = lim = h h = 0.53 j
1 1
+ 1 + 2 m + n 2
jh jh
β = 9.434

164 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 8, root locus of uncompensated system

Let T = 2β = 2 × 9.434 = 18.868

Therefore, the lag zero is located at 1/T = 0.053
And the lag pole is located at 1/βT = 0.0056
The compensated system is
1.06 +g + 0.053
=
+ 1 + 2 + 0.0056
The root locus of the compensated system is shown in Fig. 9.
At the same value of the damping ratio of 0.491, the gain is calculated as
1.06 Kc = 1.0235
Kc = 0.966

165 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

‫ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﺝ‬- ‫ﻛﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ‬

Al-Kharj University-College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE3511 Automatic Control Systems ‫ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Sheet 7 (Design by Root Locus) ‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ‬

166 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Problem (1)
Determine the values of K, T1 and T2 of the system shown in Fig. 1 so that the
dominant closed-loop poles have a damping ratio ξ = 0.5 and the undamped natural
frequency = 3 rad/sec.

Fig. 1, Control system for problem 1

Problem (2)
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 2, design a lead compensator such that the
dominant closed-loop poles are located at S = -2±J2√3

Fig. 2, Control system for problem 2

Problem (3)
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 3, find the compensator parameters so that
the dominant closed-loop poles are located at -1±J1

167 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 3, Control system for problem 3

Problem (4)
For the control system shown in Fig. 4, design a compensator such that the static
velocity error coefficient Kv is 20 sec-1 without appreciably changing the original
location (S = -2 ± J 2√3) of a pair of the complex conjugate closed-loop poles.

Fig. 4, Control system for problem 4

Problem (5)
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 5. The plant is critically stable at the
defined value of gain. Design a suitable compensator such that the unit-step response
will exhibit maximum overshoot of less than 40% and a settling time of 5 sec or less.

168 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 5, Control system for problem 5

Problem (6)
Consider the control system shown in Fig. 6. Determine the value of K and T of the
controller Gc(S) such that the closed-loop poles are located at S = -2 ± J2

Fig. 6, Control system for problem 6

169 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

EE3511 Automatic Control Systems

Dr. Ahmed Mostafa Hussein
Chapter # 10 Bode Plots
1. Introduction
Obtaining the frequency response from the transfer function by substituting the value
of (ω) directly in the system transfer function is an tedious task. The frequency range
required in frequency response is often so wide that it is inconvenient to use a linear
scale for the frequency axis. Also, there is a more systematic way of locating the
important features of the magnitude and phase plots of the transfer function. For these
reasons, it has become standard practice to use a logarithmic scale for the frequency
axis and a linear scale in each of the separate plots of magnitude and phase. Such
semi-logarithmic plots of the transfer function—known as Bode plots—have become
the industry standard. Bode plots contain the same information as the non-logarithmic
plots, but they are much easier to construct.
The transfer function GH(s) can be expressed as:
? = |?|∠p
In Bode plots, the magnitude is plotted in Decibels (dB) versus frequency. The dB
quantity can be obtained as:
?; = 20 log ?
Moreover, the phase angle (φ) is plotted versus frequency. Both magnitude and phase
plots are made on semi-log graph paper.
2. Bode Plots
A transfer function may be written in terms of factors that have real and imaginary
parts such as:
\
+ \± k1 + l r1 + \2s +k l t…
M1 W W
? =
\
k1 + O1l r1 + \2s + k l t …

this is called the Bode (Standard) form of the system transfer function that may
contain seven different factors:

170 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

• Bode gain K
• Pole at origin \ and/or zero at origin \v
w!
• Real pole k1 + l and/or real zero k1 + l
w!
& x

• Quadratic pole r1 + \2s + k l t and/or quadratic zero r1 +
! !
! ! " "

\2s2H+H2

In constructing a Bode plot, we plot each factor separately and then combine them
graphically. The factors can be considered one at a time and then combined additively
because of the logarithms involved. For this mathematical convenience of the
logarithm, Bode plots is considered as a powerful engineering tool.
In the following subsections, we will make straight-line plots of the factors listed
above. These straight-line plots known as asymptotic (approximate) Bode plots.
2.1 Bode Gain
For the gain K, there are two cases:
K is +ve and less than one: the magnitude 20 log K is negative and the phase is 0◦;
K is +ve and greater than one: the magnitude 20 log K is positive and the phase is 0◦;
K is -ve: the magnitude remain 20 log K is negative and the phase is ±180◦;
Both of the magnitude and phase are constant with frequency. Thus the magnitude and
phase plots of the gain are shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1, Magnitude and phase plots of Bode gain

171 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

2.2 Zero at origin

For the zero (jω) at the origin, the magnitude is 20 log10 ω and the phase is 90◦. These
are plotted in Fig. 2, where we notice that the magnitude is represented by a straight
line with slope of 20 dB/decade and intersect the 0dB line at ω=1 and extended to
intersect the vertical axis. But the phase is represented by straight line parallel to
horizontal axis with constant value at 90°.
‫ ونمده‬1 = ω ‫ ديسبل لكل ديكاد ويمر بخط الصفر ديسيبل عند‬20 ‫القيمة تمثل بخط مستقيم ميله‬
ω ‫ درجة وتمثل بخط مستقيم موازى لمحور‬90 ‫أما الزاوية فقيمتھا ثابتة عند‬

Fig. 2, Magnitude and phase plots of zero at origin

In general, for multiple zeros at origin (jω)N, where N is an integer, the magnitude plot
will have a slope of (20×N) dB/decade. But the phase is (90×N) degrees.
2.3 Pole at origin
For the pole (jω)-1 at the origin, the magnitude is -20 log10 ω and the phase is -90◦.
These are plotted in Fig. 3, where we notice that the magnitude is represented by a
straight line with slope of -20 dB/decade and intersect the 0dB line at ω=1 and
extended to intersect the vertical axis. But the phase is represented by straight line
parallel to horizontal axis with constant value at -90°.
‫ ونمده‬1 = ω ‫ ديسبل لكل ديكيد ويمر بخط الصفر ديسيبل عند‬-20 ‫القيمة تمثل بخط مستقيم ميله‬
ω ‫ درجة وتمثل بخط مستقيم موازى لمحور‬-90 ‫أما الزاوية فقيمتھا ثابتة عند‬
In general, for multiple poles at origin (jω)-N, where N is an integer, the magnitude
plot will have a slope of - (20×N) dB/decade. But the phase is - (90×N) degrees.

172 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 3, Magnitude and phase plots of pole at origin

2.4 Real Zero

The magnitude of a real zero k1 + l is obtained from 20 JKI y1 + x y, and the phase
w! w!
x

is obtained from %H k l. We notice that:

!
x

- For small values of ω, the magnitude is 20 JKI y1 + y ≅ 20 log 1 = 0

w!
x

- For large values of ω, the magnitude is 20 JKI y1 + y ≅ 20 log y y

w! !
x x

From the above two points, we can approximate the magnitude of real zero by two
straight lines ( at ω → 0 : a straight line with zero slope with zero magnitude) and (at
ω → ∞ : a straight line with slope 20 dB/decade). At the frequency ω = z1 where the
two asymptotic lines meet is called the corner frequency. Thus the approximate
magnitude plot is shown in Fig. 4. The actual plot for real zero is also shown in that
figure. Notice that the approximate plot is close to the actual plot except at the corner
frequency, where ω = z1 and the deviation is 20 JKI|1 + \1| ≅ 20 log √2 = 3 {|.
‫ والنمده‬z1 = ω ‫ ديسبل لكل ديكيد ويمر بخط الصفر ديسيبل عند‬+20 ‫القيمة تمثل بخط مستقيم ميله‬
‫ ونصل بينھما بخط مستقيم‬90 = ‫( الزاوية‬10Z1) ‫ ثم ديكيد بعد‬،‫( الزاوية = صفر‬z1/10) ‫ ديكيد قبل‬:‫الزاوية‬
‫ درجة لكل ديكيد‬45 ‫ليكون ميل الخط‬

Fig. 4, Magnitude and phase plots of real zero

173 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

The phase angle of real zero that given as %H k l is represented as a straight-line
!
x

approximation, φ = 0 for ω ≤ z1/10, φ = 45◦for ω = z1, and φ = 90◦ for ω ≥ 10z1 as

shown in Fig. 4. The straight line has a slope of 45° per decade.

2.5 Real Pole

w!
The magnitude of a real pole k1 + l is obtained from −20 JKI y1 + y, and the
w!
& &

phase is obtained from −%H k l. We notice that:

!
&

- For small values of ω, the magnitude is −20 JKI y1 + y ≅ 20 log 1 = 0

w!
&

- For large values of ω, the magnitude is −20 JKI y1 + y ≅ −20 log y y

w! !
& &

From the above two points, we can approximate the magnitude of real pole by two
straight lines ( at ω → 0 : a straight line is with zero slope and zero magnitude) and (at
ω → ∞ : the straight line is with slope -20 dB/decade). At the frequency ω = p1 where
the two asymptotic lines meet is called the corner frequency. Thus the approximate
magnitude plot is shown in Fig. 5. The actual plot for real pole is also shown in that
figure. Notice that the approximate plot is close to the actual plot except at ω = p1, the
deviation is −20 JKI|1 + \1| ≅ −20 log √2 = −3 {|.
‫ والنمده‬p1 = ω ‫ ديسبل لكل ديكيد ويمر بخط الصفر ديسيبل عند‬-20 ‫القيمة تمثل بخط مستقيم ميله‬

The phase angle of real pole that given as −%H k l is represented as a straight-line
!
&

approximation, φ = 0 for ω ≤ p1/10, φ = -45◦for ω = p1, and φ = -90◦ for ω ≥ 10p1 as

shown in Fig. 5. The straight line has a slope of -45° per decade.
‫ ونصل بينھما بخط مستقيم‬90- = ‫( الزاوية‬10p1) ‫ ثم ديكيد بعد‬،‫( الزاوية = صفر‬p1/10) ‫ ديكيد قبل‬:‫الزاوية‬
‫ درجة لكل ديكيد‬-45 ‫ليكون ميل الخط‬

174 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 5, Magnitude and phase plots of real pole

2.6 Quadratic Zero

The magnitude of a quadratic zero r1 + \2s +k l t is obtained as
! !
!" !"

20 log }1 + \2s + m n } = 0 LKN → 0

20 log ~1 + \2s +k l ~ = 20JKI ~k! l ~ = 40 JKI yk! ly LKN → ∞
! ! ! !
!" !" " "

Thus, the amplitude plot consists of two straight asymptotic lines: one with zero slope
for ω < ωn and the other one with slope −40 dB/decade for ω > ωn, with ωn as the
corner frequency. Figure 6 shows the approximate and actual amplitude plots. Note
that the actual plot depends on the damping ratio ξ2 as well as the corner frequency ωn.
The significant peaking in the neighborhood of the corner frequency should be added
to the straight-line approximation if a high level of accuracy is desired. However, we
will use the straight-line approximation for the sake of simplicity.
The phase plot is a straight line with a slope of 90◦ per decade starting at ωn/10 and
ending at 10ωn, as shown in Fig. 6. We see again that the difference between the
actual plot and the straight-line plot is due to the damping factor.

175 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

Fig. 6, Magnitude and phase plots of quadratic zero

For the quadratic pole r1 + \2s + k l t the plots shown in Fig. 6 are inverted
! !
! ! " "

because the magnitude plot has a slope of -40 dB/decade while the phase plot has a
slope of -90◦ per decade.

176 Dr. AHMED MOSTAFA HUSSEIN

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