Mep 9A

MEP Y9 Practice Book A
1 Base Arithmetic
1.1 Binary Numbers
We normally work with numbers in base 10. In this section we consider numbers
in base 2, often called binary numbers.
In base 10 we use the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
In base 2 we use only the digits 0 and 1.
Binary numbers are at the heart of all computing systems since, in an electrical
circuit, 0 represents no current flowing whereas 1 represents a current flowing.
In base 10 we use a system of place values as shown below:

1000 100 10 1
4 2 1 5 → 4 × 1000 + 2 × 100 + 1 × 10 + 5 × 1
3 1 0 2 → 3 × 1000 + 1 × 100 + 2 × 1
Note that, to obtain the place value for the next digit to the left, we multiply by 10.
If we were to add another digit to the front (left) of the numbers above, that
number would represent 10 000s.
In base 2 we use a system of place values as shown below:
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 → 1 × 64 = 64
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 → 1 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 1 × 1 = 73
Note that the place values begin with 1 and are multiplied by 2 as you move to
the left.
Once you know how the place value system works, you can convert binary
numbers to base 10, and vice versa.
Example 1
Convert the following binary numbers to base 10:
(a) 111 (b) 101 (c) 1100110
Solution
For each number, consider the place value of every digit.
(a) 4 2 1
1 1 1 → 4+2+1=7
The binary number 111 is 7 in base 10.
1
1.1
(b) 4 2 1
1 0 1 → 4+1=5
(c) 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 → 64 + 32 + 4 + 2 = 102
Example 2
Convert the following base 10 numbers into binary numbers:
(a) 3 (b) 11 (c) 140
Solution
We need to write these numbers in terms of the binary place value headings 1, 2, 4,
8, 16, 32, 64, 128, ..., etc.
(a) 2 1
3 = 2 + 1 → 1 1
The base 10 number 3 is written as 11 in base 2.
(b) 8 4 2 1
11 = 8 + 2 + 1 → 1 0 1 1
(c) 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
140 = 128 + 8 + 4 → 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Exercises
1. Convert the following binary numbers to base 10:
(a) 110 (b) 1111 (c) 1001
(d) 1101 (e) 10001 (f) 11011
(g) 1111111 (h) 1110001 (i) 10101010
(j) 11001101 (k) 111000111 (l) 1100110
2
2. Convert the following base 10 numbers to binary numbers:

(a) 9 (b) 8 (c) 14
(d) 17 (e) 18 (f) 30
(g) 47 (h) 52 (i) 67
(j) 84 (k) 200 (l) 500

(a) 5 (b) 9 (c) 17 (d) 33
Describe any pattern that you notice in these binary numbers.
What will be the next base 10 number that will fit this pattern?

(a) 3 (b) 7 (c) 15 (d) 31
What is the next base 10 number that will continue your binary pattern?
5. A particular binary number has 3 digits.

(a) What are the largest and smallest possible binary numbers?
(b) Convert these numbers to base 10.
6. When a particular base 10 number is converted it gives a 4-digit binary

number. What could the original base 10 number be?
7. A 4-digit binary number has 2 zeros and 2 ones.

(a) List all the possible binary numbers with these digits.
(b) Convert these numbers to base 10.
8. A binary number has 8 digits and is to be converted to base 10.

(a) What is the largest possible base 10 answer?
(b) What is the smallest possible base 10 answer?
9. The base 10 number 999 is to be converted to binary. How many more

digits does the binary number have than the number in base 10?
10. Calculate the difference between the base 10 number 11111 and the binary
number 11111, giving your answer in base 10.
3
1.2
1.2 Adding and Subtracting Binary Numbers

It is possible to add and subtract binary numbers in a similar way to base 10
numbers. For example, 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 in base 10 becomes 1 + 1 + 1 = 11 in binary.
In the same way, 3 − 1 = 2 in base 10 becomes 11 − 1 = 10 in binary. When you
add and subtract binary numbers you will need to be careful when 'carrying' or
'borrowing' as these will take place more often.
Key Addition Results for Binary Numbers

1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 10
1 + 1 + 1 = 11
Key Subtraction Results for Binary Numbers

1 − 0 = 1
10 − 1 = 1
11 − 1 = 10
Example 1
Calculate, using binary numbers:
(a) 111 + 100 (b) 101 + 110 (c) 1111 + 111
Solution
(a) 111 (b) 101 (c) 1111
+100 +110 + 111
1011 1011 10110
1 1 1 1 1
Note how important it is to 'carry' correctly.
Example 2
Calculate the binary numbers:
(a) 111 − 101 (b) 110 − 11 (c) 1100 − 101
Solution
(a) 111 (b) 110 (c) 1100
−101 − 11 − 101
10 11 111
4
Exercises
1. Calculate the binary numbers:
(a) 11 + 1 (b) 11 + 11 (c) 111 + 11
(d) 111 + 10 (e) 1110 + 111 (f) 1100 + 110
(g) 1111 + 10101 (h) 1100 + 11001 (i) 1011 + 1101
(j) 1110 + 10111 (k) 1110 + 1111 (l) 11111 + 11101

(a) 11 − 10 (b) 110 − 10 (c) 1111 − 110
(d) 100 − 10 (e) 100 − 11 (f) 1000 − 11
(g) 1101 − 110 (h) 11011 − 110 (i) 1111 − 111
(j) 110101 − 1010 (k) 11011 − 111 (l) 11110 − 111

(a) 11 + 11 (b) 111 + 111
(c) 1111 + 1111 (d) 11111 + 11111
Describe any patterns that you observe in your answers.

(a) 10 + 10 (b) 100 + 100
(c) 1000 + 1000 (d) 10000 + 10000
5. Solve the following equations, where all numbers, including x, are binary:
(a) x + 11 = 1101 (b) x − 10 = 101
(c) x − 1101 = 11011 (d) x + 1110 = 10001
(e) x + 111 = 11110 (f) x − 1001 = 11101

(a) 10 − 1 (b) 100 − 1
(c) 1000 − 1 (d) 10000 − 1
5
1.2
7. (a) Convert the binary numbers 11101 and 1110 to base 10.
(b) Add together the two base 10 numbers.
(c) Add together the two binary numbers.
(d) Convert your answer to base 10 and compare with your answer to (b).
8. (a) Convert the binary numbers 11101 and 10111 to base 10.
(b) Calculate the difference between the two base 10 numbers.
(c) Convert your answer to (b) into a binary number.
(d) Calculate the difference between the two binary numbers and
compare with your answer to (c).
9. Here are 3 binary numbers:

1110101 1011110 1010011
Working in binary,
(a) add together the two smaller numbers,
(b) add together the two larger numbers,
(c) take the smallest number away from the largest number,
(d) add together all three numbers.

(a) 111 + 101 + 100
(b) 11101 + 10011 + 110111
1.3 Multiplying Binary Numbers

Long multiplication can be carried out with binary numbers and is explored in
this section. Note that multiplying by numbers like 10, 100 and 1000 is very
similar to working with base 10 numbers.
Example 1
(a) 1011 × 100 (b) 110110 × 1000 (c) 11011 × 10000
Check your answers to (a) and (c) by converting each number to base 10.
Solution
(a) 1011 × 100 = 101100
(b) 110110 × 1000 = 110110000
(c) 11011 × 10000 = 110110000
6
Checking:
(a) 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 → 8 + 2 + 1 = 11
4 2 1
1 0 0 → 4
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 → 32 + 8 + 4 = 44
and 11 × 4 = 44 , as expected.
(c) 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 1 → 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 27
16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 → 16
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 → 256 + 128 + 32 + 16 = 432
and 27 × 16 = 432 , as expected.
Note: clearly it is more efficient to keep the numbers in binary when doing the
calculations.
Example 2

(a) 1011 × 11 (b) 1110 × 101
(c) 11011 × 111 (d) 11011 × 1001
Solution
(a) 10 1 1 (b) 1110
× 11 × 101
10 1 1 1110
1 01 1 0 111000
1 0 00 0 1 1000110
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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1.3
(c) 1 10 1 1 (d) 11011

× 111 × 1001
1 10 1 1 11011
1 1 01 1 0 11011000
1 1 0 11 0 0 11110011
1 0 1 1 11 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Exercises
(a) 111 × 10 (b) 1100 × 100
(c) 101 × 1000 (d) 11101 × 1000
(e) 11000 × 10 (f) 10100 × 1000
(g) 10100 ÷ 10 (h) 1100 ÷ 100
Check your answers by converting to base 10 numbers.

(a) 111 × 11 (b) 1101 × 11
(c) 1101 × 101 (d) 1111 × 110
(e) 11011 × 1011 (f) 11010 × 1011
(g) 10101 × 101 (h) 10101 × 111
(i) 10101 × 110 (j) 100111 × 1101
3. Solve the following equations, where all numbers, including x, are binary:
x x
(a) = 110 (b) = 101
11 101
x x
(c) = 111 (d) = 1011
10 111
4. Multiply each of the following binary numbers by itself:

(a) 11 (b) 111 (c) 1111
What do you notice about your answers to parts (a), (b) and (c)?
What will you get if you multiply 11111 by itself?
8
5. Multiply each of the following binary numbers by itself:

(a) 101 (b) 1001 (c) 10001 (d) 100001
What would you expect to get if you multiplied 1000001 by itself?

(a) 101 (110 + 1101) (b) 1101 (1111 − 110)
(c) 111 (1000 − 101) (d) 1011 (10001 − 1010)
7. Here are 3 binary numbers:

11011 11100 10011
Working in binary,
(a) multiply the two larger numbers,
(b) multiply the two smaller numbers.
8. (a) Multiply the base 10 numbers 45 and 33.

(b) Convert your answer to a binary number.
(c) Convert 45 and 33 to binary numbers.
(d) Multiply the binary numbers obtained in part (c) and compare this
answer with your answer to part (b).
1.4 Other Bases

The ideas that we have considered can be extended to other number bases.
The table lists the digits used in Base Digits Used
some other number bases.
2 0, 1
3 0, 1, 2
4 0, 1, 2, 3
5 0 1, 2, 3, 4
The powers of the base number give the place values when you convert to base 10.
For example, for base 3, the place values are the powers of 3, i.e. 1, 3, 9, 27, 81,
243, etc. This is shown in the following example, which also shows how the base 3
number 12100 is equivalent to the base 10 number 144.
Base 3 81 27 9 3 1
1 2 1 0 0 → (1 × 81) + (2 × 27) + (1 × 9) + (0 × 3)
+ (0 × 1) = 144 in base 10
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1.4 MEP Y9 Practice Book A
The following example shows a conversion from base 5 to base 10 using the powers
of 5 as place values.
Base 5 625 125 25 5 1
4 1 0 0 1 → (4 × 625) + (1 × 125) + (0 × 25) + (0 × 5)
+ (1 × 1) = 2626 in base 10
Example 1
Convert each of the following numbers to base 10:
(a) 412 in base 6.
(b) 374 in base 9.
(c) 1432 in base 5.
Solution
(a) 36 6 1
4 1 2 → (4 × 36) + (1 × 6) + ( 2 × 1) = 152 in base 10
(b) 81 9 1
3 7 4 → (3 × 81) + (7 × 9) + (4 × 1) = 310 in base 10
(c) 125 25 5 1
1 4 3 2 → (1 × 125) + (4 × 25) + (3 × 5) + (2 × 1)
= 242 in base 10
Example 2
Convert each of the following base 10 numbers to the base stated:
(a) 472 to base 4, (b) 179 to base 7, (c) 342 to base 3.
Solution
(a) For base 4 the place values are 256, 64, 16, 4, 1, and you need to express
the number 472 as a linear combination of 256, 64, 16, 4 and 1, but with
no multiplier greater than 3.
We begin by writing
472 = (1 × 256) + 216
The next stage is to write the remaining 216 as a linear combination of 64,
16, 4 and 1.
We use the fact that

216 = (3 × 64) + 24
and, continuing in this way,
10
24 = (1 × 16) + 8
8 = (2 × 4) + 0
Putting all these stages together,
472 = (1 × 256) + (3 × 64) + (1 × 16) + ( 2 × 4) + ( 0 × 1)
= 13120 in base 4
(b) For base 7 the place values are 49, 7, 1.
179 = (3 × 49) + (4 × 7) + (4 × 1)
= 344 in base 7
(b) For base 3 the place values are 243, 81, 27, 9, 3, 1.
342 = (1 × 243) + (1 × 81) + (0 × 27) + (2 × 9) + ( 0 × 3) + (0 × 1)

= 110200 in base 3
Example 3
Carry out each of the following calculations in the base stated:
(a) 14 + 21 base 5
(b) 16 + 32 base 7
(c) 141 + 104 base 5
(d) 212 + 121 base 3
Check your answer in (a) by changing to base 10 numbers.
Solution
(a) 14
+21
40 Note that 4 + 1 = 10 in base 5.
1
(b) 16
+32
1
11
(c) 141
+104
1 1
(d) 212
+121
1110 Note that, in base 3,
1 1 1 2 + 1 = 10
1 + 2 + 1 = 11
2 + 1 + 1 = 11
Checking in (a):
(a) 5 1
1 4 → (1 × 5) + (4 × 1) = 9
5 1
2 1 → (2 × 5) + (1 × 1) = 11
5 1
4 0 → (4 × 5) + (0 × 1) = 20
and 9 + 11 = 20, as expected.
Example 4
Carry out each of the following multiplications in the base stated:
(a) 141 × 23 in base 5
(b) 122 × 12 in base 3
(c) 512 × 24 in base 6

Check your answer to (b) by converting to base 10 numbers.
Solution
(a) 1 4 1 Note that, in base 5,
× 2 3 3 × 4 = 22
1 0 2 3 2 × 4 = 13
3 3 2 0
4 3 4 3
12
(b) 1 2 2 Note that, in base 3,

× 1 2 2 × 2 = 11
1 0 2 1
1 2 2 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1
(c) 5 1 2 Note that, in base 6,

× 2 4 2 × 4 = 12
3 2 5 2 4 × 5 = 32
1 4 2 4 0 2 × 5 = 14
2 1 5 3 2
1 1
Checking in (b):
(b) 9 3 1
1 2 2 → (1 × 9) + (2 × 3) + (2 × 1) = 17
3 1
1 2 → (1 × 3) + (2 × 1) = 5
81 27 9 3 1
1 0 0 1 1 → (1 × 81) + (0 × 27) + (0 × 9) + (3 × 1) + (1 × 1)
= 85
and 17 × 5 = 85, as expected.
Exercises
1. Convert the following numbers from the base stated to base 10:
(a) 412 base 5 (b) 333 base 4
(c) 728 base 9 (d) 1210 base 3
(e) 1471 base 8 (f) 612 base 7
(g) 351 base 6 (h) 111 base 3
13
1.4
2. Convert the following numbers from base 10 to the base stated:

(a) 24 to base 3 (b) 16 to base 4
(c) 321 to base 5 (d) 113 to base 6
(e) 314 to base 7 (f) 84 to base 9
(g) 142 to base 3 (h) 617 to base 5
3. Carry out the following additions in the base stated:
(a) 3 + 2 in base 4 (b) 5 + 8 in base 9

(c) 4 + 6 in base 8 (d) 2 + 2 in base 3
(e) 6 + 7 in base 9 (f) 3 + 4 in base 6
4. In what number bases could each of the following numbers be written:

(a) 123 (b) 112 (c) 184
5. Carry out each of the following calculations in the base stated:
(a) 13 + 23 in base 4 (b) 120 + 314 in base 5

(c) 222 + 102 in base 3 (d) 310 + 132 in base 4
(e) 624 + 136 in base 7 (f) 211 + 142 in base 5
(g) 333 + 323 in base 4 (h) 141 + 424 in base 5
Check your answers to parts (a), (c) and (e) by converting to base 10
numbers.
6. Carry out each of the following multiplications in the base stated:
(a) 3 × 2 in base 4 (b) 4 × 3 in base 5

(c) 4 × 2 in base 6 (d) 3 × 5 in base 6
(e) 2 × 2 in base 3 (f) 8 × 8 in base 9
7. Carry out each of the following multiplications in the base stated:
(a) 121 × 11 in base 3 (b) 133 × 12 in base 4

(c) 13 × 24 in base 5 (d) 142 × 14 in base 5
(e) 161 × 24 in base 7 (f) 472 × 32 in base 8
(g) 414 × 22 in base 5 (h) 2101 × 21 in base 3
Check your answers to parts (a), (c) and (e) by converting to base 10
numbers.
14
8. In which base was each of the following calculations carried out?

(a) 4 + 2 = 11 (b) 7 + 5 = 13
(c) 8 × 2 = 17 (d) 4 × 5 = 32
(e) 11 − 3 = 5 (f) 22 − 4 = 13
9. (a) Change 147 in base 8 into a base 3 number.

(b) Change 321 in base 4 into a base 7 number.
(c) Change 172 in base 9 into a base 4 number.
(d) Change 324 in base 5 into a base 6 number.
10. In which base was each of the following calculations carried out?
(a) 171 × 12 = 2272 (b) 122 × 21 = 11102
(c) 24 × 32 = 1252 (d) 333 × 33 = 23144
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2 Basic Operations
2.1 Place Value
This section deals with the revision of place value. Remember that we write
decimal numbers in the form:
Thousands Hundreds Tens Units Tenths Hundredths Thousandths
Example 1
Here are some number cards:
1 7 3 5
You can use each card once to make the number 1735, like this:
1 7 3 5
(a) What is the biggest number you can make with the four cards?
(b) Explain why you cannot make an even number with the four cards.
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
Solution
(a) The biggest number, using all four cards, is
7531
(this is because 7 > 5 > 3 > 1).
(b) To make an even number, the last digit must be even, but all four cards in
this example show odd digits.
Note: It is often helpful to refer to a number line when comparing values;

a number line can also show negative values:
– 10 – 9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Remember that the symbol < means 'less than' and > means 'greater than'.
16
Example 2
Put the correct sign, < or = or >, into each sentence.
(a) − 7 ....... − 2
(b) 3 − 2 ....... − 5
(c) 3 − 5 ....... 4 − 6
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
Solution
(a) From the number line shown, − 7 < − 2 .
(b) Since 3 − 2 = 1, the comparison is 1 ... − 5, so that 1 > − 5 (see number
line).
(c) Here we compare – 2 ..... – 2, giving − 2 = − 2 .
Example 3
°C
The arrow on this thermometer shows a temperature of 10 ° C .
40
(a) Draw an arrow on the thermometer to show
a temperature of 24 ° C .
Label the arrow 24 ° C . 30
(b) Draw an arrow on the thermometer to show

a temperature of − 4 ° C .
20
Label the arrow − 4 ° C .
(c) The temperature was − 10 ° C .

It went up 15 ° C . 10 10 ° C
What is the temperature now?
(d) Write these temperatures in order, coldest first. 0

3 ° C, − 10 ° C, 0 ° C, 20 ° C, −1 ° C
– 10
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
17
2.1
Solution
°C
40
30
(a) 24 ° C
20
10 10 ° C
(b) −4 ° C
– 10
(c) − 10 ° C + 15 ° C = 5 ° C
(d) − 10 ° C, − 1 ° C, 0 ° C, 3 ° C, 20 ° C
Exercises
1. (a) Write the numbers:
(i) one hundred and eighty,
(ii) two hundred and twelve,
(iii) one hundred and eight,
(iv) ninety two
(b) Using the numbers in (a), write them in order with the smallest first.
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2. Ali drew a picture to show what there is above and below the sea at Aber.
Hotel
+ 20 m
Bird
Boat
0m
Diver
Fish – 20 m
Anchor
– 40 m
Chest
The anchor is at about − 40 m .
(a) What is at about +10 m ?

(b) What is at about −10 m ?
(c) What is about 30 m higher than the chest?
(KS3/95/Ma/Levels 3-5/P1)
3. Write down each number sentence putting in the one of the signs, < or = or >,
to make it correct.
(a) 8 + 2 ...... 7 + 6
(b) 6 − 3 ...... 1 + 2
(c) 0 ...... − 3
4. Write the following sums of money in pounds, in decimal form.

(a) Seventy two pounds, forty five pence.
(b) One hundred and three pounds, fifty pence.
(c) One hundred and thirty pounds, five pence.
19
2.1
5. Here are some number cards: 5 0 7 1
(a) What is the largest possible number you can make, using all four
cards?
(b) What is the smallest possible number, using all four cards but starting
with a non-zero digit?
(c) What is the smallest possible number you can make, using only
three of the cards and starting with a non-zero digit?
6. (a) Look at this part of a number line:

350 400 450 500
Copy and complete this sentence:

The numbers on this number line go up in steps of ......... .
(b) This is a different number line.

What are the 3 missing numbers?
40 60 ....... ....... .......
(c) This is a different number line.

– 20 ....... ....... ....... 20 30
(d) This is a different number line.

–7 ....... 1 5 9 ....... 17

(e) This is a different number line.

7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 ....... ....... .......

(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
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2.2 Addition and Subtraction

This section deals with the revision of addition and subtraction of both whole
numbers and decimals; we also look again at the use of brackets. You are not
expected to use a calculator in this section.
Example 1
Calculate:
(a) 1142 + 363 (b) 4478 − 227
Solution
(a) 1142 (b) 4478
+ 363 – 227
1505 4251
1
Note that it is important to line up the numbers with the same place value.
Example 2
Calculate:
(a) 14 − (8 + 3) (b) 16 − (12 − 3)
Solution
Remember to carry out the calculations in the brackets first.
(a) 14 − (8 + 3) = 14 − 11 (b) 16 − (12 − 3) = 16 − 9
= 3 = 7
Example 3
Calculate:
(a) 6.27 + 13.4 (b) 17.6 − 8.31
Solution
Remember to line up the decimal points.
0 1 5 1
(a) 6 . 27 (b) 17 . 60
+ 1 3 . 40 – 8 . 31
1 9 . 67 9 . 29
21
2.2
Example 4
Ben has £17.50 when he goes out shopping. He spends £1.23 on sweets and
£12.99 on a CD.
(a) How much does he spend in total?
(b) How much money does he have left?
Solution
(a) 1 . 23
+ 1 2 . 99
1 4 . 22 He spends a total of £14.22.
1 1
4 1
(b) 1 7 . 50
– 1 4 . 22
3 . 28 He has £3.28 left.
Exercises
1. Calculate:
(a) 16 + 47 (b) 32 + 18 (c) 19 + 15
(d) 66 + 82 (e) 37 + 92 (f) 44 + 126
(g) 572 + 116 (h) 362 + 97 (i) 421 + 362
(j) 46 + 712 (k) 381 + 56 (l) 182 + 1141
2. Calculate:
(a) 66 − 4 (b) 78 − 3 (c) 49 − 7
(d) 72 − 21 (e) 47 − 25 (f) 88 − 36
(g) 41 − 22 (h) 83 − 47 (i) 76 − 57
(j) 121 − 92 (k) 742 − 151 (l) 311 − 286
3. Calculate:
(a) 3.6 + 4.2 (b) 5.7 + 1.2 (c) 6.3 + 2.6
(d) 13.2 + 1.2 (e) 3.72 + 4.1 (f) 8.1 + 13.24
(g) 3.6 + 1.724 (h) 8.14 + 19.7 (i) 11.2 + 16.31
22
4. Calculate:
(a) 4.7 − 2.4 (b) 8.6 − 6.5 (c) 3.9 − 1.4
(d) 4.92 − 1.81 (e) 6.91 − 2.3 (f) 4.7 − 2.19
(g) 3.7 − 2.17 (h) 14.2 − 9.08 (i) 5.6 − 4.72
5. Calculate:
(a) 20 − (6 + 2) (b) 14 − (8 − 2)
(c) 18 − (3 + 1) (d) 100 − (37 − 22)
(e) 18 − (11 + 4) (f) 22 − (11 + 1)
(g) 144 − (80 + 12) (h) 66 − (5 + 17)
(i) 100 − (15 − 9) (j) 200 − (101 + 42)
6. Copy the following calculations and fill in the missing numbers:

(a) 962 − ....... = 476 (b) ...... − 128 = 415
(c) 3612 = ...... + 43 (d) 7526 = ...... − 78
7. Write one number at the end of each calculation to make it correct:

(a) 400 + 150 = 500 + ...... (b) 14 + 6 = 4 + ......
(c) 37 − 20 = 27 − ...... (d) 38 + 17 = 28 + ......
(e) 38 − 17 = 28 − ...... (f) 54 − 26 = 14 + ......
8. There are 32 pupils in class 7DC, 28 pupils in class 7BD and 29 pupils in
class 7PD.
How many pupils are there altogether in these 3 classes?
9. There are 74 people on a bus. At one stop 22 people get off. How many
people are left on the bus?
10. Ben spends £4.27 in one shop and £15.99 in another shop.
(a) How much does he spend altogether?
(b) If he started with £25, how much money does he have left?
11. Bella buys a value burger meal that costs £3.28 for herself and a fun meal
that costs £2.25 for her sister.
(a) How much does she spend altogether?
(b) How much change should she get from a £10 note?
23
2.2
12. A triangle has sides of length 18.8 cm, 14 cm and 12.75 cm. Calculate the
perimeter of the triangle.
13. Look at these number cards:
+3 0 –5 +9
+2 –8 +7 –2
(a) Choose a card to give the answer 4.
+2 + –5 + = 4
(b) Choose a card to give the lowest possible answer.

Write out the calculation and work out the answer.
–2 + = .....
(c) Choose a card to give the lowest possible answer.

–2 – = .....
(d) Now choose a card to give the highest possible answer.

–2 – = .....
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
24
2.3 Multiplication and Division

In this section we review multiplication and division. Again, you are not expected
to use a calculator.
Example 1
Calculate:
(a) 41 × 10 (b) 4.712 × 100
(c) 62 ÷ 100 (d) 23.7 ÷ 10
Solution
(a) 41 × 10 = 410 (b) 4.712 × 100 = 471.2
(c) 62 ÷ 100 = 0.62 (d) 23.7 ÷ 10 = 2.37
Example 2
Calculate:
(a) 12 × 24 (b) 37 × 15
Solution
(a) 12 (b) 37
× 24 × 15
48 185
240 370
288 555
1
Note: With all these examples, there are many ways of obtaining the correct
answer; for example, in (a) above:
12 × 24 = (10 + 2) × 24
= (10 × 24) + (2 × 24)

= 240 + 48
= 288
However, we have used the written algorithm for long multiplication as it

will always work, whereas short-cut methods do not necessarily generalise.
25
Example 3
Calculate:
(a) 4.7 × 5 (b) 6.4 × 2.3
Solution
(a) Since
47
× 5
235
2 3
then
47 × 5 235
4.7 × 5 = = = 23.5
10 10
(b) Since
64
× 23
192
12 8 0
14 7 2
1
then
64 23 64 × 23 1472
6.4 × 2.3 = × = = = 14.72
10 10 100 100
Note: When dividing by 10, the decimal point is moved one place to the left;
when dividing by 100 the decimal point is moved 2 places to the left, and
so on.
Example 4
Calculate:
(a) 124 ÷ 4 (b) 615 ÷ 5
Solution
(a) 3 1 (b) 1 2 3
1 1 1
4 1 2 4 5 6 1 5
26
Again, you can use short-cut methods; for example, in (b) above:
615 ÷ 5 = 615 ÷  
10
 2
= (2 × 615) ÷ 10 (i.e. dividing by 5 is equivalent to

multiplying by 2 and then dividing
by 10)
= 1230 ÷ 10
= 123
However, using the standard method for division will always give the correct answer.
Example 5
A chocolate bar costs 32p. Calculate the cost of 7 chocolate bars.
Solution
32
× 7
224 The cost is 224p or £2.24.
2 1
Exercises
1. Calculate:
(a) 6 × 10 (b) 17 × 100 (c) 8 × 1000
(d) 14 × 10 (e) 321 × 10 (f) 4.2 × 10
(g) 3.6 × 100 (h) 14.7 × 10 (i) 0.461 × 100
2. Calculate:
(a) 4700 ÷ 10 (b) 360 ÷ 10 (c) 421 ÷ 10
(d) 16.8 ÷ 10 (e) 476 ÷ 100 (f) 5600 ÷ 100
(g) 56.2 ÷ 100 (h) 113.6 ÷ 100 (i) 0.652 ÷ 10
3. Calculate:
(a) 15 × 6 (b) 34 × 2 (c) 82 × 7
(d) 37 × 5 (e) 19 × 6 (f) 82 × 4
(g) 16 × 12 (h) 24 × 14 (i) 32 × 24
(j) 66 × 47 (k) 84 × 28 (l) 62 × 29
27
2.3
4. Calculate:
(a) 4.7 × 2 (b) 6.3 × 5 (c) 11.4 × 5
(d) 12.7 × 3 (e) 14.8 × 4 (f) 22.1 × 7
(g) 1.2 × 3.7 (h) 4.2 × 5.9 (i) 1.24 × 1.6
(j) 7.23 × 1.4 (k) 18.2 × 3.2 (l) 27.6 × 4.2
5. Calculate:
(a) 12 ÷ 4 (b) 81 ÷ 9 (c) 42 ÷ 7
(d) 24 ÷ 8 (e) 64 ÷ 8 (f) 45 ÷ 5
(g) 75 ÷ 5 (h) 86 ÷ 2 (i) 98 ÷ 7
(j) 128 ÷ 4 (k) 248 ÷ 4 (l) 497 ÷ 7
(m) 1917 ÷ 9 (n) 411 ÷ 3 (o) 855 ÷ 5
6. Write out each of these calculations, filling in the missing numbers:

(a) 6 × ..... = 120 (b) ..... ÷ 8 = 7
(c) 26 × ..... = 962 (d) ..... ÷ 24 = 16
7. Write one number at the end of each calculation to make it correct:

(a) 6 × 5 = 3 × ..... (b) 40 × 10 = 4 × .....
(c) 5 × 30 = 25 × ..... (d) 7000 ÷ 100 = 700 ÷ .....
(e) 480 ÷ 20 = 2400 ÷ ..... (f) 355 × 12 = 1420 × .....
8. A packet of crisps costs 32p. Calculate the cost of:

(a) 3 packets, (b) 7 packets, (c) 25 packets.
9. A meal at a burger bar costs £2.95. Calculate the cost of:

(a) 2 meals, (b) 3 meals, (c) 5 meals.
10. Joseph counts the number of sweets in a packet and find that there are 22.
How many sweets are there in total in:
(a) 6 packets, (b) 100 packets, (c) 17 packets?
11. Three brothers are given 102 football stickers by their uncle. If they share
them equally, how many stickers will they each have?
28
12. Four children are paid £42.60 for working as gardeners. How much will
they each have if they share the money equally?
13. Stamps are 19p each.

Gwyn wants to buy 9 stamps.
He knows that he will have to pay less than £2.
(a) Write down how you can tell that he will have to pay less than £2
without working out the exact answer.
(b) Gwyn buys 9 stamps at 19p each.

Without using a calculator, work out exactly how much he must pay.
14. Gwen makes kites to sell.

She sells the kites for £4.75 each.
(a) Gwen sells 26 kites.
Without using a calculator, work out how much money she gets for the
26 kites.
(b) Gwen has a box of 250 staples.

She uses 16 staples to make each kite.
Without using a calculator, work out how many complete kites she can
make using the 250 staples.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
15. Here are some buttons on cards.
10 5 2
round buttons star buttons flower buttons
on a card on a card on a card
(a) Marc bought 9 cards of star buttons.

How many buttons did he buy altogether?
(b) Lee bought 8 cards of round buttons and

2 cards of flower buttons.
How many buttons did he buy altogether?
29
2.3
(c) Sally bought exactly 16 buttons.

They were all the same sort of button.
What sort of buttons did Sally buy?
(d) Pat bought exactly 15 buttons.

They were all the same sort of button.
What sort of buttons did Pat buy?
(e) Pinder wants to buy exactly 20 buttons.

They must all be the same sort of button.
Pinder could buy:
2 cards of round buttons.
Write down two other possible answers for Pinder.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
16. Megan wants to plant 24 seeds.

She can plant them in 2 rows, with 12 seeds in each roll.
(a) Draw a diagram to show how she can plant 24 seeds in 3 rows, with
the same number of seeds in each row.
(b) Draw a diagram to show a different way that Megan can plant
24 seeds in a different number of rows, with the same number of seeds
in each row.
(c) Copy and complete the table to show how many rows Megan can
make with 24 seeds, and how many seeds there are in each row.
Number Number of seeds

of rows in each row
1 row 24 seeds in a row
2 rows 12 seeds in a row
...... rows ...... seeds in a row
24 rows 1 seed in a row
30
(d) Megan says:

"I can plant 24 seeds in 5 rows, with the same number of seeds
in each row."
Explain why Megan is wrong.
You can write your answer, or draw a diagram.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
2.4 Problems in Context

Problems in context are dealt with in this section. You will need to decide which
operation is required to solve each problem: you may need to add, subtract,
multiply or divide. However, it is still recommended that you tackle these
problems without a calculator, perhaps using it only to check your answers.
Example 1
It costs £1.25 for a child to go into a swimming pool. How much does it cost for
7 children to go in?
Solution
(a) 1 . 25
× 7
8 . 75 The cost will be £8.75.
1 3
Example 2
There are 242 passengers on a train. At a station, 36 people get off and 27 people
board the train. How many people are now on the train?
Solution
242 − 36 + 27 = 206 + 27
= 233
So 233 people are now on the train.
31
2.4
Example 3
Four children want to buy a computer game that costs £24.80. How much money
must each of them contribute if they share the cost equally between them?
Solution
6 .20
4 24 .80 Each child must pay £6.20.
Exercises
1. A blank tape costs 65p. Calculate the cost of:
(a) 4 tapes, (b) 7 tapes, (c) 9 tapes.
2. Alec spends £14.27 in a shop. He pays with a £20 note. How much change
should he get?
3. The cost of a carpet is £7.99 per square metre. Calculate the cost of:
(a) 4 square metres,
(b) 10 square metres,
(c) 9 square metres.
4. Simon is saving up to buy a tent that costs £72. So far he has saved £54.50.
How much more does he need to save?
5. Two neighbours agree to share equally the cost of a new fence. The fence
costs £142. How much do they each have to pay?
6. A cake weighs 824 grams. It is divided into 4 equal parts. How much does
each part weigh?
7. A car is driven at a speed of 45 mph. How far does it travel in:

(a) 2 hours, (b) 5 hours, (c) 3.5 hours ?
8. Cinema tickets cost £7 each. How many tickets could you buy with £63 ?
32
9. Cans of drink cost 42p each.

(a) How much would 6 cans cost?
(b) Jane's mum pays for 6 cans with a £5 note. How much change should
she have?
10. A school trip is arranged for 43 pupils accompanied by 2 teachers. A

minibus carries 16 passengers. Three minibuses are booked for the trip.
How many empty seats are there in the minibuses?
11. (a) A shop sells plants at 95p each.

Find the cost of 35 plants.
(b) The shop also sells trees at £17 each.
Mr Bailey has £250.
He wants to buy as many trees as possible.
How many trees can Mr Bailey buy?
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
12. (a) Lucy had dinner.

It cost £13.40.
She paid with a £20 note.
How much change should Lucy get?
(b) (i) 14 people had the set meal at the cafe at a cost of £6.40 each.
How much did they pay altogether?
(ii) Another group of people had the set meal.
Altogether they paid £32.
How many people were in the group?
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier3-5/P2)
13. Five people shared a bag of apples.

Each person had the same number of apples.
There were none left
(a) How many apples could have been in the bag?
(b) Write another number of apples which could have been in the bag.
(c) Write another number of apples which could have been in the bag.
33
2.4
The five people shared a box of sweets.

There were more than 100 sweets in the box.
Each person had the same number of sweets.
There were none left.
(d) Anna says: "I think there were 113 sweets in the box."
Explain why Anna must be wrong.
(e) Write two different numbers of sweets which could have been in the
box.
(f) How can anyone tell that your numbers could be divided by 5 just by
looking at how they end?
14. (a) Carl is putting packs of biscuits into a box.

He starts to put in the bottom layer.
The box holds 5 packs across and is 4 packs wide.
How many packs will fit altogether on the bottom layer?
The box holds 6 layers.
How many packs will fit in the box when it is full?
34
(b) Aziz is putting packs of tea into a box.

The box holds 5 packs across and is 6 packs wide.
The box holds 3 layers.
How many packs of tea will fit in the box when it is full?
(c) Copy the words below, filling in the gaps to show one way of filling a
different box with 24 packs in 2 layers.
total: 24 packs
2 layers
........... packs across
........... packs wide

15. (a) A shop sells video tapes for £2.50 each.

What is the cost of 16 video tapes?
(b) The shop sells audio cassettes.

Each cassette costs £1.49.
What is the cost of 4 cassettes?
(c) How many cassettes can you buy with £12?
(d) The shop also sells cassettes in packs of three.

A pack costs £3.99.
How many packs can you buy with £12?
(e) What is the greatest number of cassettes you can buy with £15?
You can buy some packs and some single cassettes.
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
35
2.4
16. Bill, Ravi and Eric are three divers in a competition.

Each type of dive has a dive rating.
Easy dives have a low rating; hard dives have a high rating.
Every dive is marked by five judges who each give a mark out of 10.
How to calculate the score for a dive:
1. Look at all five marks. Remove the highest and the lowest marks.
2. Add together the middle three marks to give a total.
3. Multiply this total by the dive rating.
(a) Bill does a dive with a dive rating of 3.34.

The judges give the marks 7.0 7.5 8 .0 8.0 8.5
What is Bill's score?
(b) Ravi scored 82.68 on his first dive.

The dive had a dive rating of 3.18.
What was the total of the middle three marks given by the judges?
(c) Eric is getting ready to take his final dive.

He needs to score at least 102.69 to win the competition.
Eric decides to do a dive with a dive rating of 3.26.
Explain why Eric has made a poor decision.
Show your working.
(KS3/96Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
17. A class is planning a trip to a funfair.

The pupils have found out the prices at these two funfairs:
Milltown Funfair Seaview Funfair

Entry: £2.20 Entry: £4.50
plus plus
Rides: 60p each Rides: 20p each
The teacher says that there will be time for 8 rides.

(a) How much money do you need to get in to Milldown Funfair and
have 8 rides?
(b) How much money do you need to get in to Seaview Funfair and have
8 rides?
Ben has only £5 to get in and pay for his rides.

(c) How many rides would Ben get at each funfair?
(KS3/94/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
36
3 Indices and Standard Form

3.1 Index Notation
Here we revise the use of index notation. You will already be familiar
with the notation for squares and cubes
a2 = a × a
, and
a3 = a × a × a
this is generalised by defining:
a n = a × a × ... × a
144244 3
n of these
Example 1
Calculate the value of:
(a) 52 (b) 25 (c) 33 (d) 10 4
Solution
(a) 52 = 5×5
= 25
(b) 25 = 2×2×2×2×2
= 32
(c) 33 = 3×3×3
= 27
(d) 10 4 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
= 10 000
Example 2
Copy each of the following statements and fill in the missing number or numbers:
(a) 2 = 2×2×2×2×2×2×2
(b) 9 = 3
(c) 1000 = 10
(d) 53 = × ×
37
3.1
Solution
(a) 27 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
(b) 9 = 3 × 3 = 32
(c) 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 3
(d) 53 = 5 × 5 × 5
Example 3
(a) Determine 2 5 .
(b) Determine 2 3 .
(c) Determine 2 5 ÷ 2 3 .
(d) Express your answer to (c) in index notation.
Solution
(a) 2 5 = 32
(b) 23 = 8
(c) 2 5 ÷ 2 3 = 32 ÷ 8
= 4
(d) 4 = 22
Exercises
1. Calculate:
(a) 23 (b) 10 2 (c) 32
(d) 10 3 (e) 92 (f) 33
(g) 24 (h) 34 (i) 72
2. Copy each of the following statements and fill in the missing numbers:
(a) 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10
(b) 3×3×3×3 = 3
38
(c) 7×7×7×7×7 = 7
(d) 8×8×8×8×8 = 8
(e) 5×5 = 5
(f) 19 × 19 × 19 × 19 = 19
(g) 6×6×6×6×6×6×6 = 6
(h) 11 × 11 × 11 × 11 × 11 × 11 = 11
(a) 8 = 2 (b) 81 = 3
(c) 100 = 10 (d) 81 = 9
(e) 125 = 5 (f) 1 000 000 = 10
(g) 216 = 6 (h) 625 = 5
4. Is 10 2 bigger than 210 ?
5. Is 34 bigger than 4 3 ?
6. Is 52 bigger than 2 5 ?
(a) 49 = 2
(b) 64 = 3
(c) 64 = 6
(d) 64 = 2
(e) 100 000 = 5

(f) 243 = 5
8. Calculate:
(a) 22 + 23 (b) 22 × 23
(c) 32 + 2 2 (d) 32 × 2 2
(e) 2 3 × 10 3 (f) 10 3 + 2 5
39
3.1
9. Calculate:
(a) (3 + 2 ) 4 (b) (3 − 2 ) 4
(c) ( 7 − 4 )3 (d) ( 7 + 4 )3
10. Writing your answers in index form, calculate:
(a) 10 2 × 10 3 (b) 23 × 2 7
(c) 34 ÷ 32 (d) 25 ÷ 22
(e) 10 6 ÷ 10 2 (f) 5 4 ÷ 52
11. (a) Without using a calculator, write down the values of k and m.
64 = 8 2 = 4 k = 2 m
(b) Complete the following:
2 15 = 32 768
2 14 =
(KS3/99Ma/Tier 5-7/P1)
3.2 Laws of Indices

There are three rules that should be used when working with indices:
When m and n are positive integers,
1. am × an = am + n
am
2. a ÷a = a
m n m−n
or n = a m − n ( m ≥ n)
a
3. (a )
m n
= am × n
These three results are logical consequences of the definition of a n , but really
need a formal proof. You can 'verify' them with particular examples as below, but
this is not a proof:
2 7 × 2 3 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 ) × (2 × 2 × 2)
= 2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2
= 2 10 (here m = 7, n = 3 and m + n = 10 )
40
or,
2×2×2×2×2×2×2
27 ÷ 23 =
2×2×2
= 2×2×2×2
= 24 (again m = 7, n = 3 and m − n = 4 )
Also, (2 )7 3
= 27× 27× 27
= 2 21 (using rule 1) (again m = 7, n = 3 and m × n = 21)
The proof of the first rule is given below:
Proof
am× an = a × a × ... × a × a × a × ... × a

144244 3 144244 3
m of these n of these
= a × a × ... × a × a × a ... × a
1444442444443
(m + n) of these
= am+n
The second and third rules can be shown to be true for all positive integers m and
n in a similar way.
We can see an important result using rule 2:
xn
n
= xn − n = x0
x
xn
but = 1, so
xn
x0 = 1
This is true for any non-zero value of x, so, for example, 30 = 1, 270 = 1 and
10010 = 1 .
41
3.2
Example 1
Fill in the missing numbers in each of the following expressions:
(a) 24× 26= 2 (b) 37× 39 = 3
(c) 36 ÷ 32 = 3 (d) (10 )

4 3
= 10
Solution
(a) 24× 26 = 24+6 (b) 37× 39 = 37 + 9
= 2 10 = 3 16
(c) 36 ÷ 32 = 36 − 2 (d) (10 )

4 3
= 10 4 × 3
= 34 = 10 12
Example 2
Simplify each of the following expressions so that it is in the form a n , where n
is a number:
a4× a2
(c) ( a 4 )
3
(a) a × a
6 7
(b) 3
a
Solution
(a) a6× a7 = a6+7
= a 13
a4× a2 a4+2
(b) =
a3 a3
a6
=
a3
= a6−3
= a3
(c) (a )
4 3
= a4×3
= a 12
42
Exercises
(a) 23 × 2 7 = 2 (b) 36 × 35= 3
(c) 37÷ 34 = 3 (d) 83× 84 = 8
(e) (3 ) 2 5
=3 (f) (2 )
3 6
=2
36 47
(g) =3 (h) =4
32 42
(a) a3× a2= a (b) b7÷ b2= b
(c) (b ) 2 5
=b (d) b6× b4= b
q 16
(e) (z 3 ) = z9
(f)
q7
=q
3. Explain why 9 4 = 3 8 .
4. Calculate:
(a) 30 + 40 (b) 60× 70
(c) 80 − 30 (d) 60+ 20− 40
(a) 36 × 3 = 3 17 (b) 46× 4 = 4 11
a6
(z )
6
(c) = a4 (d) = z 18
a
(e) (a ) 19
= a 95 (f) p 16 ÷ p = p7
(p )
8
(g) = p 40 (h) q 13 ÷ q =q
43
3.2
6. Calculate:
23 34
(a) 2
+ 30 (b) 3
− 30
2 3
54 62 77 59
(c) + (d) −
52 6 75 57
10 8 5 6 4 17 4 13
(e) − (f) −
10 5 5 3 4 14 4 11
7. Fill in the missing numbers in each of the following expressions:
(a) 82= 2 (b) 81 3 = 9 =3
(c) 25 6 = 5 (d) 47= 2
(e) 125 4 = 5 (f) 1000 6 = 10
(g) 81 = 4
(h) 256 = 4
= 8
8. Fill in the missing numbers in each of the following expressions:
(a) 8×4 = 2 ×2 (b) 25 × 625 = 5 ×5
= 2 = 5
243 3 128 2
(c) = (d) =
9 3 16 2
= 3 = 2
9. Is each of the following statements true or false?
(a) 32 × 22 = 64 (b) 5 4 × 2 3 = 10 7
68 10 8
(c) = 38 (d) = 22
28 56
44
10. Copy and complete each expression:

36 5
(a) (2 6
× 2 3) 4 = (2 )4 = 2 (b)  2 =
3 
(3 )5 = 3
23× 24  3 2 × 9
4 4
(c)   = (2 ) 4
= 2 (d)   = (3 )4 = 3
 27   33 
62 × 68  78 
4 5
(e)   = (6 )4 = 6 (f)  2  = (7 )5 =7
 63  7 × 73
3.3 Negative Indices

Using negative indices produces fractions. In this section we practice working
with negative indices. From our work in the last section, we see that
a2÷ a3 = a2−3 = a −1
but we know that
a×a 1
a2÷ a3 = = , a fraction.
a×a×a a
So clearly,
1
a −1 =
a
In same way,
1
a −2 =
a2
1
=
a×a
1
a −3 =
a3
1
=
a×a×a
45
and, in general,
1
a −n =
an
for positive integer values of n. The three rules at the start of section 3.2 can now
be used for any integers m and n, not just for positive values.
Example 1
Calculate, leaving your answers as fractions:
(a) 3 −2 (b) 2 −1 − 4 −1 (c) 5 −3
Solution
1
(a) 3 −2 =
32
1
=
9
1 1
(b) 2 −1 − 4 −1 = −
2 4
1
=
4
1
(c) 5 −3 =
53
1
=
125
Example 2
Simplify:
67
(a)
69
(b) 6 4 × 6 −3 (c) (10 ) 2 −3
Solution
67
(a) 9
= 67−9
6
1 1
= 6 −2 = 2
=
6 36
(b) 6 4 × 6 − 3 = 6 4 + ( − 3)
= 6 4 − 3 = 61 = 6
46
(c) (10 ) 2 −3
= 10 − 6
1
=
10 6
1
=
1000 000
Exercises
1. Write the following numbers as fractions without using any indices:
(a) 4 −1 (b) 2 −3 (c) 10 − 3
(d) 7 −2 (e) 4 −3 (f) 6 −2
2. Copy the following expressions and fill in the missing numbers:
1 1 1 1
(a) = =7 (b) = = 10
49 7 100 10
1 1 1 1
(c) = =9 (d) = =2
81 9 16 2
1 1 1 1
(e) = = 10 (f) = =2
10 000 000 10 1024 2
3. Calculate:
(a) 4 −1 + 3 −1 (b) 6 −1 + 2 −1
(c) 5 − 1 − 10 − 1 (d) 10 − 2 − 10 − 3
(e) 4 − 1 − 10 − 1 (f) 6 −1 + 7 −1
4. Simplify the following expressions giving your answers in the form of a

number to a power:
(a) 4 7 × 4 −6 (b) 5 7 × 5 −3
74
(c)
7 −6
(d) (3 )
2 −4
(e) (6 ) −2 −3
(f) 8 4 × 8 −9
72 89
(g) (h)
7 −2 8 −9
47
5. Copy each of the following expressions and fill in the missing numbers;
1 1
(a) =3 (b) = 10
9 100
1 5
(c) =5 (d) =5
125 54
62 22
(e) =6 (f) =2
63 2 10
6. Simplify the following expressions:
x8 x7
(a) (b)
x3 x9
x4
(c)
x8
(d) (x ) 6 −4
 1
(e)  2
x 
4
(f) (x ) −8 3
7. Copy and complete the following statements:
(a) 0.1 = 10 (b) 0.25 = 2
(c) 0.0001 = 10 (d) 0.2 = 5
(e) 0.001 = 10 (f) 0.02 = 50
x4
(a) = x2 (b) x6× x = x2
x
x7
(c) x9× x = x2 (d) = x −2
x
x3
(e) = x4 (f) (x ) 3
= x−6
x
48

1 1
(a) =2 (b) =5
8 25
1 1
(c) =9 (d) = 10
81 10 000
1
10. If a = b 3 and b = , express a as a power of c, without having any
c2
fractions in your final answer.
3.4 Standard Form

Standard form is a convenient way of writing very large or very small numbers.
It is used on a scientific calculator when a number is too large or too small to be
displayed on the screen.
Before using standard form, we revise multiplying and dividing by powers
of 10.
Example 1
Calculate:
(a) 3 × 10 4 (b) 3.27 × 10 3
(c) 3 ÷ 10 2 (d) 4.32 ÷ 10 4
Solution
(a) 3 × 10 4 = 3 × 10 000
= 30 000
(b) 3.27 × 10 3 = 3.27 × 1000

= 3270
3
(c) 3 ÷ 10 2 =
100
= 0.03
49
3.4
4.32
(d) 4.32 ÷ 10 4 =
10 000
432
=
1000 000
= 0.000432
These examples lead to the approach used for standard form, which is a reversal
of the approach used in Example 1.
In standard form, numbers are written as
a × 10 n
where 1 ≤ a < 10 and n is an integer.
Example 2
Write the following numbers in standard form:
(a) 5720 (b) 7.4
(c) 473 000 (d) 6 000 000
(e) 0.09 (f) 0.000621
Solution
(a) 5720 = 5.72 × 1000
= 5.72 × 10 3
(b) 7.4 = 7.4 × 1
= 7.4 × 10 0
(c) 473 000 = 4.73 × 100 000
= 4.73 × 10 5
(d) 6 000 000 = 6 × 1000 000
= 6 × 10 6
9
(e) 0.09 =
100
= 9 ÷ 10 2
= 9 × 10 − 2
50
6.21
(f) 0.000621 =
10 000
6.21
= 4
10
= 6.21 × 10 − 4
Example 3
Calculate:
(a) (3 × 10 ) × (4 × 10 )
6 3
(b) (6 × 10 ) ÷ (5 × 10 )
7 −2
(c) (3 × 10 ) + (2 × 10 )
4 5
Solution
(a) (3 × 10 ) × (4 × 10 )
6 3
= (3 × 4) × (10 6 × 10 3 )
= 12 × 10 9
= 1.2 × 10 1 × 10 9
= 1.2 × 10 10
(b) (6 × 10 ) ÷ (5 × 10 )
7 −2
= (6 ÷ 5) × (10 7 ÷ 10 − 2 )
= 1.2 × 10 9
(c) (3 × 10 ) + (2 × 10 )
4 5
= 30 000 + 200 000
= 230 000
= 2.3 × 10 5
Note on Using Calculators

Your calculator will have a key EE or EXP for entering numbers in standard
form.
For example, for 3.2 × 10 7 , press
3 . 2 EXP 7
51
3.4
which will appear on your display like this:
07
3.2
Some calculators also display the ' × 10 ' part of the number, but not all do. You
need to find out what your calculator displays. Remember, you must always write
the ' × 10 ' part when you are asked to give an answer in standard form.
Exercises
1. Calculate:
(a) 6.21 × 1000 (b) 8 × 10 3 (c) 4.2 × 10 2
(d) 3 ÷ 1000 (e) 6 ÷ 10 2 (f) 3.2 ÷ 10 3
(g) 6 × 10 − 3 (h) 9.2 × 10 − 1 (i) 3.6 × 10 − 2
2. Write each of the following numbers in standard form:

(a) 200 (b) 8000
(c) 9 000 000 (d) 62 000
(e) 840 000 (f) 12 000 000 000
(g) 61 800 000 000 (h) 3 240 000
3. Convert each of the following numbers from standard form to the normal
decimal notation:
(a) 3 × 10 4 (b) 3.6 × 10 4 (c) 8.2 × 10 3
(d) 3.1 × 10 2 (e) 1.6 × 10 4 (f) 1.72 × 10 5
(g) 6.83 × 10 4 (h) 1.25 × 10 6 (i) 9.17 × 10 3
4. Write each of the following numbers in standard form:

(a) 0.0004 (b) 0.008
(c) 0.142 (d) 0.0032
(e) 0.00199 (f) 0.000000062
(g) 0.0000097 (h) 0.00000000000021
52
5. Convert the following numbers from standard form to the normal decimal
format:
(a) 6 × 10 − 2 (b) 7 × 10 − 1 (c) 1.8 × 10 − 3
(d) 4 × 10 − 3 (e) 6.2 × 10 − 3 (f) 9.81 × 10 − 4
(g) 6.67 × 10 − 1 (h) 3.86 × 10 − 5 (i) 9.27 × 10 − 7
6. Without using a calculator, determine:
(a) (4 × 10 ) × (2 × 10 )
4 5
(b) (2 × 10 ) × (3 × 10 )
6 5
(c) (6 × 10 ) × (8 × 10 )
4 −9
(d) (3 × 10 ) × (7 × 10 )
−8 −4
(e) (6.1 × 10 ) × (2 × 10 )
6 −5
(f) (3.2 × 10 ) × (4 × 10 )
−5 −9
7. Without using a calculator, determine:
(a) (9 × 10 ) ÷ (3 × 10 )
7 4
(b) (8 × 10 ) ÷ (2 × 10 )
5 −2
(c) (6 × 10 ) ÷ (2 × 10 )
−2 −3
(d) (6 × 10 ) ÷ (3 × 10 )
4 −6
(e) (4.8 × 10 ) ÷ (1.2 × 10 )

12 3
(f) (3.6 × 10 ) ÷ (9 × 10 )
8 3
8. Without a calculator, determine the following, giving your answers in both

normal and standard form::
(a) (6 × 10 ) + (3 × 10 )
5 6
(b) (6 × 10 ) + (9 × 10 )
2 3
(c) 6 × 10 5 − 1 × 10 4 (d) 8 × 10 − 2 + 9 × 10 − 3
(e) 6 × 10 − 4 + 8 × 10 − 3 (f) 6 × 10 − 4 − 3 × 10 − 5
9. Use a calculator to determine:
(a) (3.4 × 10 ) × (2.1 × 10 )

6 4
(b) (6 × 10 ) × (8.2 × 10 )
21 − 11
(c) (3.6 × 10 ) × (4.5 × 10 )

5 7
(d) (8.2 × 10 ) ÷ (4 × 10 )
11 −8
(e) (1.92 × 10 ) × (3.2 × 10 )

6 − 11
(f) (6.2 × 10 ) 14 3
53
3.4
10. The radius of the earth is 6.4 × 10 6 m. Giving your answers in standard
form, correct to 3 significant figures, calculate the circumference of the
earth in:
(a) m (b) cm (c) mm (d) km
11. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was a mathematician, physicist and

astronomer.
In his work on the gravitational force between two bodies he found that he
needed to multiply their masses together.
(a) Work out the value of the mass of the Earth multiplied by the mass of
the Moon. Give your answer in standard form.
Mass of Earth = 5.98 × 10 24 kg
Mass of Moon = 7.35 × 10 22 kg
Newton also found that he needed to work out the square of the distance
between the two bodies.
(b) Work out the square of the distance between the Earth and the Moon.
Give your answer in standard form.
Distance between Earth and Moon = 3.89 × 10 5 km
Newton's formula to calculate the gravitational force (F) between two

Gm1 m 2
bodies is F = where
R2
G is the gravitational constant, m 1 and m 2 are the masses of the
two bodies, and R is the distance between them.
(c) Work out the gravitational force (F) between the Sun and the Earth
Gm1 m 2
using the formula F = with information in the box below.
R2
Give your answer in standard form.
m 1 m 2 = 1.19 × 10 55 kg 2
R 2 = 2.25 × 10 16 km 2
G = 6.67 × 10 − 20
54
12. (a) Which of these statements is true?
(i) 4 × 10 3 is a larger number than 4 3 .
(ii) 4 × 10 3 is the same size as 4 3 .
(iii) 4 × 10 3 is a smaller number than 4 3 .

Explain your answer.
(b) One of the numbers below has the same value as 3.6 × 10 4 . Write
down the number.
36 3 36 4 (3.6 × 10) 4 0.36 × 10 3 0.36 × 10 5
(c) One of the numbers below has the same value as 2.5 × 10 − 3 . Write
down the number.
25 × 10 − 4 2.5 × 10 3 − 2.5 × 10 3 0.00025 2500
(d) (2 × 10 ) × (2 × 10 )
2 2
can be written more simply as 4 × 10 4 .
Write the following values as simply as possible:
(i) (3 × 10 ) × (2 × 10 )
2 −2
6 × 10 8
(ii)
2 × 10 4
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
3.5 Fractional Indices

Indices that are fractions are used to represent square roots, cube roots and other
roots of numbers.
1 1
a 2
= a for example, 9 2
= 3
1 1
a3 = 3
a for example, 83 = 2
1 1
a4 = 4
a for example, 625 4 = 5
1
a n
= n
a
55
3.5
Example 1
Calculate:
1 1 1
−
(a) 81 2 (b) 1000 3 (c) 4 2
Solution
1
(a) 81 2 = 81
= 9
1
(b) 1000 3
= 3
1000
= 10
1
− 1
(c) 4 2
= 1
2
4
1
=
4
1
=
2
Exercises
1. Calculate:
1 1 1
2 2 2
(a) 49 (b) 64 (c) 16
1 1 1
− − −
2 2 2
(d) 81 (e) 100 (f) 25
1 1 1
−
(g) 92 (h) 36 2
(i) 144 2
2. Calculate:
1 1 1
−
3 3 3
(a) 8 (b) 8 (c) 125
1 1 1
− −
3 3 3
(d) 64 (e) 216 (f) 1000 000
3. Calculate:
1 1 1
−
5 2 4
(a) 32 (b) 64 (c) 10 000
1 1 1
− −
4 5
(d) 81 (e) 625 4 (f) 100 000
56
4. Calculate:
1 1
(a)  4 × 8 2
(b)  9 × 27  4
 2   3 
1 1
(c)  125 × 5  2
(d)  625  −
3
 25   5 
5. Is each of the following statements true or false:

1 1
(a) 16 2 = 8 (b) 16 4 = 2
1 1
(c) 81 = 9 3
(d)  1  −
2
= 10
 100 
6. Simplify:
1 1
(x 9 ) 3 (a 10 )
−
2
(a) (b)
1
2
a a
(c) 1
(d)
2
a
a
7. Simplify:
3
x2 x
(a) (b) 3
x
x2
1 1
3 3
a a
(c) (d) 1
a 2
a
8. Calculate:
−
1 1
 0 1
 1
(a) 4 2
+42 (b)  9 + 9 2

2
 
 1
 1 1
(c) 

256 2


2
(d) (9 − 9 0 ) 3
57
4 Fractions and Percentages

4.1 Equivalent Fractions
Equivalent fractions are revisited in this section.
Example 1
Write down in 2 different ways, the fraction
of this large square which been shaded.
Solution
3
, as 3 of the 9 squares are shaded.
9
1
, as the shape could have been drawn like this:
3
Example 2
Complete each of the following expressions:
3 2
(a) = (b) =
4 12 3 15
5 4
(c) = (d) =
6 18 12 3
Solution
3 3×3 9 2 2 × 5 10
(a) = = (b) = =
4 4 × 3 12 3 3 × 5 15
5 5 × 3 15 4 4÷4 1
(c) = = (d) = =
6 6 × 3 18 12 12 ÷ 4 3
58
Example 3
Write each of the following fractions in their simplest form:
8 5 12
(a) (b) (c)
18 40 32
Solution
8 4
(a) = (dividing top and bottom by 2)
18 9
5 1
(b) = (dividing top and bottom by 5)
40 8
12 3
(c) = (dividing top and bottom by 4)
32 8
Exercises
1. Write, in two different ways the fraction of each shape which has been
shaded:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
2. Fill in the missing number in each of the following statements:

3 3
(a) = (b) =
5 20 4 12
4 5
(c) = (d) =
7 35 9 18
59
4.1
3 3
(e) = (f) =
7 28 8 40
4 2
(g) = (h) =
5 30 9 36
9 4
(i) = (j) =
10 60 7 28
7 5
(k) = (l) =
11 66 8 64
3. Fill in the missing numbers in the following statements:
10 11
(a) = (b) =
15 3 44 4
20 10
(c) = (d) =
60 3 16 8
30 10
(e) = (f) =
36 6 50 5
4 18
(g) = (h) =
28 7 24 4
14 24
(i) = (j) =
100 50 56 7
4. Write each of the following fractions in its simplest form:

4 6 20 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 9 25 18
20 20 16 32
(e) (f) (g) (h)
100 50 40 40
21 16 15 28
(i) (j) (k) (l)
28 24 21 35
5. Write each of the following fractions in two different ways:

2 3 5
(a) (b) (c)
7 8 9
60
6. Is each of the following statements true or false:

4 16 3 12
(a) = (b) =
7 21 8 32
4 16 5 25
(c) = (d) =
5 20 9 45
7. (a) Fill in the missing number in each of the following statements:
4 5
= =
5 40 8 40
4 5
(b) Which of the fractions and is the larger?
5 8
8. (a) Fill in the missing number in each of the following statements:
5 2
= =
7 21 3 21
5 2
(b) Which of the fractions and is the smaller?
7 3
9. Which of these fractions is the largest?

1 3 4
2 5 7
10. Write the following fractions in order of size, with the smallest first:
1 1 2 1 5
5 4 9 2 9
61
4.2 Fractions of Quantities

3
In this section we review how to find fractions of quantities; for example, of 60.
4
Example 1
Calculate:
1 1
(a) of £60, (b) of £40.
3 5
Solution
(a) 60 ÷ 3 = 20
1
So of £60 = £20 .
3
(b) 40 ÷ 5 = 8
1
So of £40 = £8 .
5
Example 2
Calculate:
3 5
(a) of 700, (b) of 21.
4 7
Solution
(a) 700 ÷ 4 = 175
175 × 3 = 525
3
So of 700 = 525.
4
(b) 21 ÷ 7 = 3
5×3 = 15
5
So of 21 = 15.
7
62
Exercises
1. Calculate:
1 1 1
(a) of 10 (b) of 12 (c) of 20
5 3 4
1 1 1
(d) of 28 (e) of 24 (f) of 30
7 6 5
1 1 1
(g) of 18 (h) of 24 (i) of 32
9 3 8
2. Calculate:
3 2 3
(a) of 20 (b) of 15 (c) of 24
4 5 8
2 3 3
(d) of 24 (e) of 28 (f) of 40
3 7 5
5 4 5
(g) of 32 (h) of 30 (i) of 36
8 5 9
1
3. In a class there are 28 pupils; of these pupils are girls.
2
How many girls are in the class?
1
4. A can holds 330 ml of drink. Javinda drinks of the contents of the can.
3
(a) How much has Javinda drunk?
(b) How much drink is left in the can?
3
5. There are 320 sweets in a large tin. Laura eats of the sweets.
8
(a) How many sweets does she eat?
(b) How many sweets are left?
3
6. A car journey is 120 miles. Richard has driven of this distance.
5
(a) How far has Richard driven?
(b) How much further does he have to drive to complete the journey?
63
4.2
3
7. There are 300 passengers on a train. At a station, of the passengers get off.
5
(a) How many people get off the train?
(b) How many passengers are left on the train?
2 1
8. Alison has £30. She decides to save of this and to spend on books.
5 6
(a) How much money does she save?
(b) How much does she spend on books?
(c) How much does she have left?
3
9. A farmer owns 360 hectares of land. He plants potatoes on of his land.
10
How many hectares are planted with potatoes?
1
10. An engineer tests a box of 120 floppy disks. He finds that of the disks are
20
damaged. How many of the disks are damaged?
11. Sue and Ben each have 12 biscuits.

(a) Sue eats a quarter of her biscuits. How many biscuits does Sue eat?
(b) Ben eats 6 of his biscuits. What fraction of his biscuits does Ben eat?
(c) How many biscuits are left altogether?
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
4.3 Operations with Fractions

Here we review how to add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions.
Example 1
Calculate:
3 1 5 2
(a) + (b) −
5 4 7 3
Solution
Before fractions can be added or subtracted, they must each have the same
denominator (known as a common denominator).
3 1 12 5
(a) + = +
5 4 20 20
17
=
20
64
5 2 15 14
(b) − = −
7 3 21 21
1
=
21
Example 2
Calculate:
4 3 5 2
(a) × (b) ×
5 7 8 7
Solution
4 3 4×3
(a) × =
5 7 5×7
12
=
35
1
5 2 5×2 5 2 5×1
(b) × = OR × =
8 7 8×7 4
8 7 4×7
10 5
= =
56 28
5
=
28
Example 3
Calculate:
3 2 5 3
(a) ÷ (b) ÷
5 3 7 4
Solution
3 2 3 3
(a) ÷ = ×
5 3 5 2
9
=
10
5 3 5 4
(b) ÷ = ×
7 4 7 3
20
=
21
65
4.3
Example 4
Calculate:
1 1 1 1
(a) 1 × 1 (b) 1 ÷2
2 4 5 4
Solution
1 1 3 5
(a) 1 ×1 = ×
2 4 2 4
15
=
8
7
= 1
8
1 1 6 9
(b) 1 ÷2 = ÷
5 4 5 4
6 4
= × (You could cancel at this stage to give
5 9
2 4
× , etc.)
24 5 3
=
45
8
=
15
Exercises
1. Calculate:
1 4 3 5 3 1
(a) + (b) + (c) +
7 7 8 8 10 10
1 3 4 2 1 5
(d) + (e) + (f) +
5 5 9 9 6 6
2. Calculate:
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) + (b) + (c) +
2 3 5 4 7 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
(d) + (e) + (f) +
5 4 7 8 6 3
66
3 2 3 2 4 2
(g) + (h) + (i) +
4 3 5 3 7 5
5 2 1 2 4 5
(j) + (k) + (l) +
6 3 8 3 5 6
3. Calculate:
1 1 4 2 1 2
(a) × (b) × (c) ×
2 3 5 3 8 3
5 3 4 5 3 1
(d) × (e) × (f) ×
6 4 5 7 8 4
4 1 2 3 5 2
(g) × (h) × (i) ×
5 2 3 4 8 3
3 2 4 3 7 2
(j) × (k) × (l) ×
7 3 8 4 8 3
4. Calculate:
1 1 3 2 4 2
(a) ÷ (b) ÷ (c) ÷
2 3 4 3 5 3
2 2 3 3 5 3
(d) ÷ (e) ÷ (f) ÷
3 5 7 4 8 4
4 2 2 5 3 3
(g) ÷ (h) ÷ (i) ÷
15 3 3 7 7 5
4 2 3 6 7 2
(j) ÷ (k) ÷ (l) ÷
9 3 8 7 9 3
5. Calculate:
1 1 1 1 1 3
(a) 1 ×2 (b) 2 ×1 (c) 2 ×1
2 4 2 3 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
(d) 3 ×1 (e) 2 ×1 (f) 1 ×1
4 3 2 2 5 2
6. Calculate the area and perimeter of the

rectangle shown: 2
m
5
3
m
4
67
4.3
2
7. Julie has a vegetable plot that has an area of of an acre.
3
1
She plants potatoes on of the plot.
4
What fraction of an acre does she plant with potatoes?
8. Which is the larger
3 1 3 1
× or ÷ ?
4 2 4 2
9. Solve these equations:

2 4 3 9
(a) x= (b) x=
3 9 5 4
10. If the area of the rectangle shown

2
1 m
is 1 m 2 , what is the length of the 3
2
rectangle?
11. (a) In a magazine there are three adverts on the same page.
1
Advert 1 uses of the page
4
1
8
1
16
In total, what fraction of the page do the three adverts use? Show your
working.
1
(b) The cost of an advert is £10 for each of a page.
32
3
An advert uses of a page. How much does the advert cost?
16
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
68
12. (a) Alan had this special rectangle.

1
He cut off of the rectangle.
3
1
↓ subtract
3
He had this square left.
↓ add on ?
Alan put back the piece he had cut off.

He said:
1
"I've added on of the square."
3
He was wrong. Explain why.
What fraction of the square did he add on?
(b) Look at shape 1 and shape 2. shape 1
1
↓ subtract
4
of shape 1
shape 2
What fraction of shape 2 is added on
to get back to shape 1?
↓ add on . . . .
of shape 2
shape 1
(c) Look at the numbers on the bottom of the fractions in (a) and (b).
1
Suppose you subtract of a shape.
8
You want to get back to the shape you started with.
What fraction of the new shape would you add on?
1
(d) Suppose you subtract of a shape.
n
You want to get back to the shape you started with.
What fraction of the new shape would you add on?
(KS3/94/Ma/5-7/P1)
69
4.4 Fraction, Decimal and Percentage

Equivalents
In this section we revisit the equivalence of fractions, decimals and percentages; for
1
example, we could write as 0.5 or as 50%.
2
Example 1
Write each of the following percentages as decimals and fractions in their simplest
form:
(a) 75% (b) 32%
Solution
75
(a) 75% =
100
= 0.75 as a decimal
75
75% =
100
3
= as a fraction in its simplest form
4
32
(b) 32% =
100
= 0.32 as a decimal
32
32% =
100
8
25
Example 2
Write each of the following decimals as a percentage and as a fraction in its simplest
form:
(a) 0.72 (b) 0.08
70
Solution
72
(a) 0.72 =
100
= 72% as a percentage
72
0.72 =
100
18
25
8
(b) 0.08 =
100
8
0.08 =
100
2
25
Example 3
Write each of the following fractions as a decimal and as a percentage:
3 4 3
(a) (b) (c)
10 25 8
Solution
3 30
(a) = (multiply top and bottom by 10)
10 100
= 0.3 as a decimal
4 16
= (multiply top and bottom by 4)
25 100
= 0.16 as a decimal
3 37.5
(b) = (multiply top and bottom by 12.5)
8 100
= 0.375 as a decimal
= 37.5% as a percentage
71
4.4
Exercises
1. Write each of the following percentages as a decimal:
(a) 60% (b) 70% (c) 20%
(d) 45% (e) 31% (f) 82%
(g) 14% (h) 4% (i) 63%
(j) 2% (k) 1% (l) 19%
2. Write each of the following percentages as a fraction in its simplest form:

(a) 80% (b) 25% (c) 40%
(d) 35% (e) 65% (f) 4%
(g) 64% (h) 82% (i) 28%
(j) 6% (k) 7% (l) 92%
3. Write each of the following decimals as a percentage:

(a) 0.74 (b) 0.99 (c) 0.5
(d) 0.06 (e) 0.26 (f) 0.02
(g) 0.3 (h) 0.002 (i) 0.042
4. Write each of the following decimals as a fraction in its simplest form:

(a) 0.5 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.4
(d) 0.7 (e) 0.62 (f) 0.44
(g) 0.37 (h) 0.04 (i) 0.05
(j) 0.24 (k) 0.1 (l) 0.74
5. Write each of the following fractions as a decimal:

1 3 4
(a) (b) (c)
2 4 5
9 7 3
(d) (e) (f)
20 10 100
19 23 7
(g) (h) (i)
100 50 25
8 1 5
(j) (k) (l)
25 8 8
72
6. Write each of the following fractions as a percentage:

9 17 14
(a) (b) (c)
10 100 25
3 2 3
(d) (e) (f)
20 5 5
9 9 1
(g) (h) (i)
20 100 100
3 7 7
(j) (k) (l)
50 8 200
7. Copy and complete this

Fraction Decimal Percentage
table of equivalent fractions,
decimals and percentages: 4
5
0.68
85%
0.76
8
25
3%
0.005
8. In a survey, 400 people were asked how they would vote at the next
election. The results are listed below:
Labour 220
Conservative 160
Other 20
Express these results as percentages.
9. In a school there are 50 Manchester City supporters out of a total of 2000

pupils.
(a) What percentage of the pupils support Manchester City?
(b) What percentage of the pupils do not support Manchester City?
73
4.4
10. In a group of 40 pupils there are 7 who cannot swim.

What percentage of the pupils can swim?
11. Simon is growing vegetables in three vegetable patches.

(a) About 50% of this vegetable patch is for carrots.
Cabbages
Carrots
Lettuces
Write down the missing percentages:

(i) about . . . % of the patch is for cabbages,
(ii) about . . . % of the patch is for lettuces.
1
(b) About of this vegetable patch is for beetroot.
8
Beetroot
Broad Beans
Peas
Write down the missing fractions:

(i) about . . . of the patch is for broad beans.
(ii) about . . . of the patch is for peas.
4
(c) About of this vegetable patch is for potatoes.
5
Copy the diagram below and draw a straight line to show how much
of the patch is for potatoes. Shade in the area for potatoes.
The rest of the patch is for turnips.

About what fraction of the patch is for turnips?
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
74
1
12. of the diagram below is shaded.
2
(a) Look at this diagram:
What fraction is shaded?

What percentage is shaded?
2
(b) Copy the diagram below and shade of it.
5
What percentage of the diagram have you shaded?

(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
4.5 Percentage Increases and Decreases

Often prices are increased or decreased by a percentage. In this section we
consider how to increase or decrease quantities by using percentages.
Example 1
Katie earns £40 per week for her part-time job. She is to be given a 5% pay rise.
How much will she earn per week after the pay rise?
75
4.5
Solution
5
5% of £40 = × £40 OR 100% + 5% = 105%
100
= £2 which is 1.05 as a decimal
New pay = £40 + £2 New pay = £40 × 1.05

= £42 = £42
Example 2
The prices of all the televisions in a shop are to be increased by 8%. Calculate
the new price of a television that originally cost £150.
Solution
8
8% of £150 = × £150 OR 100% + 8% = 108%
100
New price = £150 + £12 New price = £150 × 1.08

= £162 = £162
Example 3
In a sale the cost of a computer is reduced by 30%. The normal price of the
computer was £900. Calculate the sale price of the computer.
Solution
30
30% of £900 = × £900 OR 100% − 30% = 70%
100
Sale price = £900 − £270 New price = £900 × 0.7

= £630 = £630
76
Exercises
1. (a) Increase £100 by 20%. (b) Increase £400 by 30%.
(c) Increase £80 by 25%. (d) Increase £50 by 6%.
(e) Increase 40 kg by 3%. (f) Increase 250 m by 7%.
2. (a) Decrease £60 by 30%. (b) Decrease 8 m by 5%.

(c) Decrease 80 kg by 10%. (d) Decrease £44 by 20%.
(e) Decrease 90 m by 2%. (f) Decrease 420 kg by 25%.
3. A company increases the cost of all its products by 5%. Calculate the new
price of each of the items listed below:
(a) a tent that previously cost £60.
(b) a rucksack that previously cost £15,
(c) a sleeping bag that previously cost £24.
4. Joe was paid £30 per week for delivering papers. He was given a 3% pay
rise. How much will he now earn each week?
5. A small firm employs 4 staff. They are all given a 4% pay rise. The
original salaries are as follows:
John Smith £24 000
Alice Holland £22 500
Graham Hall £14 000
Emma Graham £8500
Calculate the new salary for each member of staff.
6. Rachel puts £50 into a bank account. After one year 5% interest is added to
her money. How much does she have then?
1
7. Add 17 % VAT to each of the following prices:
2
(a) £200 (b) £70 (c) £42
8. A rope is 8 m long but it shrinks when it gets wet. What would be the new
length of the rope if its length is reduced by:
(a) 2% (b) 7% (c) 12% ?
77
4.5
9. In a sale the prices of each of the items listed below is to be reduced by

35%.
Coat £28 Jeans £42
Trainers £36 Shirt £14
Calculate the sale price of each item.
10. A mountain bike was priced at £180. Its price was increased by 8%. Later,
this increased price was reduced by 20% in a sale.
Calculate the sale price of the bike.
11. This is how Caryl works out 15% of 120 in her head.
10% of 120 is 12,
5% of 120 is 6,
so 15% of 120 is 18.
(a) Copy and complete the following calculations to show how Caryl can
work out 17 12 % of 240 in her head.
....... % of 240 is .........
....... % of 240 is .........
....... % of 240 is .........
so 17 12 % of 240 is .........
(b) Work out 35% of 250. Show your working.

(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
12. Look at this table:

Birth rate per 1000 population
1961 1994
England 17.6
Wales 17.0 12.2
(a) In England, from 1961 to 1994, the birth rate fell by 26.1%
What was the birth rate in England in 1994 ? Show your working.
(b) In Wales, the birth rate also fell.
Calculate the percentage fall from 1961 to 1994. Show your working.
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 5-7/P2)
78
13. The table shows the land area of each of the World's continents.
Continent Land Area (in 1000 km 2 )

Africa 30 264
Antarctica 13 209
Asia 44 250
Europe 9 907
North America 24 398
Oceania 8 534
South America 17 793
World 148 355
(a) Which continent is approximately 12% of the World's land area?

(b) What percentage of the World's land area is Antarctica? Show your
working.
(c) About 30% of the World's area is land. The rest is water. The amount
of land in the World is about 150 million km 2 .
Work out the approximate total area (land and water) of the World.
Show your working.
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
14. In 1995, the Alpha Company employed 4000 people. For each of the next
2 years, the number of people employed increased by 10%.
1995 employed 4000 people
1996 employed 10% more people
(a) Tony said:

"Each year, the Alpha Company employed another 400 people."
Tony was wrong. Explain why.
(b) Which of the calculations below shows how many people worked for
the company in 1997:
(i) 4000 × 0.1 × 2 (ii) 4000 × 0.1 2 (iii) (4000 × 0.1) 2

(iv) 4000 × 1.1 × 2 (v) 4000 × 1.1 2 (vi) (4000 × 1.1) 2
79
4.5
(c) Look at these figures for the Beta Company:
1995 employed n people
1996 employed 20% fewer people
Write an expression using n to show how many people the company

employed in 1997. Show your working and write your expression as
simply as possible.
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
15. A clothes shop had a closing down sale. The sale started on Tuesday and
finished on Saturday. For each day of the sale, prices were reduced by 15%
of the prices on the day before.
(a) A shirt had a price of £19.95 on Monday. Kevin bought it on
Wednesday. How much did he pay? Show your working.
(b) Ghita bought a dress on Tuesday for £41.48. What was its price on
Monday? Show your working.
(c) A jacket had a price of £49.95 on Monday. What was its price on
Friday? Show your working.
(d) Another shop is reducing its prices each day by 12% of the prices on
the day before. How many days would it take for its original prices to
be reduced by more than 50%? Show your working.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
80
5 Linear Graphs and

Equations
5.1 Coordinates
Firstly, we recap the concept of ( x, y ) coordinates, illustrated in the following
examples.
Example 1
On a set of coordinate axes, plot the points
A (2, 3), B (0, 4), C (– 2, 3), D (– 1, – 2), E (– 3, 0), F (2, – 4)
Solution
The x-axis and the y-axis cross at the origin, (0, 0).
To locate the point A (2, 3), go 2 units horizontally from the origin in the positive
x-direction and then 3 units vertically in the positive y-direction, as shown in the
diagram.
B (0, 4)
4
C (– 2, 3) A (2, 3)
3
1
E (– 3, 0)
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
D (– 1, – 2)
–2
–3
F (2, – 4)
–4
–5
81
5.1
Example 2
Identify the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H shown on the
following grid:
y
C B
2
A
1
D H
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
F
–2
G
–3
E
–4
–5
Solution
A (3, 1), B (0, 2), C (– 2, 2), D (– 3, 0),
E (– 2, – 4), F (0, – 2), G (2, – 3), H (2, 0)
Example 3
Marc has ten square tiles like this: 2 cm
Marc places all the square tiles in a row.

He starts his row like this: y
3
2
1
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
For each square tile he writes down the coordinates of the corner which has a .
82
The coordinates of the first corner are (2, 2).

(a) Write down the coordinates of the next five corners which have a .
(b) Look at the numbers in the coordinates. Describe two things you notice.
(c) Marc thinks that (17, 2) are the coordinates of one of the corners which
have a . Explain why he is wrong.
(d) Sam has some bigger square tiles, like this:
She places them next to each other in a row, 3 cm
like Marc's tiles.
Write down the coordinates of the first two corners which have a .
Solution
(a) (4, 2), (6, 2), (8, 2), (10, 2), (12, 2)
(b) The x-coordinate increases by 2 each time; the y-coordinate remains
constant at 2.
(c) (17, 2) cannot be the coordinates of a corner as 17 is an odd number and the
corners which have a all have even coordinates.
(d) (3, 3), (6, 3)
Exercises
1. Write down the coordinates of the points marked on the following grid:
y
4
E
G
3
D
2
F
B
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
A
–2
–3
C
–4
H
–5
83
5.1
2. On a set of coordinate axes, with x values from – 5 to 5, y values from – 5

to 5, plot the following points:
A (2, 4), B (1, 2), C (– 2, 5), D (– 3, – 3),
E (– 2, – 4), F (0, – 3), G (– 4, 0), H (2, – 3)
What can you say about A, B and E?
3. On a suitable set of coordinate axes, join the points (3, 0), (0, 4) and
(– 3, 0).
What shape have you made?
4. Three corners of a square have coordinates (4, 2), (– 2, 2) and (4, – 4).
Plot these points on a grid, and state the coordinates of the other corner.
5. Three corners of a rectangle have coordinates (4, 1), (– 2, 1) and (– 2, – 3).

Plot these points on a grid and state the coordinates of the other corner.
6. Two adjacent corners of a square have coordinates (– 1, 1) and (2, 1).

(a) What is the length of a side of the square?
(b) What are the possible coordinates of the other two points?
7. Daniel has some parallelogram tiles. He puts them on a grid, in a

continuing pattern. He numbers each tile.
The diagram shows part of the pattern of tiles on the grid.
y
1
6
3
4
2
2
1
x
0 2 4 6 8
Daniel marks the top right corner of each tile with a .
The coordinates of the corner with a on tile number 3 are (6, 6).
(a) What are the coordinates of the corner with a on tile number 4 ?
(b) What are the coordinates of the corner with a on tile number 20 ?
Explain how you worked out your answer.
(c) Daniel says:
"One tile in the pattern has a in the corner at (25, 25)."
Explain why Daniel is wrong.
84
(d) Daniel marks the bottom right corner of each tile with a . Copy and
complete the table to show the coordinates of each corner with a .
Tile Number Coordinates of the Corner with a
1 (2, 1)
(e) Copy and complete the statement:

'Tile number 7 has a in the corner at ( ....... , ....... ).'
(f) Copy and complete the statement:

'Tile number ....... has a in the corner at (20, 19).'
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
8. A robot can move about on a grid. It can move North, South, East or West.
It must move one step at a time.
The robot starts from the point marked on the grid below.
It takes 2 steps. 1st step: West
2nd step: North
It gets to the point marked .
(a) The robot starts again from the point marked .

It takes 2 steps. 1st step: South
2nd step: South
Copy the grid below and mark the point it gets to with a .
1 step
North
1 step
South
1 step
West
1 step
East
85
5.1
(b) The robot always starts from the point marked .

Find all the points the robot can reach in 2 steps.
Mark each point with a on the grid you have drawn.
(c) Another robot always starts from the point marked on this grid.
1 step
North
1 step
South
1 step
West
1 step
East
It takes 3 steps. 1st step: South

2nd step: West
3rd step: West
It gets to the point marked .

The robot starts again from the point marked .
Copy and complete the table to show two more ways for the robot to
get to the point marked in 3 steps.
1st step South West
2nd step West
3 rd step West
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
86
5.2 Straight Line Graphs

We look in this section at how to calculate coordinates and plot straight line graphs.
We also look at the gradient and intercept of a straight line and the equation of a
straight line.
The gradient of a line is a measure of its steepness. The intercept of a line is the
value where the line crosses the y-axis.
Rise
Rise Gradient =
Intercept Step
Step
The equation of a straight line is y = m x + c , where

m = gradient and c = intercept (where the line crosses the y-axis).
Example 1
Draw the graph with equation y = 2 x + 3 .
Solution
First, find the coordinates of some
points on the graph. This can be x –2 –1 0 1 2 3
done by calculating y for a range y –1 1 3 5 7 9
of x values as shown in the table.
y
9
8
7
The points can then be plotted on a set of axes
6 y = 2x + 3
and a straight line drawn through them.
5
4
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
87
5.2
Example 2
Calculate the gradient of each of the following lines:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Solution
(a)
6
Rise = 6 Gradient =
6
=1
Step = 6
(b)
6
Rise = 6 Gradient =
3
= 2
Step = 3
(c)
6
Rise = 6 Gradient =
12
1
=
2
Step = 12
(d)
−6
Rise = − 6 Gradient =
2
= −3
Step = 2
88
Example 3
Determine the equation of each of the following lines:
(a) y (b) y
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x –5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6
Solution
(a)
y
9
6
8 Gradient =
7 6
6 =1
5 Rise = 6
Intecept 4 Intercept = 2
3
2
1
Step = 6 So m = 1 and c = 2.
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 The equation is:
–2
y = mx + c
–3
–4 y = 1x + 2
–5 or
–6
y=x+2
89
(b) y
9
8
8 Gradient =
7
4
6 = 2
Rise = 8
5
4 Intercept = −1
3
2
So m = 2 and c = − 1.
1
Step = 4
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x The equation is:
–1
–2 y = mx + c
–3
Intercept
–4 y = 2 x + ( − 1)
–5 or
–6
y = 2x −1
Exercises
1. (a) Copy and complete the following table for y = 2 x − 2 .
x –2 –1 0 1 3 5
(b) Draw the graph of y = 2 x − 2 .
2. Draw the graphs with the equations given below, using a new set of axes for
each graph.
(a) y=x+3 (b) y=x−4
(c) y = 4x −1 (d) y = 3x + 1
(e) y=4−x (f) y = 8 − 2x
3. Calculate the gradient of each of the following lines, (a) - (g):
(a) (b) (c) (d)
90
(e) (f) (g)
4. Write down the equations of the lines with gradients and intercepts listed
below:
(a) Gradient = 4 and intercept = 2.
(b) Gradient = 2 and intercept = – 5.

1
(c) Gradient = and intercept = 1.
2
(d) Gradient = – 1 and intercept = – 5.
5. Copy and complete the following table, which gives the equation, gradient
and intercept for a number of straight lines.
Equation Gradient Intercept
y = 5x + 7
3 –2
y = −3x + 2
y = −4x − 2
–2 3
1
1
2
y=4−x
y = 10 − 3 x
6. (a) Plot the points A, B and C with coordinates:

A (2, 4)
B (7, 5)
C (0, 10)
and join them to form a triangle.
(b) Calculate the gradient of each side of the triangle.
91
5.2
7. Determine the equation of each of the following lines:

y y
(a) (b)
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 x –1
–2 –2
–3
–3
–4
–4
–5
–5
–6
–6
–7
–7
y y
(c) (d)
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x –5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6
–7 –7
y y
(e) (f)
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x –5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
–6 –6
–7 –7
92
8. (a) On a set of axes, plot the points with coordinates

(– 2, – 2), (2, 0), (4, 1) and (6, 2)
and then draw a straight line through these points.
(b) Determine the equation of the line.
9. (a) On the same axes, draw the lines with equations y = 2 x + 3 and
1
y = 8 − x.
2
(b) Write down the coordinates of the point where the lines cross.
10. The point A has coordinates (4, 2), the point B has coordinates (8, 6) and the
point C has coordinates (5, 9).
(a) Plot these points on a set of axes and draw straight lines through each
point to form a triangle.
(b) Determine the equation of each of the lines you have drawn.
11. Look at this diagram:

y
F A
10
E
B
D C
0 5 10 x
(a) The line through points A and F has the equation y = 11 .

What is the equation of the line through points A and B ?
(b) The line through points A and D has the equation y = x + 3 .

What is the equation of the line through points F and E ?
(c) What is the equation of the line through points B and C ?

(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
93
5.2
12. 50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
4 PINS
32
Total Number 30
3 PINS
of Pins (p) 28
26
24
22
20
18
2 PINS
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Number of Squares (s)
The s give the graph p = 3 s + 1.

The s give the graph p = 2 s + 1.
The s give the graph p = s + 1.
Selma has 16 pins.
(a) Use the correct graph to find the number of squares she can pin up
with 4 pins in each square.
How many squares can she pin up with 3 pins in each square?
(b) The line through the points for p = 3 s + 1 climbs more steeply than
the line through the points for p = 2 s + 1 and p = s + 1.
Which part of the equation p = 3 s + 1 tells you how steep the line is?
(c) On a copy of the grid at the beginning of this question, plot three
points to show the graph for 8 pins in each square.
(d) What is the equation of this graph?
94
5.3 Linear Equations

In this section we consider solving linear equations, using both algebra and
graphs.
Example 1
Solve the following equations:
x
(a) x + 6 = 13 (b) x − 7 = 11 (c) 4 x = 72 (d) = 11
3
Solution
(a) x + 6 = 13
x = 13 − 6 (subtracting 6 from both sides)
x = 7
(b) x − 7 = 11
x = 11 + 7 (adding 7 to both sides)
x = 18
(c) 4 x = 72
72
x = (dividing both sides by 4)
4
x = 18
x
(d) = 11
3
x = 11 × 3 (multiplying both sides by 3)
x = 33
Example 2
x+4
(a) 2 x + 4 = 20 (b) =3 (c) 4 ( x + 4) = 18
6
Solution
(a) 2 x + 4 = 20
2x = 20 − 4 (subtracting 4 from both sides)
2x = 16
16
2
x = 8
95
5.3
x+4
(b) = 3
6
x +4 = 3×6 (multiplying both sides by 6)
x + 4 = 18
x = 18 − 4 (subtracting 4 from both sides)
x = 14
(c) 4 ( x + 4) = 18
4 x + 16 = 18 (removing brackets)
4 x = 18 − 16 (subtracting 16 from both sides)
4x = 2
2
4
1
x =
2
Example 3
(a) 4 x + 2 = 3x + 5 (b) 4 x − 4 = 10 − 3 x
Solution
(a) 4 x + 2 = 3x + 5
x+2 = 5 (subtracting 3 x from both sides)
x = 5−2 (subtracting 2 from both sides)
x = 3
(b) 4 x − 4 = 10 − 3 x
7 x − 4 = 10 (adding 3 x to both sides)
7 x = 10 + 4 (adding 4 to both sides)
7 x = 14
14
7
x = 2
96
Example 4
Use graphs to solve the following equations:
(a) 4x − 7 = 9 (b) x + 7 = 3x − 3
Solution
(a) Draw the lines y = 4 x − 7 and y = 9 .
y
10
9 y=9 The solution is given by the value
8
on the x-axis immediately below
7
6 the point where y = 4 x − 7 and
5 y = 9 cross.
4
3
2
The solution is x = 4 .
1
Solution x = 4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
–2
–3 y = 4x − 7
–4
–5
–6
–7
(b) Draw the lines y = x + 7 and y = 3 x − 3.

y
13
12 y=x +7
The lines cross where x = 5, so
11
10
this is the solution of the equation.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Solution x = 5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
y = 3x − 3
–2
–3
97
5.3
Exercises
1. Solve the following equations:
(a) x + 6 = 14 (b) x−3=8 (c) 7 x = 21
x
(d) = 10 (e) 10 x = 80 (f) 5 x = 35
3
(g) x + 9 = 22 (h) x−4=3 (i) x − 22 = 18
x
(j) = 100 (k) 3 x = 96 (l) x + 22 = 47
5
2. Solve the following equations:

(a) 2 x + 7 = 15 (b) 5 x − 3 = 32 (c) 6 x + 4 = 22
x+4
(d) 11 x − 3 = 19 (e) 5 x + 2 = 37 (f) = 21
3
2x −1
(g) =5 (h) 4 ( x + 2) = 28 (i) 3 (5 x − 6) = 147
3
2 ( x + 6)
(j) 2 (3 x − 7) = 46 (k) =6 (l) 5 (2 x + 3) = 35
3
3. (a) x +1= 2x −1 (b) 2 x + 4 = 3x − 1

(c) 7x − 2 = 5x + 6 (d) 4 x + 7 = 10 x − 11
(e) x + 18 = 9 x − 22 (f) 7 x + 1 = 3 x + 17
(g) 6 ( x + 1) = 14 ( x − 1) (h) 2 (5 x + 3) = 12 x − 3
y
4. The graph y = 2 x − 5 is shown:
Use the graph to solve the equations: 8
y = 2x − 5
7
(a) 2x − 5 =1 6
5
(b) 2x − 5 = 7
4
(c) 2 x − 5 = −3 3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
98
5. Solve the equation 2 x − 3 = 9 by drawing the graphs y = 2 x − 3 and

y = 9.
6. Use a graph to solve the equation 4 x − 5 = 3 .
7. (a) On the same set of axes, draw the lines with equations y = x + 1 and
y = 2 x − 3.
(b) Use the graph to find the solution of the equation
x +1= 2x − 3
8. Use a graph to solve the following equations:

(a) 2x = −x + 3 (b) 4 − 2x = 2x − 8
9. The following graph shows the lines with equations y = 2 x + 1, y = x + 2

and y = 10 − x .
y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Use the graph to solve the equations:

(a) 2 x + 1 = 10 − x
(b) x + 2 = 10 − x
(c) 2x +1 = x + 2
10. On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of three straight lines and use them
to solve the equations:
(a) 2x − 2 = x + 3
(b) 2x − 2 = 8
(c) x+3 = 8
99
5.3
11. Solve these equations. Show your working.

(a) 4 − 2 y = 10 − 6 y (b) 5 y + 20 = 3 ( y − 4)
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
5.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

In this section we consider the particular relationship between the equations of
parallel lines and perpendicular lines. The key to this is the gradient of lines that
are parallel or perpendicular to each other.
Example 1
(a) Draw the lines with equations
y=x y=x+4 y=x−2
(b) What do the three equations have in common?
Solution
(a) The following graph shows the three lines:
y
y= x
y= x+4
7
y= x−2
6
5
4
3
2
1
– 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
(b) Note that the three lines are parallel, all with gradient 1. All the equations of
the lines contain 'x'. This is because the gradient of each line is 1, and so
the value of m in the equation y = m x + c is always 1.
100
Parallel lines will always have the same gradient, and so the
equations of parallel lines will always have the same number in front
of x (known as the coefficient of x).
For example, the lines with equations:
y = 4 x −2
y = 4x
y = 4 x + 10
will all be parallel (the coefficient of x is 4 in each case).
Example 2
The equations of four lines are listed below:
A y = 3x + 2 B y = 4x + 2
C y = 3x − 8 D y = 4 x + 12
(a) Which line is parallel to A ? (b) Which line is parallel to B ?
Solution
(a) C is parallel to A, because both equations contain 3 x (the coefficient of x in
both cases is 3).
(b) D is parallel to B, because both equations contain 4 x (the coefficient of x in
both cases is 4).
Example 3
The graph shows two perpendicular lines, A and B:
y
A
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
– 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
B
–6
–7
–8
–9
101
5.4
(a) Calculate the gradient of A and write down its equation.

(b) Calculate the gradient of B and write down its equation.
(c) Describe how the gradients of the lines are related.
Solution y
A
7
6
5
4 6
3
2
1 3
– 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–3 B
–6
–7
6
–8
–9
6
(a) Gradient of A =
3
= 2
Intercept of A = − 7
Equation of A is y = 2 x − 7
−3
(b) Gradient of B =
6
1
= −
2
Intercept of B = − 2
1
Equation of B is y = − x − 2
2
1
(c) The gradients of the lines are 2 and − .
2
So:
−1
Gradient of B =
Gradient of A
102
If two lines A and B are perpendicular,

−1
Gradient of B =
Gradient of A
OR
Gradient of A × Gradient of B = −1
Example 4
Line A has equation y = 3 x + 2 . Write down the gradient of line B that is
perpendicular, and a possible equation for B.
Solution
(a) Gradient of A = 3
−1
Gradient of B =
Gradient of B
−1
=
3
1
Equation of B will be y = − x + c .
3
This will be perpendicular to A for any value of c, so a possible equation is
1
y = − x + 4.
3
Exercises
1. (a) Draw the lines with the following equations on the same set of axes:
y = 2x + 5
y = 2x +1
y = 2x − 3
(b) Draw two other lines that are parallel to these lines and write down
their equations.
103
5.4
2. (a) Draw the line with equation y = 3 x − 2 .

(b) Draw a line parallel to y = 3 x − 2 that passes through the point with
coordinates (0, 3)
(c) Determine the equation of the second line.
3. The equations of five lines are listed below.

A y = 5x − 7
B y = 2x + 8
C y = 3x + 3
D y =3 x − 8
E y = 5x + 2
(a) Which line is parallel to A ?
(b) Which line is parallel to C ?
(c) Are there any lines parallel to B ? Explain why.
y y = 3x + 2
4. The diagram shows the line with A
equation y = 3 x + 2 and two
other lines, A and B, parallel to it. B
(a) What is the gradient of the line A ?

(b) What is the equation of the line A ?
(c) What is the equation of the line B ? x
–3
y
5. The diagram shows the line with
1
equation y = − x + 5 , and 5
y=−
1
x +5
4 4 4
three other parallel lines.
A
What is the equation of:
(a) line A, x
B
(b) line B, –2
(c) line C ? C
104
6. The graph shows two lines, A and B.

y
10
9
8
7
A
6
5
4
3
2 B
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
(a) Calculate the gradient of the line A.

(b) What is the equation of the line A?
(c) What is the equation of the line B ?
7. The graph shows two lines, A and B.

y
7
6
5
A
4
3
2
1
– 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
B
(a) Calculate the gradient of A.

(b) Calculate the gradient of B.
(c) Explain why the lines are perpendicular, using your answers to (a)
and (b).
105
5.4
8. The equations of five lines are given below:
A y = 5x + 2
1
B y= x+4
2
C y = 2x +1
1
D y =− x + 6
5
E y = −2 x + 3
(a) Which line is perpendicular to A ?

(b) Which line is perpendicular to B ?
(c) Which line is not perpendicular to any of the other lines?
9. The line A joins the points with coordinates (4, 2) and (6, 8).
The line B joins the points with coordinates (5, 5) and (11, 3).
The line C joins the points with coordinates (6, 8) and (11, 4).
(a) Calculate the gradient of each line.
(b) Which two lines are perpendicular?
10. A line has equation y = 4 x + 3.

(a) Write down the equation of 2 lines that are parallel to y = 4 x + 3.
(b) Write down the equation of 2 lines that are perpendicular to y = 4 x + 3.
y
11. The diagram shows the graph y = 3x
of the straight line y = 3 x . 6
(a) On a copy of the 5
diagram, draw the 4

graph of the straight 3
line y = 2 x . 2
Label your line y = 2 x . 1
x
(b) Write the equation of –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
another straight line
–2
which goes through
–3
the point (0, 0).
–4
(c) The straight line with –5
the equation y = x − 1 –6
goes through the point
(4, 3). On your diagram, draw the graph of the straight line y = x − 1 .
Label your line y = x − 1 .
106
(d) Write the equation of the straight line which goes through the point
(0, – 1) and is parallel to the straight line y = 3 x .
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
12. Lucy was investigating straight lines and their equations. She drew the
following lines.
y
8 1
y= x+4
2
7
5
1
4 y= x
2
3
2 1
y= x−3
1 2
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
1
(a) y= x is in each equation.
2
Write one fact this tells you about all the lines.
(b) The lines cross the y axis at (0, – 3), (0, 0) and (0, 4).
Which part of each equation helps you see where the line crosses the
y axis?
(c) Lucy decided to investigate more lines. She needed longer axes.
1
Where will the line y = x − 20 cross the y axis?
2
(d) On a copy of the graph, draw another line which is parallel to
1
y = x.
2
Write the equation of your line.
(KS3/94/Ma/5-7/P2)
107
5.5 Simultaneous Equations

Simultaneous equations consist of two or more equations that are true at the same
time. Consider the following example:
Claire and Laura are sisters; we know that
(i) Claire is the elder sister,
(ii) their ages added together give 20 years,
(iii) the difference between their ages is 2 years.
Let x = Claire's age, in years and y = Laura's age, in years.

x + y = 20
x−y=2
This is an example of a pair of simultaneous equations.
In this section we consider two methods of solving pairs of simultaneous
equations like these.
Example 1
Use a graph to solve the simultaneous equations:
x + y = 20
x−y=2
Solution
We can rewrite the first equation to make y the subject:
x + y = 20
y = 20 − x
For the second equation,
x−y = 2
x = y+2
x−2 = y
or
y = x−2
Now draw the graphs y = 20 − x and y = x − 2 .
108
20
19
18
y = 20 − x
17
16
y=x−2
15
14
13
12
11
10
9 (11, 9)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 x
–1
–2
The lines cross at the point with coordinates (11, 9), so the solution of the pair of
simultaneous equation is x = 11, y = 9 .
Note: this means that the solution to the problem presented at the start of
section 5.5 is that Claire is aged 11 and Laura is aged 9.
Example 2
Use a graph to solve the simultaneous equations:
x + 2 y = 18
3x − y = 5
Solution
First rearrange the equations in the form y = . . .
x + 2 y = 18
2 y = 18 − x
18 − x
y =
2
x
y = 9−
2
109
5.5
y
3x − y = 5 y = 3x − 5
9
3x = y + 5 8
(4, 7)
7
3x − 5 = y
6 x
or y=9−
5 2
y = 3x − 5 4
3
Now draw these two graphs: 2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 x
The lines cross at the point –1
with coordinates (4, 7), so –2
the solution is x = 4, y = 7 . –3
–4
–5
An alternative approach is to solve simultaneous equations algebraically, as shown

in the following examples.
Example 3
Solve the simultaneous equations:
x + 2 y = 29 (1)
x+y = 18 (2)
Solution
Note that the equations have been numbered (1) and (2).
Method 1 Substitution Method 2 Elimination

Start with equation (2)
x + y = 18 Take equation (2) away from
y = 18 − x equation (1).
Now replace y in equation (1) x + 2 y = 29 (1)
Using y = 18 − x x + y = 18 (2)
x + 2 y = 29 y = 11 (1) – (2)
x + 2 (18 − x ) = 29
x + 36 − 2 x = 29 In equation (2), replace y with 11.
36 − x = 29
36 = 29 + x x + 11 = 18
36 − 29 = x x = 18 − 11
x = 7 = 7
110
Finally, using y = 18 − x gives
y = 18 − 7
y = 11
So the solution is x = 7, y = 11
Example 4
2 x + 3 y = 28 (1)
x+y = 11 (2)
Solution
From equation (2)
x + y = 11 Subtract 2 × equation (2) from

y = 11 − x equation (1).
Substitute this into equation (1) 2 x + 3 y = 28 (1)

2 x + 3 (11 − x ) = 28 2 x + 2 y = 22 2 × (2)
2 x + 33 − 3 x = 28 y = 6 (1) – 2 × (2)
33 − x = 28
33 = 28 + x Now replace y in equation (2) with 6.
33 − 28 = x x + 6 = 11
x = 5 x = 11 − 6
Finally use y = 11 − x x = 5
y = 11 − 5 So the solution is,
y = 6 x = 5, y = 6
So the solution is,
x = 5, y = 6
Example 5
x − 2y = 8 (1)
2 x + y = 21 (2)
111
5.5
Solution
From equation (2)
2 x + y = 21 Subtract 2 × equation (1) from

y = 21 − 2 x equation (2).
Substitute this into equation (1) 2 x + y = 21 (2)

x − 2y = 8 2 x − 4 y = 16 2 × (1)
x − 2 (21 − 2 x ) = 8 5y = 5 (2) – 2 × (1)
x − 42 + 4 x = 8 y = 1
5 x − 42 = 8 Now replace this in equation (1).
5 x = 8 + 42 x − 2y = 8
5 x = 50 x = 8+2
x = 10 x = 10
Now substitute this into y = 21 − 2 x

y = 21 − 2 × 10 So the solution is,
y = 21 − 20 x = 10, y = 1
y = 1
So the solution is,
x = 10, y = 1
Exercises
1. (a) Draw the lines with equations y = 10 − x and y = x + 2 .
(b) Write down the coordinates of the point where the two lines cross.
(c) What is the solution of the pair of simultaneous equations,
y = 10 − x
y=x+2
112
2. (a) Draw the lines with equations y = 5 − 2 x and y = 4 − x .

(b) Determine the coordinates of the point where the two lines cross.
(c) Determine the solution of the simultaneous equations,
2x + y = 5
x+y=4
3. Use a graphical method to solve the simultaneous equations,

x − 2y = 5
x+y=8
4. Use a graph to solve the simultaneous equations,

x + 2 y = 10
2 x + 3 y = 18
5. Two numbers, x and y, are such that their sum is 24 and their difference is 6.
(a) If the numbers are x and y, write down a pair of simultaneous
equations in x and y.
(b) Use a graph to solve the simultaneous equations and hence identify the
two numbers.
6. Michelle obtains the solution x = 4, y = 2 to a pair of simultaneous

equations by drawing the following graph:
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
What are the equations that she has solved?
113
5.5
7. A pair of simultaneous equations are given below:

2 x + 4 y = 14 (1)
2x + y =8 (2)
(a) Explain why subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) helps to solve
the equations.
(b) Solve the equations.
8. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations, using algebraic

methods:
(a) x + 5y = 8 (b) 2 x + 3 y = 16
x + 4y = 7 8 x + 3 y = 46
(c) 2 x + 6 y = 26 (d) x + 2y = 3
2 x + 3 y = 20 x+y =7
(e) x + 3 y = 18 (f) 2 x + 4 y = 32
x − 2y = 3 2 x − 3 y = 11
9. A pair of simultaneous equations is given below:

4 x + 2 y = 46 (1)
x + 3 y = 14 (2)
(a) Explain why you could calculate
four times equation (2) – equation (1)
to determine one solution.
(b) Calculate the solution of this pair of equations.
10. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations, using an algebraic

method:
(a) x + 2y = 7 (b) 4 x + 9 y = 47
2 x + 3 y = 11 x + 2 y = 11
(c) 4 x + 5 y = 25 (d) 2 x + 6 y = 20
x − y =4 x + 2y = 9
(e) x − 8y = 4 (f) 4 x − 2 y = 24
2x + y = 42 8 x − 3 y = 50
114
11. Look at this graph:
y
10
4
B
A
2
–2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
(a) Show that the equation of line A is 2 x + y = 8 .

(b) Write the equation of line B.
(c) On a copy of the graph, draw the line whose equation is y = 2 x + 1.
Label your line C.
(d) Solve these simultaneous equations:
y = 2x +1
3y = 4 x + 6
Show your working.
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
y
12. Look at this octagon: C 10 B
(a) The line through A and H has

the equation x = 10 . D 5 A
What is the equation of the

line through F and G ? –10 –5 0 5 10 x
(b) Copy the following statement,
adding in the missing words to E –5 H
make it correct:
x + y = 15 is the equation of – 10
F G
the line through ....... and .......
115
5.5
(c) The octagon has four lines of symmetry. One of the lines of symmetry
has the equation y = x .
On a copy of the diagram, draw and label the line y = x .
(d) The octagon has three other lines of symmetry. Write the equation of
one of these three other lines of symmetry,
(e) The line through D and B has the equation 3 y = x + 25 .

The line through G and H has the equation x = y + 15 .
C B
D A
E H
F G
Solve the simultaneous equations

3 y = x + 25
x = y + 15
Show your working.
(f) Copy and complete this sentence:
The line through D and B meets the line
through G and H at ( ......... , ......... ).
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 5-7/P1)
5.6 Equations in Context

In this section we determine the solutions to a variety of problems by forming and
solving suitable linear equations.
Example 1
Apples cost 55p per kg. Alan buys a bag of apples that costs £1.65.
If the bag contains x kg of apples,
(a) write down an equation involving x,
(b) solve the equation.
116
Solution
(a) It is easier to work in pence.
x × 55 = 165
55 x = 165
165
(b) x =
55
x = 3
Example 2
Three consecutive whole numbers add up to 36. Determine the three numbers.
Solution
If x = first number,
then x + 1 = second number,
and x + 2 = third number.
Adding these gives:
x + ( x + 1) + ( x + 2) = 36
3 x + 3 = 36
3 x = 33
33
x=
3
x = 11
and the three numbers are 11, 12 and 13.
Example 3
A taxi driver charges £2.00 plus £1.10 per mile for all journeys.
(a) Write down the cost, in pence, for travelling m miles.
(b) The charge for a journey is £3.65. Write down an equation and use this to
determine the distance travelled.
Solution
(a) Basic cost + 110 × number of miles = 200 + 110 m pence
(b) 200 + 110 m = 365
110 m = 365 − 200
110 m = 165
117
5.6
165
m =
110
m = 1.5
So the distance travelled is 1.5 miles.
Exercises
1. The cost of a ticket for a football match is £9.
(a) Write down an expression for the cost of n tickets.
(b) Solve an equation to determine how many tickets could be bought
with £108.
2. The cost of hiring a van is £20 per day, plus 50p for each mile travelled.
(a) Write down an expression for the cost, c, in pounds, of travelling
m miles in one day in a hired van.
(b) Write down an expression for the cost in pounds of travelling m miles
during a two-day hire period.
(c) James hires a van for 2 days. He has to pay a total of £68.50. Write
down an equation and solve it to determine how far he travelled.
3. Two consecutive odd numbers are x and x + 2 .

When these numbers are added together they total 100. Write down and
solve an equation to obtain the value of x.
4. A removals firm charges £4 per mile plus a fixed charge of £25. Use an
equation to determine the distance travelled if the bill is £39.
5. The price of petrol is given in pence per litre. To convert this to £ per
gallon, use the flow chart given below.
Price in pence × 4.5 ÷ 100 Price in £
per litre per gallon
(a) Convert a price of 80p per litre to £ per gallon.

(b) If the price is x pence per litre, write down the cost in £ per gallon.
(c) Convert a price of £4.14 per gallon to pence per litre.
6. A rectangle has length 10 m and width x m.

(a) Write down a formula for the area of the rectangle.
(b) Use an equation to determine x if the area is 16 m 2 .
(c) Write down a formula for the perimeter of the rectangle.
(d) Use an equation to determine x, if the perimeter is 39 m.
118
7. A repairman charges £40 for the first hour of his time and £15 for each hour
after that.
(a) Write down a formula for the cost of a repair that takes n hours.
(b) Use an equation to determine the time for a repair, if the cost is
£52.50.
8. At a bank a charge of £2 is made for changing British Pounds (£) into

French Francs (Fr). The charge is deducted first and then 9 Fr are issued
for every £1 left.
(a) Write down a formula for the number of Fr issued in exchange for £x.
(b) Use an equation to determine how many £ you would need to change
to get 900 Fr.
x
9. (a) Write down a formula for the
perimeter of the shape shown.
x
(b) Calculate x if the perimeter is x
2.76 m.
(c) Write down a formula for the x
area of the shape.
x
(d) Calculate x if the area is
8.64 m 2 . x
x
10.
2x
4m 2x
6m
(a) Write down a formula for the perimeter of the shape shown.
(b) If the perimeter is 23 m, determine the length x.
119
5.6
11. The simplified graph shows the flight details of an aeroplane travelling from
London to Madrid, via Brussels.
1750
Madrid
1500
Distance 1250
from
London
(km) 1000
750
500
Brussels
250
London 0
1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
Time (hours) GMT
(a) What is the aeroplane's average speed from London to Brussels?
(b) How can you tell from the graph, without calculating, that the
aeroplane's average speed from Brussels to Madrid is greater than its
average speed from London to Brussels?
(c) A different aeroplane flies from Madrid to London, via Brussels. The
flight details are shown below.
Madrid depart 1800

Brussels arrive 2000
depart 2112
London arrive 2218
On a copy of the graph, show the aeroplane's journey from Madrid to

London, via Brussels. (Do not change the labels on the graph.)
Assume constant speed for each part of the journey.
(d) At what time are the two aeroplanes the same distance from London?
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 5-7/P2)
120
6 Probability
6.1 The Probability Scale
Probabilities are given on a scale of 0 to 1, as decimals or as fractions; sometimes
probabilities are expressed as percentages using a scale of 0% to 100%,
particularly on weather forecasts.
0 This is the probability of something that is impossible.
1 This is the probability of something that is certain.

1
This is the probability of something that is as likely to happen
2
as it is not to happen.
Example 1
Decide whether or not each of the statements below is reasonable.
(a) The probability that it will snow on Christmas Day in London is 0.9.
(b) The probability that you will win a raffle prize is 0.5.
(c) The probability that you will go to bed before midnight tonight is 0.99.
(d) The probability that your pocket money is doubled tomorrow is 0.01.
Solution
(a) This is not reasonable as the probability given is much too high. It very
rarely snows in London in late December, so the probability should be close
to 0.
(b) This probability is far too high. You would need to have bought half of all
the tickets sold to obtain this probability, so this statement is not reasonable.
(c) This is a reasonable statement as it is very likely that you will go to bed
before midnight, but not certain that you will.
(d) This is a reasonable statement, as it is very unlikely that your pocket money
will be doubled tomorrow, but not totally impossible.
Example 2
On a probability scale, mark and estimate the probability that:
(a) it will rain tomorrow,
(b) England will win their next football match,
(c) someone in your class has a birthday tomorrow.
121
6.1
Solution
(a) This will depend on the time of year and the prevailing weather conditions.
During a dry spell in summer,
0 0.5 1
During a wet spell in winter,
0 0.5 1
(b) Based on their recent form, it is reasonable to say that England are slightly
more likely to draw or lose their next match than to win it, so an estimate
would be a little less than 0.5.
0 0.5 1
(c) The probability of this will be fairly small, as you can expect there to be
about 2 or 3 birthdays per month for pupils in a class of about 30 pupils.
0 0.5 1
Exercises
1. Describe something that is:
(a) very unlikely, (b) unlikely,
(c) likely, (d) very likely.
2. State whether or not each of the statements below is reasonable.

(a) The probability that there will be a General Election next year is 0.2.
(b) The probability that England will win the next football World Cup is 0.8.
(c) The probability that it will not rain tomorrow is 0.9.
(d) The probability that your school will be hit by lightning in the next
week is 0.1.
122
3. (a) List the things described, in order, with the most likely first.
A You travel on a bus that breaks down on the way home from school.
B Your pocket money is increased during the next two weeks.
C You enjoy your school lunch tomorrow.
D You have already had a birthday this year.
(b) Mark estimates of the probabilities of each of these on a copy of the

probability scale similar to the one below:
0 0.5 1
4. Explain why the probability that you will be the first person to walk on the
moon is zero.
5. Describe something that has a probability of zero.
6. (a) Do you agree that the probability that you will not be abducted by
aliens in the next 24 hours is 1 ?
(b) Explain why.
7. Describe something that has a probability of 1.
1
8. When you toss a fair coin, the probability of obtaining a head is and the
2
1
probability of obtaining a tail is.
2
1
Describe something else that has a probability that is equal to or close to .
2
9. A packet of sweets contains mostly red sweets, a few green sweets and only
one yellow sweet. You take a sweet at random from the packet.
The events A, B, C and D are listed below.
A You take a yellow sweet.
B You take a green sweet.
C You take a red sweet.
D You take a blue sweet.
(a) Write these outcomes in order of probability, with the most likely first.
(b) Mark the probability of each outcome on a scale similar to the one below.
0 0.5 1
123
6.1
10. The probability that a train is late is 0.1. Which of the following statements
is the most reasonable:
A The train is unlikely to be late.
B The train is very unlikely to be late.
C The train is likely to be late.
Explain why you have chosen your answer.
11. (a) Joe has these cards:
8 3 9 4 5 2 7 9
Sara takes a card without looking.

Joe says: "On Sara's card, is more likely than ."
Explain why Joe is wrong.
Choose one of the following words and phrases to fill in the gaps in the
sentences below:
Impossible Not Likely Certain Likely
It is ............... that the number on Sara's card will be smaller than 10.
It is ............... that the number on Sara's card will be an odd number.
(b) Joe still has these cards:
8 3 9 4 5 2 7 9
He mixes them up and puts them face down on the table. Then he
turns the first card over, like this:
Joe is going to turn the next card over.

On the next card, ............... is less likely than ............... .
The number on the next card could be higher than 5 or lower than 5.
Which of the following possibilities is more likely?
Higher than 5 Lower than 5 Cannot tell
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
124
12. Here are four spinners, labelled P, Q, R and S.
Q
P
KEY
S
Plain
R
Shaded
Striped
(a) Which spinner gives the greatest chance that the arrow will land on
plain?
(b) Which spinner gives the smallest chance that the arrow will land on
shaded?
(c) Shade a copy of the spinner shown so
that it is certain that the arrow will
land on shaded.
(d) Shade a copy of this spinner so that

there is a 50% chance that the arrow
will land on shaded.
(KS2/98/Ma/Tier 4-6/P2)
13. Bryn has some bags with some black beads and some white beads. He is
going to take a bead from each bag without looking.
(a) Match the pictures to the statements. The first is done for you.
A B C D E
125
6.1
(i) It is impossible that Bryn will take a black bead from bag D.
(ii) It is unlikely that Bryn will take a black bead from bag ..... .
(iii) It is equally likely that Bryn will take a black bead or a white
bead from bag ..... .
(iv) It is likely that Bryn will take a black bead from bag ..... .
(v) It is certain that Bryn will take a black bead from bag ..... .
(b) Bryn has 5 white beads in a bag.

He wants to make it more likely that he will take a black bead than a
white bead out of the bag.
How many black beads should Bryn put into the bag?
(c) There are 20 beads altogether in another bag. All the beads are either
black or white.
It is equally likely that Bryn will take a black bead or a white bead
from the bag.
How many black beads and how many white beads are there in the
bag?
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
6.2 The Probability of a Single Event

In this section we consider the probabilities of equally likely events. When you
roll a fair dice, each of the numbers 1 to 6 is equally likely to be on the uppermost
face of the dice.
For equally likely events:

number of ways of obtaining outcome
p(a particular outcome) =
total number of outcomes
Example 1
A card is taken at random from a full pack of 52 playing cards. What is the
probability that it is:
(a) a red card, (b) a 'Queen',
(c) a red 'Ace', (d) the 'Seven of Hearts',
(e) an even number?
126
Solution
As each card is equally likely to be drawn from the pack there are 52 equally
likely outcomes.
(a) There are 26 red cards in the pack, so:
26
p(red) =
52
1
=
2
(b) There are 4 Queens in the pack, so:

4
p(Queen) =
52
1
=
13
(c) There are 2 red Aces in the pack, so:

2
p(red Ace) =
52
1
=
26
(d) There is only one 7 of Hearts in the pack, so:

1
p(7 of Hearts) =
52
(e) There are 20 cards that have even numbers in the pack, so:
20
p(even number) =
52
5
=
13
Example 2
A packet of sweets contains 18 red sweets, 12 green sweets and 10 yellow sweets.
A sweet is taken at random from the packet. What is the probability that the sweet is:
(a) red,
(b) not green,
(c) green or yellow ?
127
6.2
Solution
The total number of sweets in the packet is 40, so there are 40 equally likely
outcomes when one is taken at random.
(a) There are 18 red sweets in the packet, so:
18
p(red) =
40
9
=
20
(b) There are 28 sweets that are not green in the packet, so:
28
p ( not green ) =
40
7
=
10
(c) There are 22 sweets that are green or yellow in the packet, so:
22
p (green or yellow) =
40
11
=
20
Example 3
You roll a fair dice 120 times. How many times would you expect to obtain:
(a) a 6, (b) an even score, (c) a score of less than 5 ?
Solution
1
(a) p (6 ) =
6
1
Expected number of 6s = × 120
6
= 20
3
(b) p (even score) =
6
1
=
2
1
Expected number of even scores = × 120
2
= 60
128
4
(c) p (score less than 5) =
6
2
=
3
2
Expected number of scores less than 5 = × 120
3
= 80
Exercises
1. You roll a fair dice. What is the probability that you obtain:
(a) a five, (b) a three, (c) an even number,
(d) a multiple of 3, (e) a number less than 6 ?
2. A jar contains 9 red counters and 21 blue counters. A counter is taken at

random from the jar. What is the probability that it is:
(a) red, (b) blue, (c) green ?
3. You take a card at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. What is the
probability that the card is:
(a) a red King, (b) a Queen or a King, (c) a 5, 6 or 7,
(d) a Diamond, (e) not a Club ?
4. A jar contains 4 red balls, 3 green balls and 5 yellow balls. One ball is taken
at random from the jar. What is the probability that it is:
(a) green, (b) red, (c) yellow,
(d) not red, (e) yellow or red ?
5. The faces of a regular tetrahedron are numbered 1 to 4. When it is rolled it

lands face down on one of these numbers. What is the probability that this
number is:
(a) 2, (b) 3,
(c) 1, 2 or 3, (d) an even number ?
6. A spinner is numbered as shown in the diagram.

Each score is equally likely to occur.
What is the probability of scoring: 4 1 2
(a) 1, (b) 2, 1 1
(c) 3, (d) 4, 3 1 2
(e) 5, (f) a number less than 6 ?
129
7. You toss a fair coin 360 times.

(a) How many times would you expect to obtain a head?
(b) If you obtained 170 heads, would you think that the coin was biased?
Explain why.
8. A spinner has numbers 1 to 5, so that each number is equally likely to be

scored. How many times would you expect to get a score of 5, if the spinner
is spun:
(a) 10 times, (b) 250 times, (c) 400 times ?
9. A card is drawn at random from a pack of 52 playing cards, and then replaced.
The process is repeated a total of 260 times. How many times would you
expect the card drawn to be:
(a) a 7, (b) a red Queen, (c) a red card,
(d) a Heart, (e) a card with an even number ?
10. A six-sided spinner is shown in the diagram.

It is spun 180 times. 1
2 4
How many times would you expect to obtain:
(a) a score of 1, 1 2
1
(b) a score less than 4,
(c) a score that is a prime number, (d) a score of 4 ?
11. Barry is doing an experiment. He drops 20 matchsticks

at random onto a grid of parallel lines.
Barry does the experiment 10 times and records his results.
He wants to work out an estimate of probability.
Number of the 20 matchsticks that have fallen across a line
5 7 6 4 6 8 5 3 5 7
(a) Use Barry's data to work out the probability that a single matchstick
when dropped will fall across one of the lines. Show your working.
(b) Barry continues the experiment until he has dropped the 20 matchsticks
60 times.
About how many matchsticks in total would you expect to fall across
one of the lines? Show your working.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 5-7/P2)
12. Les, Tom, Nia and Ann are in a singing competition. To decide the order in
which they will sing all four names are put into a bag. Each name is taken out
of the bag, one at a time, without looking.
130
(a) Write down all the possible orders with Tom singing second.
(b) In a different competition there are 8 singers. The probability that Tom
1
sings second is .
8
Work out the probability that Tom does not sing second.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
13. (a) What is the probability of getting a 3 on this spinner?

1 2
3
(b) Shade a copy of the following spinner so that the chance of getting a
shaded section is double the chance of getting a white section.
(c) Shade a copy of the following spinner so that there is a 40% chance of
getting a shaded section.
14. Pat has 5 white beads and 1 black bead in her bag. She asks two friends
about the probability of picking a black bead without looking in the bag.
1
Owen says: "It is because there are 5 white beads and 1 black bead."
5
1
Maria says: "It is because there are 6 beads and 1 is black."
6
(a) Which of Pat's friends is correct? Explain why the other friend is
wrong.
(b) Tracy has a different bag of black beads and white beads.
7
The probability of picking a black bead from Tracy's bag is .
13
What is the probability of picking a white bead from Tracy's bag?
131
(c) How many black beads and how many white beads could be in Tracy's
bag?
(d) Peter has a different bag of black beads and white beads.
Peter has more beads in total than Tracy.
7
The probability of picking a black bead from Peter's bag is also .
13
How many black beads and how many white beads could be in Peter's
bag?
(KS3/94/Ma/4-6/P1)
15. Brightlite company makes light bulbs. The state of the company's machines
can be:
available for use and being used
or available for use but not needed
or broken down.
(a) The table shows the probabilities of the state of the machines in July
1994. What is the missing probability?
State of machines: July 1994 Probability
Available for use, being used
Available for use, not needed 0.09
Broken down 0.03
(b) During another month the probability of a machine being available for
use was 0.92. What was the probability of a machine being broken
down?
(c) Brightlite calculated the probabilities of a bulb failing within
1000 hours and within 2000 hours.
Copy and complete the table below to show the probabilities of a bulb
still working at 1000 hours and at 2000 hours.
Time Failed Still working
At 1000 hours 0.07
At 2000 hours 0.57
132
16. A machine sells sweets in five different colours:

red, green, orange, yellow, purple.
You cannot choose which colour you get.
There are the same number of each colour in the machine.
Two boys want to buy a sweet each.
Ken does not like orange sweets or yellow sweets. Colin likes them all.
(a) What is the probability that Ken will get a sweet that he likes?
(b) What is the probability that Colin will get a sweet that he likes?
(c) Copy the following scale and draw an arrow to show the probability
that Ken will get a sweet that he likes. Label the arrow 'Ken'.
0 1
(d) On your scale from (c), draw an arrow to show the probability that
Colin will get a sweet that he likes. Label this arrow 'Colin'.
0 1
(e) Mandy buys one sweet. The arrow on the following scale shows the
probability that Mandy gets a sweet that she likes.
Mandy
0 1
Write a sentence that could describe which sweets Mandy likes.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
133
6.3 The Probability of Two Events

In this section we review the use of listings, tables and tree diagrams to calculate
the probabilities of two events.
Example 1
An unbiased coin is tossed twice.
(a) List all the possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability of obtaining two heads?
(c) What is the probability of obtaining a head and a tail in any order?
Solution
(a) The possible outcomes are:
H H
H T
T H
T T
So there are 4 possible outcomes that are all equally likely to occur as the
coin is not biased.
(b) There is only one way of obtaining 2 heads, so:

1
p (2 heads) =
4
(c) There are two ways of obtaining a head and a tail, H T and T H, so:
2
p (a head and a tail) =
4
1
=
2
Example 2
A red dice and a blue dice, both unbiased, are rolled at the same time. The scores
on the two dice are then added together.
(a) Use a table to show all the possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability of obtaining:
(i) a score of 5,
(ii) a score which is greater than 3,
(iii) a score which is an even number?
134
Solution
(a) The following table shows all of the 36 possible outcomes:
Red Dice
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Blue 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Dice 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(b) (i) There are 4 ways of scoring 5, so:

4
p (5) =
36
1
=
9
(ii) There are 33 ways of obtaining a score greater than 3, so:
33
p (greater than 3) =
36
11
=
12
(iii) There are 18 ways of obtaining a score which is an even number, so:
18
p (even score) =
36
1
=
2
Example 3
A card is taken at random from a pack of 52 playing cards, and then replaced. A
second card is then drawn at random from the pack.
Use a tree diagram to determine the probability that:
(a) both cards are Diamonds,
(b) at least one card is a Diamond,
(c) exactly one card is a Diamond,
(d) neither card is a Diamond.
135
6.3
Solution
We first note that, for a single card drawn from the pack,
13 1 39 3
p (Diamond ) = = and p ( not Diamond ) = = .
52 4 52 4
We put these probabilities on the branches of the tree diagram below:
PROBABILITIES
1st Card 2nd Card
1 1 1 1
Diamond × =
4 4 4 16
1 Diamond 3
4 4 Not 1 3 3
Diamond × =
4 4 16
3 1 3 1 3
4 4 Diamond × =
4 4 16
Not 3
Diamond
4
Not 3 3 9
Diamond × =
4 4 16
16
Total = = 1
16
Note also that the probability for each combination, for example, two Diamonds,
is determined by multiplying the probabilities along the branches.
1
(a) p ( both Diamonds) =
16
1 3 3
(b) p (at least one Diamond) = + +
16 16 16
7
=
16
3 3
(c) p (exactly one Diamond) = +
16 16
6
=
16
3
=
8
9
(d) p ( neither card a Diamond) =
16
136
Exercises
1. The faces of an unbiased dice are painted so that 2 are red, 2 are blue and
2 are yellow. The dice is rolled twice. Three of the possible outcomes are
listed below:
R R R B R Y
(a) List all 9 possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability that:
(i) both faces are red,
(ii) both faces are the same colour,
(iii) the faces are of different colours?
2. A spinner is marked with the letters A, B, C and D, so that each letter is

equally likely to be obtained. The spinner is spun twice.
(a) List the 16 possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability that:
(i) A is obtained twice,
(ii) A is obtained at least once,
(iii) both letters are the same,
(iv) the letter B is not obtained at all?
3. Two fair dice are renumbered so that they have the following numbers on
their faces:
1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6
The dice are rolled at the same time, and their scores added together.
(a) Draw a table to show the 36 possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability that the total score is:
(i) 6, (ii) 3,
(iii) greater than 10, (iv) less than 5 ?
4. A red spinner is marked with the numbers 1 to 4 and a blue spinner is

marked with the numbers 1 to 5. On each spinner all the numbers are
equally likely to be obtained. The two spinners are spun at the same time
and the two scores are added together.
(a) Draw a table to show the 20 possible outcomes.
(b) What is the probability that the total score on the two spinners is:
(i) an even number, (ii) the number 7,
(iii) a number greater than 4, (iv) a number less than 7 ?
137
5. An unbiased dice is rolled and a fair coin is tossed at the same time.
(a) Either list all the possible outcomes or show them in a table.
(i) a head and a 6, (ii) a tail and an odd number,
(iii) a tail and a number less than 5 ?
3
6. A coin is biased so that the probability of obtaining a head is and the
5
2
probability of obtaining a tail is.
5
(a) Copy and complete the following tree diagram to show the possible
outcomes and probabilities if the coin is tossed twice.
Second Toss of Coin PROBABILITIES

First Toss of Coin
3 3 3 9
HEAD × =
5 5 5 25
3 HEAD
5
TAIL
2
5
TAIL

(i) 2 heads, (ii) at least one head,
(iii) 2 tails, (iv) exactly 1 tail ?
7. An unbiased dice is rolled twice in a game. If a 1 or a 6 is obtained, you win

a prize.
(a) Copy and complete the following tree diagram:
Second Roll PROBABILITIES

First Roll
1
× =
3
1 PRIZE
3
NO
PRIZE
(b) What is the probability that a player wins:

(i) 2 prizes, (ii) 1 prize, (iii) at least 1 prize ?
138
8. A card is taken at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. It is replaced

and a second card is then taken at random from the pack.
A card is said to be a 'Royal' card if it is a King, Queen or Jack.
Use a tree diagram to calculate the probability that:
(a) both cards are Royals, (b) one card is a Royal,
(c) at least one card is a Royal, (d) neither card is a Royal.
1
9. The probability that a school bus is late on any day is . Use a tree
10
diagram to calculate the probability that on two consecutive days, the bus is:
(a) late twice, (b) late once, (c) never late.
1
10. The probability that a piece of bread burns in a toaster is . Two slices of
9
bread are toasted, one after the other.
(a) Use a tree diagram to calculate the probability that at least one of
these slices of bread burns in the toaster.
(b) Extend your tree diagram to include toasting 3 slices, one at a time.
Calculate the probability of at least one slice burning in the toaster.
11. A coin has two sides, heads and tails.

(a) Chris is going to toss a coin. What is the probability that Chris will
get heads? Write your answer as a fraction.
(b) Sion is going to toss 2 coins. Copy and complete the following table
to show the different results he could get.
First coin Second coin
heads heads
(c) Sion is going to toss 2 coins. What is the probability that he will get
tails with both his coins? Write your answer as a fraction.
(d) Dianne tossed one coin. She got tails.
Dianne is going to toss another coin.
What is the probability that she will get tails again with her next coin?
Write your answer as a fraction.
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
139
6.3
12. I have two fair dice. Each of the dice is numbered 1 to 6.

(a) The probability that I will throw double 6 (both dice showing
number 6) is
1
36
What is the probability that I will not throw double 6 ?
(b) I throw both dice and get double 6. Then I throw both dice again.
Which one answer from the list below describes the probability that
I will throw double 6 this time?
1
less than
36
1
36
1
more than
36
I start again and throw both dice.

(c) What is the probability that I will throw double 3 (both dice showing
number 3) ?
(d) What is the probability that I will throw a double? (It could be double
1 or double 2 or any other double.)
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 4-6/P2)
13. On a road there are two sets of traffic lights. The traffic lights work
independently.
For each set of traffic lights, the probability that a driver will have to stop is
0.7.
(a) A woman is going to drive along the road.
(i) What is the probability that she will have to stop at both sets of
traffic lights?
(ii)What is the probability that she will have to stop at only one of
the two sets of traffic lights?
Show your working.
(b) In one year, a man drives 200 times along the road. Calculate an
estimate of the number of times he drives through both sets of traffic
lights without stopping. Show your working.
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
140
14. 100 students were asked whether they studied French or German.
Results:
French German
39 27 30
27 students studied both French and German.

(a) What is the probability that a student chosen at random will study only
one of the languages?
(b) What is the probability that a student who is studying German is also
studying French?
(c) Two of the 100 students are chosen at random.
From the following calculations, write down one which shows the
probability that both students study French and German.
27 26 27 26 27 27
× + +
100 100 100 99 100 100
27 26 27 27
× ×
100 99 100 100
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
15. A company makes computer disks. It tested a random sample of the disks
from a large batch. The company calculated the probability of any disk
being defective as 0.025.
Glenda buys 2 disks.
(a) Calculate the probability that both disks are defective.
(b) Calculate the probability that only one of the disks is defective.
(c) The company found 3 defective disks in the sample they tested.
How many disks were likely to have been tested?
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
16. On a tropical island the probability of it raining on the first day of the rainy
2
season is . If it does not rain on the first day, the probability of it raining
3
7
on the second day is . If it rains on the first day, the probability of it
10
1
raining more than 10 mm on the first day is . If it rains on the second day
5
141
6.3
but not on the first day, the probability of it raining more than 10 mm is
1
.
4
You may find it helpful to copy and complete the tree diagram before
answering the questions.
FIRST DAY SECOND DAY
More than
........ 10 mm
Rain
........ Less than or
equal to
........ 10 mm More than
........ 10 mm
........ No rain ........ Rain

Less thean or
equal to
........ 10 mm
No rain
........
(a) What is the probability that it rains more than 10 mm on the second
day, and does not rain on the first? Show your working.
(b) What is the probability that it has rained by the end of the second day
of the rainy season? Show your working.
(c) Why is it not possible to work out the probability of rain on both
days from the information given?
(KS3/96/Ma/Ext)
17. Pupils at a school invented a word game called Wordo. They tried it out
with a large sample of people and found that the probability of winning
Wordo was 0.6.
The pupils invented another word game, Lango. The same sample who had
played Wordo then played Lango. The pupils drew this tree diagram to
show the probabilities of winning.
Win 0.8
0.6 Lango
Win
Lose 0.2
Wordo
Win 0.55
Lose 0.4 Lango
Lose 0.45
142
(a) What was the probability of someone from the sample winning
Lango?
(b) What was the probability of someone from the sample winning only
one of the two word games?
(c) The pupils also invented a dice game. They tried it out with the same
sample of people who had already played Wordo and Lango.
The probability of winning the dice game was 0.9. This was found to
be independent of the probabilities for Wordo and Lango.
Calculate the probability of someone from the sample winning two out
of these three games.
(d) Calculate the probability of someone from the sample winning only
one of these three games.
(KS3/95/Ma/Levels 9-10)
6.4 Theoretical and Experimental Probabilities

In this section we compare theoretical and experimental probabilities.
The term 'theoretical probabilities' describes those which have been calculated, for
example by the methods described in sections 6.2. and 6.3.
'Experimental probabilities' are estimates for probabilities that cannot be determined
logically. They can be derived from the results of experiments, but often they are
obtained from the analysis of statistical data or historical records.
Here we obtain experimental probabilities from simple experiments and compare
them with the theoretical probabilities.
Example 1
An unbiased dice is to be rolled 240 times.
(a) Calculate the number of times you would expect to obtain each of the
possible scores.
(b) Now roll the dice 240 times and collect some experimental results,
presenting them in a bar chart.
(c) Compare the theoretical and experimental results.
Solution
1
(a) p (6 ) =
6
1
Expected number of 6s = × 240
6
= 40
Similarly, you would expect to obtain each of the possible scores 40 times.
143
6.4
(b) The results of the experiment are recorded in the following table:
Score Tally Frequency
1 44
2 42
3 42
4 34
5 36
6 42
These results are illustrated in the following bar chart. A horizontal line has
been drawn to show the expected frequencies for the scores.
Frequency
44
42
40 Expected
Frequency
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 Score
Note that none of the bars is of the expected height; some are above and
some are below. However, all the bars are close to the predicted number.
We would not expect to obtain exactly the predicted number. The more
times the experiment is carried out, the closer the experimental results will
be to the theoretical predictions.
144
Exercises
1. (a) A fair coin is tossed 100 times. How many heads and how many tails
would your expect to obtain?
(b) Toss a fair coin 100 times and display your results using a bar chart.
(c) Compare your theoretical predictions with your experimental results.
2. Two fair coins are to be tossed at the same time.

(a) Calculate the probability of obtaining:
(i) 2 heads, (ii) a head and a tail, (iii) 2 tails.
(b) Calculate the number of times you would expect to obtain each
outcome if the coins are tossed 100 times.
(c) Toss two coins 100 times and illustrate your results using a bar chart.
(d) Compare your theoretical predictions with your experimental results.
3. (a) List the 8 possible outcomes when 3 fair coins are tossed at the same
time.
(b) If three fair coins were tossed 32 times, how many times would you
expect to obtain:
(i) 3 heads, (ii) 2 heads,
(iii) 1 head, (iv) 0 heads ?
(c) Carry out an experiment and compare your theoretical predictions
with your experimental results.
4. (a) What are the expected frequencies of the totals 2, 3, 4, ..., 11, 12 when
two fair dice are thrown at the same time and the experiment is
repeated 36 times?
(b) Carry out the experiment in (a) and compare the predicted and
experimental frequencies.
(c) Repeat (a) and (b) for 144 throws.
(d) Comment on how carrying out the experiment more times influences
the differences between the predicted and experimental frequencies.
5. A fair coin and an unbiased dice are thrown at the same time. A score is
then calculated using the following rules:
• if the coin shows a head, you double the score shown on the dice;
• if the coin shows a tail, you subtract 1 from the score on the dice.
(a) Use a two-way table to show all the possible scores.
(b) Draw up a table showing the theoretical probabilities for the various
scores.
145
6.4
(c) If the coin and the dice are thrown 120 times, how many times would
you expect to obtain each score?
(d) Conduct an experiment and compare your experimental results with
your answers to part (c).
6. A dice with 4 faces has one blue, one green, one red and one yellow face.
Five pupils did an experiment to investigate whether the dice was biased or
not.
The following table shows the data they collected.
Pupil's Name Number of Throws Face Landed On

Red Blue Green Yellow
Peter 20 9 7 2 2
Caryl 60 23 20 8 9
Shana 250 85 90 36 39
Keith 40 15 15 6 4
Paul 150 47 54 23 26
(a) Which pupil's data is most likely to give the best estimate of the
probability of getting each colour on the dice? Explain your answer.
The pupils collected all the data together.
Number of Throws Face Landed On

Red Blue Green Yellow
520 179 186 75 80
(b) Consider the data. Write down whether you think the dice is biased or
unbiased, and explain your answer.
(c) From the data, work out the probability of the dice landing on the
blue face.
(d) From the data work out the probability of the dice landing on the
green face.
146
7. Some pupils threw 3 fair dice. They recorded how many times the numbers
on the dice were the same.
Name Number Results
of throws all different 2 the same all the same

Morgan 40 26 12 2
Sue 140 81 56 3
Zenta 20 10 10 0
Ali 100 54 42 4
(a) Write the name of the pupil whose data are most likely to give the best
estimate of the probability of getting each result. Explain your answer.
(b) This table shows the pupils' results collected together:
Number Results

300 171 120 9
Use these data to estimate the probability of throwing numbers that are
all different.
(c) The theoretical probability of each result is shown below:
all different 2 the same all the same
5 5 1
Probability
9 12 36
Use these probabilities to calculate, for 300 throws, how many times
you would theoretically expect to get each result. Copy and complete
the table below.
Number Results
300 ........ ........ ........
(d) Explain why the pupils' results are not the same as the theoretical
results.
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 5-7/P2)
147
7 Transformations
7.1 Shapes
You should be familiar with the common 2-D shapes, but to recap, we give the
names and definitions below.
NAME ILLUSTRATION NOTES
Triangle 3 straight sides
3 equal sides and

Equilateral Triangle
3 equal angles ( = 60 ° )
Isosceles Triangle 2 equal sides and

2 equal angles
Right-angled Triangle One angle = 90 °
Quadrilateral 4 straight sides
Square 4 equal sides and

4 right angles
Opposite sides equal and

Rectangle 4 right angles
4 equal sides; opposite sides

Rhombus
parallel
One pair of opposite

Trapezium sides parallel
Both pairs of opposite

Parallelogram
sides equal and parallel
Kite Two pairs of adjacent

sides equal
148
Example 1
What could each one of the following shapes be if it has 4 sides and:
(a) opposite sides equal and parallel, (b) all sides equal,
(c) two adjacent angles are right angles?
Solution
(a) It could be a
parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle or square.
(b) It could be a
rhombus or square.
(c) It could be a
trapezium, rectangle or square. (Trapezium )
Example 2 A
For the grid opposite, name
all shapes that are: C
B
(a) congruent,
(b) similar D
E
to shape A.
F K
J
Solution
I L
(a) Congruent to A means
G H
the same size and shape
as A. The shapes
congruent to A are G, L and K.
(b) Similar to A means the same shape as A but not necessarily the same size
as A. The shapes similar to A are C, F, G, J, K and L.
Example 3
Using 20 m of fencing, design four different rectangular enclosures. For each
one, find its area. Which shape gives the maximum area?
Solution 8m
2m
Possible shapes could be: area = 2 × 8 = 16 m 2
7m
3m
area = 3 × 7 = 21 m 2
149
7.1
6m
area = 4 × 6 = 24 m 2
4m
5m
area = 5 × 5 = 25 m 2
5m
The square (5 m × 5 m ) gives the maximum area.
Exercises
1. What could each one of the following shapes be if it has 4 sides and:
(a) all angles right angles,
(b) exactly one pair of opposite sides parallel, but not equal,
(c) diagonals intersecting at right angles?
2. Which of the shapes in the diagram below are:

(a) congruent, (b) similar
to shape A ?
L
I A
J
K B
H
E
G
C
F D
150
3. Using 40 cm of wire, design different rectangles. For each one, find its area.
What shape gives the maximum area?
4. These two congruent triangles make a parallelogram.
(a) On a copy of the grid opposite, draw another

congruent triangle to make a rectangle.
(b) On a copy of the grid opposite, draw another

congruent triangle to make a bigger triangle.
(c) On a copy of the grid opposite, draw another

congruent triangle to make a different bigger
triangle.
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
151
7.1
5. Mike has a triangle grid. He shades in

2 triangles to make a shape with 4 sides.
(a) Shade in 2 triangles on a copy of the

grid opposite to make a different shape
with 4 sides.
(b) On another copy of the grid, shade

in 2 triangles to make another different shape with 4 sides.
(c) On another copy of the grid, shade in 4 small triangles to make a
bigger triangle.
(d) On a copy of the grid below, shade in more than 4 small triangles
to make a bigger triangle.
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
6.
Kath puts 1 small square tile Den makes a bigger square
on a square dotty grid, like this: with 4 square tiles, like this:
(a) Scott has 9 small square tiles. On a copy of the following grid, show
how Scott can make a square in the same way with 9 small square
tiles.
152
(b) On another copy of the grid, show how to make a square with more
than 9 of these small square tiles.
How many tiles are there in your square?
(c) Huw wants to make some more squares with the tiles. Write down 3
other numbers of tiles that he can use to make squares.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
7. Helen has these eight rods.

2 cm 5 cm
3 cm 5 cm
4 cm 6 cm
7 cm
8 cm
She can use 5 of her rods to make a rectangle.
6 cm 2 cm
5 cm 5 cm
8 cm
(a) On a copy of the grid above, show how to make a different rectangle
with a different shape with 5 of Helen's rods.
(b) On a larger grid, 13 squares by 10 squares, show how to make a
rectangle with 6 of Helen's rods.
(c) On another large grid, show how to make a square with all 8 of
Helen's rods.
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 5-7/P1)
153
7.2 Translations
Under a translation, every point is moved by the same amount in the same
direction. If each point moves distance a in the x-direction and distance b in the
 a
y-direction, we use the 'vector' notation   to describe this translation.
 b
For example, the translation described by the

 6
column vector   is illustrated opposite; the
 2
translation moves the shape 6 units to the right
and 2 units upwards.
Note that the actual shape does not change its

orientation, only its position. It is not reflected
or rotated.
Example 1
(a) Draw the square with corners at the points with coordinates (4, 0), (1, 3),
(4, 6) and (7, 3).
 5
(b) The square is translated along the vector   . Draw the new square
 2
obtained by the translation.
Solution
y
(a)
6
5 The diagram opposite shows the square.
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
(b) y
8 For this translation each

7 point should be moved
6 5 units to the right and
5 2 units up.
4
3 This diagram shows both
2 squares and the vector that
1 has been used to translate
0 each corner.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
154
Example 2
The diagram below shows the shapes A, B, C and D. Along what vector would
you translate:
(a) D to A, (b) C to D,
(c) A to B, (d) A to C ?
y
7
6
5 A
4
3
D 2
1
–10 – 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5 B
C –6
–7
–8
Solution
The vector that describes each translation is shown on the following diagram:
y
 10
 3 7
  6
5 A
4
3
 5 
D 2  
 −10
1
–10 – 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
–1
 1
 8 –2
  –3
 −11 –4
 −11
  –5 B
C –6
–7
–8
155
7.2
10
(a) D to A  , 10 to the right and 3 up.
 3
 1
(b) C to D  , 1 to the right and 8 up.
 8
 5 
(c) A to B  , 5 to the right and 10 down.
 − 10
 − 11
(d) A to C  , 11 to the left and 11 down.
 − 11
Exercises
1. (a) Draw the triangle which has corners at the points with coordinates
(4, 1), (3, 5) and (1, 2).
 3
(b) Translate the triangle along the vector   .
 4
(c) Write down the coordinates of the corners of the translated triangle.
2. The following diagram shows the shape A which is translated to give the
shapes B, C, D and E:
y
11
D
10
B
9
8
E
7
6
5
4
A C
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 x
Write down the vector that describes the translation from:

(a) A to B, (b) A to C, (c) A to D,
(d) A to E, (e) B to D.
156
3. (a) Join the points with coordinates (1, 1), (2, 3) and (5, 4) to form a
triangle. Label this triangle A.
(b) Translate the triangle A along the vector:
 2
(i)  , to obtain B,
 1
 1
(ii)  , to obtain C,
 3
 2
(iii)   , to obtain D,
 − 5
 − 1
(iv)  , to obtain E.
 − 2
4. Write down the vector needed to translate the shape A to each of the other
shapes shown on the following diagram:
y
10
9
G B
8
7
6
5
4
A
3
2
F 1
–10 – 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
–1
–2
E –3
–4
–5
D
–6
–7
C
–8
–9
– 10
157
7.2
5. The point with coordinates (2, 3) is moved to the point with coordinates
(7, 6) by a translation.
(a) Describe the translation using a column vector.
(b) Where would the point with coordinates (6, 1) move to under the
same translation?
y
6. The diagram shows
three shapes, A, B
and C: 6 B
5
Write down the vector
4
for the translation that
3 A
moves:
2 C
(a) A to B, 1
(b) B to C, 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 x
(c) A to C.
Describe any relationship between these vectors.
7. The shape A has corners at the points with coordinates

(4, 2) (4, – 1) (6, – 3) and (6, 0)
(a) What is this shape?
 4
(b) The shape is translated along the vector   to give shape B and
 − 2
 − 5
then shape B is translated along the vector   to give C.
 2
Draw A, B and C.
(c) What translation would take A straight to C ?
8. (a) Draw the triangle, A, that has corners at the points with coordinates
(– 7, – 2), (– 5, – 5) and (– 4, – 2).
 4
(b) Translate this shape along the vector   to obtain B.
 8
(c) Describe the translation that would take B to A.
9. (a) Draw three lines by joining the points with coordinates

(4, 2) and (2, 4);
(6, 4) and (6, 6);
(2, 6) and (4, 8).
(b) Describe how to translate each line to form a hexagon made up of the
original and translated lines.
158
10. A parallelogram has corners at the points A, B, C and D. The points A, B

and C have coordinates (1, 2), (2, 5) and (5, 3) respectively.
(a) Draw the parallelogram.
(b) State the coordinates of the fourth corner, D.
(c) Describe the translation that moves A B onto D C.
(d) Describe the translation that moves A D onto B C.
7.3 Enlargements
In this section we consider enlargements. We look at the use of the terms 'scale
factor' and 'centre of enlargement'.
Example 1
The rectangle A, shown below, has been enlarged to give the shapes B, C and D.
Write down the scale factor for each enlargement.
B
D
A
C
Solution
A to B is scale factor 2 because the lengths are doubled.
1
A to C is scale factor because the lengths are halved.
2
A to D is scale factor 2.5 because the lengths are 2.5 times longer.
Example 2
A rectangle has sides of lengths 2 cm and 3 cm. It is enlarged with scale factor 3.
Draw the original rectangle and the enlarged rectangle.
Solution
The lengths of the sides of the enlarged rectangle will be:
3 × 2 cm = 6 cm
3 × 3 cm = 9 cm
159
7.3
3 cm
2 cm
9 cm
6 cm
Examples 3 and 4 show how to use a centre of enlargement when enlarging a

shape.
Example 3
A
The diagram shows the triangle A B C and the point O. B
Enlarge the triangle with scale factor 3, using O as the
centre of enlargement.
O C
Solution
The diagram shows the 2 triangles; the explanation follows.
A'
B'
A
B
O C C'
160
First draw lines from point O through A, B and C, as shown in the diagram.
Measure the length O A and multiply it by 3 to get the distance from O of the
image point A', i.e. O A' = 3 × O A . Mark the point A' on the diagram. The
images B' and C' can then be marked in a similar way and the enlarged triangle A'
B' C' can then be drawn.
Example 4
The following diagrams show two shapes that have been enlarged. Determine the
centre of enlargement in each case.
A' B'
A B
D C
D' C'
Solution
To find the centres of enlargement, draw lines through the corresponding corners
of each shape. These lines will cross at the centre of enlargement, as shown
below. The centres have been marked with the letter O in both diagrams.
A' B'
A B
D C
D' C'
161
7.3
Exercises
1. The following diagram shows 5 triangles, A, B, C, D and E:
C
A
What scale factor is used for each of the enlargements described below:
(a) B enlarged to A, (b) C enlarged to E,
(c) D enlarged to E, (d) D enlarged to A,
(e) B enlarged to C, (f) B enlarged to D ?
2. (a) Draw a rectangle that has sides of lengths 2 cm and 4 cm.

(b) Draw enlargements of this rectangle using scale factors 2, 3,
1
and .
2
3. (a) Construct a triangle that has sides of lengths 3 cm, 4 cm and 5.5 cm.
(b) Draw enlargements of this triangle using scale factors 2 and 3.
4. Hannah writes her initials as shown:
1
Enlarge her initials with scale factors 2 and .
2
162
5. (a) Copy the following diagram:

y
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 x
(b) Using (0, 0) as the centre of enlargement, enlarge the shape with scale
factor 2 and scale factor 3.

y
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 x
(b) Enlarge the shape with scale factor 2, using first (0, 0) as the centre
of enlargement and then (1, 8) as the centre of enlargement.
163
7.3
7. For each of the following enlargements, copy the diagram and determine the
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
8. A triangle has corners at the points with coordinates (1, 2), (3, 3) and (0, 3).
It is enlarged to give a triangle with corners at the points (5, 4), (11, 7) and
(2, 7). Determine the scale factor of the enlargement and the coordinates of
the centre of enlargement.
9. A trapezium has corners at the points with coordinates (1, 0), (3, 2), (3, 4)
and (1, 5). It is enlarged with scale factor 3, using the point (0, 3) as the
Determine the coordinates of the corners of the enlarged trapezium.
10. A parallelogram has corners at the points with coordinates (5, 1), (9, 3),
1
(11, 9) and (7, 7). Enlarge this shape with scale factor , using the point with
2
coordinates (1, 3) as the centre of enlargement.
11. Jill has drawn an original picture of a giraffe ORIGINAL

for an animal charity. PICTURE
It measures 6.5 cm high by 4 cm wide.
Different-sized copies of the original picture
can be made to just fit into various shapes.
164
(a) Jill wants to enlarge the original picture so that it just fits inside a
rectangle on a carrier bag. The rectangle measures 24 cm high by
12 cm wide.
By what scale factor should she multiply the original picture? Show
your working.
(b) Jill wants to multiply the original picture by a scale factor so that it
just fits inside the square shown below for a badge.
2.7 cm
2.7 cm
By what scale factor should she multiply the original picture?

(c) The original picture is to be used on a poster.
It must fit inside a shape like this.
The shape is to be a semi-circle of radius 6.6 cm.

What would be the perimeter of the shape? Show your working.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 5-7/P2)
7.4 Reflections
In this section we look at line symmetry and reflections of simple shapes, in
horizontal, vertical and sloping lines. In a reflection, a point will move to a new
position that will be the same distance from the mirror line, but on the other side.
These distances will always be measured at right angles to the mirror line.
B
Mirror C
Line
Mirror
A A' Line
Mirror
Line
C'
B'
165
7.4
Example 1
Draw in the lines of symmetry for each of the following shapes:
(a) (b)
Solution
(a) (b)
4 lines of symmetry 1 line of symmetry
Example 2
Draw the reflection of each of the following shapes in the given mirror line.
(a) (b) Mirror
Line
Mirror
Line
166
Solution
(a) (b)
Example 3
A triangle has corners at the points with coordinates (4, 3), (5, 6) and (3, 4).
Draw the reflection of the triangle in the:
(a) x-axis (b) y-axis,
(c) line x = 6 (d) line y = 7
Solution
y
(d) Reflection in line
y=7
10
9
8
(b) Reflection in y=7
7
y-axis (c) Reflection in line
6
x =6
5
4
3
2
1 x =6
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
–3
(a) Reflection in
–4
x-axis
–5
–6
–7
–8
167
7.4
Example 4
An 'L' shape has corners at the points with coordinates (1, 4), (1, 7), (2, 7), (2, 5),
(3, 5) and (3, 4).
Draw the reflection of the shape in the lines:
(a) y=x (b) y = −x
Solution
y
10
y= x
9
8
7
Original
6
5
4
3
Reflection in
2
y= x
1
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
Reflection in
y = −x –3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
y = −x
168
Exercises
1. Copy the following shapes and draw in all their lines of symmetry.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
2. Draw the reflection of each of the following shapes in the line given:
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
3. Copy each of the following shapes and draw its reflection in the line shown:
(a) (b) (c)
169
7.4

y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 x
(b) Reflect the shape in the lines x = 8 and x = 11.
5. (a) Copy the diagram shown.

y
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 x
(b) Reflect the shape in the lines y = 10 , y = 5 and x = 7 .
6. (a) Draw the triangle that has corners at the points with coordinates
(1, 1), (4, 7) and (2, 5).
(b) Reflect the triangle in the lines:
(i) x = 8,
(ii) x = −1,
(iii) y = − 2
170
7. The following diagram shows the shapes A, B, C, D and E.

y
8
7
6 A B C D E
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 x
Write down the equation of the mirror line for each of the following
reflections:
(a) A to B (b) B to C (c) A to D
(d) B to E (e) D to E (f) C to D
8. (a) Draw the triangle which has corners at the points with coordinates
(1, 4), (1, 7) and (3, 5).
(b) Reflect this shape in the line y = x and state the coordinates of the
corners of the reflected shape.
(c) Reflect the original triangle in the line y = − x and state the
coordinates of the corners of the reflected shape.
9. (a) Draw the shape A shown in the following diagram.

y
7
6
5
4
3 A
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 x
(b) Reflect the shape A in the line x = 6 to obtain shape B.

(c) Reflect the shape B in the line x = 14 to obtain shape C.
(d) Describe the translation that would take shape A straight to shape C.
10. Draw the triangle with corners at the points with coordinates (1, 3), (1, 8)
and (6, 8). Reflect this triangle in the following lines:
(a) x = 0 (b) y = 0
(c) y=x (d) y = −x
171
7.4
11. These patterns have one or more lines of symmetry. EXAMPLE
Draw all the lines of symmetry in each pattern.
You may use a mirror or tracing paper to help you.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
(KS3/94/Ma/3-5/P1)
12. Nina is making Rangoli patterns. To make a pattern she draws some lines
on a grid. Then she reflects them in a mirror line.
Lines Lines and Reflections
Mirror Mirror
Make a copy each of the following grids and lines.

Reflect each group of lines in its mirror line to make a pattern. You may use
a real mirror or tracing paper to help you.
172
(a)
Mirror
Mirror
(b)
(c) Now use two mirror lines to make a pattern.

First reflect the group of lines in one mirror line to make a pattern.
Then reflect the whole pattern in the other mirror line.
Mirror
Mirror
173
7.4
13. (a) Three points on this line are

marked with . 6
Their coordinates are: 5

(1, 1), (3, 3) and (4, 4). 4
Look at the numbers in the 3
coordinates of each point. 2
What do you notice?
1
0
(b) The point ( ? , 14 12 ) is on the line. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Write down its missing coordinate.
(c) The point is above the line.

Four points are at (10, 10), (10, 12), (12, 10) and (12, 12).
Which one of these points is above the line? Explain why.
(d) The point ( ? , 15) is above the line. Write down a possible
coordinate for the point.
(e) Look at triangles A and B.

Triangle A Triangle B
Coordinates of (4, 3) (3, 4)
6
ne
Li
5
or
irr
M
4 B
3
2 A
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Triangle A was reflected onto triangle B.

What happened to the numbers in the coordinates of each corner?
(f) Elen wants to reflect the point (20, 13) in the mirror line. What point
will (20,13) go to?
(KS3/94/Ma/3-5/P2)
174
14. Catrin shades in a shape made She shades in 1 more square to

of five squares on a grid: make a shape which has the dashed
line as a line of symmetry:
(a) On a copy of the grid opposite, shade

in 1 more square to make a shape which
has the dashed line as a line of symmetry.
(b) On a copy of the grid opposite, shade in

1 more square to make a shape which
You may use a mirror or tracing paper to
help you.
(c) On a copy of the grid opposite, shade in

2 more squares to make a shape which
You may use a mirror or tracing paper to
help you.
175
7.4
(d) On a copy of the grid opposite, shade
in 2 more squares to make a shape
which has the dashed line as a line of
symmetry. You may use a mirror or
tracing paper to help you.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P2)
7.5 Rotations
In this section we review rotational symmetry and draw rotations of shapes.
Example 1
State the order of rotational symmetry of each of the following shapes:
(a) (b) (c)
Solution
(a) Order 4. This means that the shape can be rotated 4 times about its centre
before returning to its starting position. Each rotation will be through an
angle of 90 ° , and, after each one, the rotated shape will occupy the same
position as the original square.
(b) Order 2
(c) Order 1. This means that the shape does not have rotational symmetry.
Example 2
The corners of a rectangle have coordinates (3, 2), (7, 2), (7, 5) and (3, 5). The
rectangle is to be rotated through 90 ° clockwise about the origin.
Draw the original rectangle and its position after being rotated.
Solution
The following diagram shows the original rectangle A B C D and the rotated
rectangle A' B' C' D'. The curves show how each corner moves as it is rotated.
The easiest way to rotate a shape is to place a piece of tracing paper over the shape,
trace the shape, and then rotate the tracing paper about the centre of rotation, as shown.
176
A B
6
4 Tracing paper placed over shape, and

y
then rotated around centre of rotation.
C
2 Tracing
Paper
0
2 4 C' 6 8 10 x
–2
Pencil
–4 Point
x
B' A'
–6
Example 3
A triangle has corners at the points with coordinates (4, 7), (2, 7) and (4, 2).
(a) Draw the triangle.
(b) Rotate the triangle through 180 ° about the point (4, 1).
Solution
The diagram shows how the original triangle A B C is rotated about the point
(4, 1) to give the triangle A' B' C'.
y
6
D C
4
2
A B
0
2 4 6 8 10 x
–2
A' D'
–4
–6
B' C'
177
7.5
Example 4 B C
The diagram shows the triangle A B C which
is rotated through 90 ° to give A' B' C'.
A
Determine the position of the centre of
rotation.
A'
B'
Solution
C'
B C The first step is to join the points A and A' and

draw the perpendicular bisector of this line.
The centre of rotation must be on this line.
A
A'
B'
B C
C'
A
Repeat the process, drawing the perpendicular
bisectors of B B' and C C' as shown opposite.
The point where the lines cross is the centre of A'
rotation.
B'
C'
Note: For simple rotations you may be able to spot the centre of rotation without
having to use the method shown above. Alternatively, you may be able to
find the centre of rotation by experimenting with tracing paper.
178
Exercises
1. State the order of rotational symmetry of each of the following shapes:
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
2. Which of the capital letters have rotational symmetry?
3. A rectangle has corners at the points A (2, 4), B (6, 4), C (6, 6) and D (2, 6).
(a) Draw this rectangle.
(b) Rotate the rectangle through 90 ° clockwise about the point (0, 0).
(c) Rotate the rectangle A B C D through 180 ° about the point (0, 0).
4. Rotate the rectangle formed by joining the points (1, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2) and
(1, 2) through 90 ° clockwise about the origin.
Determine the coordinates of the triangles that are obtained by rotating the
original triangle:
(a) through 90 ° anticlockwise about (0, 3),
(b) through 180 ° about (4, 0),
(c) through 90 ° clockwise about (6, 2).
6. The following diagram shows the triangles A, B C and D.

Describe the rotation that takes:
(a) A to B, (b) A to C,
(c) C to B, (d) C to D.
179
7.5
y
10
9
8
7
6
5
B 4 C
3
2
1
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 x
–1
–2
–3
A –4 D
–5
–6
–7
–8
7. The following diagram shows the rectangles A, B, C and D.

y
7
6
5
E
4 A
3
2
B
1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
–1
–2
–3
C
D –4
–5
–6
–7
–8
Describe the rotation that takes:

(a) A to B, (b) A to C,
(c) A to D, (d) A to E.
180
8. The triangle A has corners at the points with coordinates (1, 7), (3, 6) and
(2, 4).
(a) Rotate triangle A through 180 ° about the origin to get triangle B.
(b) Rotate triangle B clockwise through 90 ° about the point (0, – 4) to
get triangle C.
(c) Write down the coordinates of the corners of triangle C.
9. The following diagrams show two rotations. Determine the coordinates of

the centre of rotation in each case.
y y
14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
10. A triangle has corners at the points A (4, 2), B (6, 3) and C (5, 7). The
triangle is rotated to give the triangle with corners at the points A' (3, – 1),
B' (4, – 3) and C' (8, – 2).
Describe fully this rotation.
11. An equilateral triangle has It has rotational symmetry

3 lines of symmetry. of order 3.
Write the letter of each of the following shapes in the correct space in
a copy of the table. You may use a mirror or tracing paper to help you.
The letters for the first two shapes have been written for you.
181
7.5
C
A E
B D F
Number of Lines of Symmetry

0 1 2 3
1
Order of
Rotational 2
Symmetry
B
3 A
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 5-7/P1)
12.
(a) You can rotate triangle A onto triangle B.

Make a copy of the diagram and put a cross on the centre of rotation.
You may use tracing paper to help you.
(b) You can rotate triangle A onto triangle B.

The rotation is anti-clockwise.
What is the angle of rotation?
182
(c) On a copy of the diagram below, reflect triangle A in the mirror line.
You may use a mirror or tracing paper to help you.
Mirror Line
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 4-6/P2)
13. Julie has written a computer program to transform pictures of tiles. There
are only two instructions in her program,
reflect vertical
or
rotate 90 ° clockwise.
Reflect vertical
Rotate 90 ° clockwise
(a) Julie wants to transform the first pattern to the second pattern.
First Pattern Second Pattern
2 2
1 1
A B A B
183
7.5
Copy and complete the following instructions to transform the tiles B1

and B2. You must use only reflect vertical or rotate 90 ° clockwise.
A1 Tile is in the correct position.
A2 Reflect vertical, and then rotate 90 ° clockwise.
B1 Rotate 90 ° clockwise and then ...........................................
B2 ..............................................................................................
(b) Paul starts with the first pattern that was on the screen.
First Pattern Paul's Pattern
2 2
1 1
A B A B
Copy and complete the instructions for the transformations of A2, B1
and B2 to make Paul's pattern. You must use only reflect vertical
or rotate 90 ° clockwise.
A1 Reflect vertical, and then rotate 90 ° clockwise.
A2 Rotate 90 ° clockwise, and then ..........................................
B1 ..............................................................................................
B2 ..............................................................................................
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
7.6 Combining Transformations

In this section we combine transformations. We see that sometimes 2 transformations
are equivalent to a single transformation.
Here we use transformations from the following types:
Translations Enlargements Reflections Rotations
y
Example 1
6
The shape shown in the diagram is reflected first
5
in the y-axis and its image is then reflected in the
4
x-axis.
3
What single transformation would have the same 2
result as these two transformations? 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
184
Solution
y
7
6
5
The diagram shows how the
B 4 A original shape A is first reflected
3
to B, and B is then reflected to C.
2
1
A rotation of 180 ° about the
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x origin would take A straight to C.
–1
–2
–3
C –4
–5
–6
–7
Example 2
A triangle is to be enlarged with scale factor 2, using the origin as the centre of
 − 8
enlargement. Its image is then to be translated along the vector   .
1 
The coordinates of the corners of the triangle are (2, 1), (2, 4) and (4, 1).
What single transformation would have the same result?
Solution
y
10
9
8 The diagram shows the
7 original triangle, A; the
6 enlargement takes it to B,
C 5 which is then translated to C.
4 B
3
2 A
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x The triangle A could be

–1
enlarged with scale factor 2
–2
to give C.
185
7.6
10
9
This diagram shows that the
8
7
centre of enlargement would
6 be the point (8, – 1).
C 5
4
3
2 A
1
The single transformation
–5 –4 –3 –2 –10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x that will move triangle A to
–1
(8, –1) triangle C is an enlargement,
–2
scale factor 2, centre (8, – 1).
Exercises
y
1. (a) Reflect the shape shown in the x-axis
and then reflect its image in the y-axis.
6
(b) What single transformation would 5
have the same result as these two 4
transformations? 3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
2. A rectangle has corners at the points with coordinates (1, 2), (3, 1), (5, 5)
and (3, 6). It is first reflected in the x-axis and then its image is rotated
through 180 ° about the origin.
Describe how to move the rectangle from its original position to its final
position, using only one transformation.
3. A shape is rotated through 180 ° about the origin and then its image is
reflected in the x-axis.
(a) Choose a shape and carry out the transformations described above.
(b) What single transformation would have the same result as the two
transformations described above?
(a) Draw the triangle and enlarge it with scale factor 2, using the origin as
the centre of enlargement.
186
 − 3
(b) Translate the enlarged shape along the vector   .
 − 6
(c) Describe fully the enlargement that would produce the final triangle
from the original triangle.
5. (a) Draw the triangle with corners at the points (2, 1), (4, 1) and (4, 2).
(b) Reflect this shape in the line y = x .
(c) Reflect the new triangle in the y-axis.
(d) What single transformation would have the same result as the two
transformations described above?
6. (a) Reflect a shape of your choice in the line y = x and then reflect the
image in the line y = − x .
(b) Describe a single transformation that would have the same result.
7. The shape shown in the following diagram is to be reflected in the line

x = 4 and then its image is to be reflected in the line y = 5 .
y
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
(a) Draw a diagram to show how the shape moves.

(b) What single transformation would have the same result?
10
8. The shape shown in the diagram is translated along the vector   .
y
 0
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
(a) Draw the final position of the shape.

(b) Describe how the shape could be moved to this position using
2 reflections.
187
7.6
9. The shape shown in the diagram is to be enlarged with scale factor 3 using
the point (0, 4) as the centre of enlargement.
y
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
(a) Draw the enlarged shape.
 0
(b) The enlarged shape is translated along the vector   . Draw the new
 8
position of the shape.
(c) Describe the single enlargement that would have the same result as the
two transformations used above.
10. A shape is reflected in the line y = x , then in the line y = − x , and finally
in the x-axis.
What single transformation would have the same result?
11. The following design is based on a Celtic pattern.
Part of the pattern is shown below:

y
8
A B
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
188
The pattern is made of two rectangular blocks, A and B.

Use two transformations to map block A onto block B. Your
transformations must be either rotations or reflections.
Mark any mirror lines or centres of rotation on a copy of the previous
diagram.
Write down instructions for the first and second transformations.
Give coordinates of any centres of rotation, the amount of turn and
direction of turn. Give the equations of any lines of reflection.
(KS3/95/Ma/Levels 9-10)
189
8 Statistical Diagrams
8.1 Data Collection, Extraction and Presentation
In this section we look at collecting and presenting data. We also look at extracting
data from tables and timetables.
Example 1
The table gives the distances, in miles, between some towns and cities. Use this
table to answer the questions below.
BY
ER
ER
ST
CA
D
54
O
D
LL
R
TE
88 42
U
H
ES
IC
LN
28 69 87 M
LE
A
CO
H
G
N
52 39 37 51
IN
LI
D
TT
EL
16 44 73 25 36
O
FI
N
EF
37 18 61 62 46 37
SH
(a) How far is it from Hull to Nottingham?

(b) Andy drives from Leicester to Lincoln and then on from Lincoln to Doncaster.
How far does he drive altogether?
(c) Ian drives from Hull to Sheffield and then back to Hull. How many miles, in
total, does he drive?
Solution
(a) From the table, Hull to Nottingham is 73 miles.
(b) From the table, Leicester to Lincoln is 51 miles
and Lincoln to Doncaster is 39 miles.
Total distance = 51 + 39
= 90 miles
(c) From the table, Hull to Sheffield is 61 miles.
Total distance = 61 × 2
= 122 miles
190
Example 2
Use the following timetable to answer the questions below.
SATURDAY
Letchworth d ..... 1955 ..... ..... 1955 2030 ..... 2055 ..... ..... 2055 2130
Hitchin d ..... 2004 ..... ..... 2004 2034 ..... 2104 ..... ..... 2104 2134
Stevenage d ..... 2009 ..... ..... 2030 2039 ..... 2109 ..... ..... 2130 2139
Watton-at-Stone d ..... ..... ..... ..... 2037 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 2137 .....
Hertford North d ..... ..... ..... ..... 2043 ..... ..... ..... 2113 ..... 2143 .....
Bayford d ..... ..... 2013 ..... 2047 ..... ..... ..... 2117 ..... 2147 .....
Cuffley d ..... ..... 2017 ..... 2052 ..... ..... ..... 2122 ..... 2152 .....
Crews Hill d ..... ..... 2022 ..... 2055 ..... ..... ..... 2125 ..... 2155 .....
Gordon Hill d ..... ..... 2025 ..... 2058 ..... ..... ..... 2128 ..... 2158 .....
Enfield Chase d ..... ..... 2028 ..... 2100 ..... ..... ..... 2130 ..... 2200 .....
Grange Park d ..... ..... 2030 ..... 2102 ..... ..... ..... 2132 ..... 2202 .....
Winchmore Hill d ..... ..... 2032 ..... 2103 ..... ..... ..... 2133 ..... 2203 .....
Palmers Green d ..... ..... 2036 ..... 2106 ..... ..... ..... 2136 ..... 2206 .....
Bowes Park d ..... ..... 2038 ..... 2108 ..... ..... ..... 2138 ..... 2208 .....
Knebworth d ..... 2013 ..... ..... ..... 2043 ..... 2113 ..... ..... ..... 2143
Welwyn North d ..... 2017 ..... ..... ..... 2047 ..... 2117 ..... ..... ..... 2147
Welwyn Garden City d 1958 2020 ..... 2028 ..... 2050 2058 2120 ..... 2128 ..... 2150
Hatfield d 2002 2023 ..... 2032 ..... 2053 2102 2123 ..... 2132 ..... 2153
Welham Green d 2006 ..... ..... 2036 ..... ..... 2106 ..... ..... 2136 ..... .....
Brookmans Park d 2008 ..... ..... 2038 ..... ..... 2108 ..... ..... 2138 ..... .....
Potters Bar d 2011 2029 ..... 2041 ..... 2059 2111 2129 ..... 2141 ..... 2159
Hadley Wood d 2015 ..... ..... 2045 ..... ..... 2115 ..... ..... 2145 ..... .....
New Barnet d 2017 ..... ..... 2047 ..... ..... 2117 ..... ..... 2147 ..... .....
Oakleigh Park d 2019 ..... ..... 2049 ..... ..... 2119 ..... ..... 2149 ..... .....
New Southgate d 2022 ..... ..... 2052 ..... ..... 2122 ..... ..... 2152 ..... .....
Alexandra Palace d 2025 ..... 2040 2055 2110 ..... 2125 ..... 2140 2155 2210 .....
Hornsey d 2027 ..... 2042 2057 2112 ..... 2127 ..... 2142 2157 2212 .....
Harringay d 2029 ..... 2044 2059 2114 ..... 2129 ..... 2144 2159 2214 .....
Finsbury Park d 2032 2041 2047 2102 2117 2111 2132 2141 2147 2202 2217 2211
Drayton Park d ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
Highbury and Islington d ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
Essex Road d ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
Old Street d ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
Moorgate a ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....
London Kings Cross a ..... 2048 2055 2110 2125 2118 2140 2148 2155 2210 2225 2218
(a) Alan catches the 2017 train at Cuffley. When does he arrive at Hornsey?
(b) Julie arrives at Hornsey at 2212. When did she leave Palmers Green?
Solution
(a) Alan arrives at 2042.
(b) Julie left at 2206.
Example 3
A class of pupils take a test. Their scores are listed below:
17 23 46 31 17 19 26 31 42 5
21 32 36 37 37 38 41 40 19 12
7 48 29 39 42 38 41 32 36 35
Draw a stem and leaf diagram for this data.
Solution
In this stem and leaf diagram we treat the numbers of 10s as the stem and the
numbers of units as the leaves.
191
8.1
In the following stem and leaf plot the data has not been put into order;
Stem Leaf
0 5 7
1 7 7 9 9 2
2 3 6 1 9
3 1 1 2 6 7 7 8 9 8 2 6 5
4 6 2 1 0 8 2 1
The leaves can now be ordered as shown to produce the final diagram:
Stem Leaf
0 5 7
1 2 7 7 9 9
2 1 3 6 9
3 1 1 2 2 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9
4 0 1 1 2 2 6 8
Example 4
A student records the temperature in a greenhouse every 4 hours during 1 day. The
results are listed below:
Time 0000 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Temperature ( ° C ) 6 5 9 21 25 12 8
Draw a line graph and use it to estimate the temperature at 1000 and 1400.
Solution
The line graph is shown below:
Temp
(° C ) 24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
3
2
0
0000 0400 0800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Time
192
The dotted lines show how to estimate the temperatures at 1000 and 1400. These
estimates are:
15 ° C at 1000
and 23 ° C at 1400.
Example 5
Throughout a 4-week period a class recorded the number of children absent each
day. Their results are listed below:
1 0 4 3 1 2 1 3 4 5
7 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 1 0
Collate this data using a tally chart and draw a vertical line graph to illustrate the
data.
Solution
The tally chart is shown below:
Number of Children Tally Frequency

Absent
0 II 2
1 IIII I 6
2 III 3
3 IIII 5
4 II 2
5 I 1
6 0
7 I 1
The vertical line graph is shown below:
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of Children Absent
193
8.1
Example 6
These pie charts show some information about the ages of people in Greece and in
Ireland. There are about 10 million people in Greece, and there are about 3.5
million people in Ireland.
Greece Ireland
Under 15 Over 59
Over 59 Under 15
40-59
40-59 15-39
15-39
10 million people 3.5 million people
(a) Roughly what percentage of people in Greece are aged 40 - 59 ?

(b) There are about 10 million people in Greece. Use your percentage from part
(a) to work out roughly how many people in Greece are aged 40 - 59.
(c) Dewi says that these charts show that there are more people under 15 in
Ireland than in Greece.
Dewi is wrong. Explain why the charts do not show this.
(d) There are about 60 million people in the UK. The table shows roughly what
percentage of people in the UK are of different ages.
Under 15 15-39 40-59 over 59
20% 35% 25% 20%
Copy and complete the pie chart below to show the information in the table.
Label each section of your pie chart clearly with the ages.
UK
60 million people
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 5-7/P2)
194
Solution
90 1
(a) The angle for 40-59 is about 90 ° ; the fraction of the total is = , or
360 4
25%.
1
(b) 25% of Greece's population = × 10 million = 2.5 million .
4
(c) This is not true; the percentage of people under 15 is higher in Ireland than
in Greece, but Greece has a far larger population than Ireland. The actual
numbers are:
1
Ireland : × 3.5 million ≈ 0.875 million
4
60 1
Greece : × 10 million = × 10 million ≈ 1.67 million
360 6
360 °
(d) Since there are 10 equal sectors in the pie chart, each sector is = 36 ° ,
10
and each sector represents 10% of the people in the UK.
Sectors are:
under 15 15-39 40-59 over 59
1 1
2 sectors 3 sectors 2 sectors 2 sectors
2 2
UK
Over 59 Under 15
40-59 15-39
60 million people
195
8.1
Exercises
RD
FO
E
G
D
ID
1. Use this mileage chart to
BE
BR
answer the following questions:
M
29
IN
CA
N
O
CH
(a) How far is it from Hitchin
N
G
IT
16 27
O
N
to Royston?
PT
TI
M
N
H
20 15 30
A
(b) Alan drives from Bedford
G
H
U
RT
RO
N
to Royston and then back 21 50 37 43
O
O
BO
ST
N
again. How far does he
G
24 13 14 21 45
RO
N
travel in total?
LI
EL
20 44 36 26 10 44
W
(c) David cycles from
Bedford to Hitchin, then
from Hitchin to Royston and from Royston back to Bedford. How far
does he cycle altogether?
(d) A lorry is driven from Cambridge to Northampton, then from
Northampton to Hitchin and from Hitchin back to Cambridge. How
far does the lorry travel altogether?
(e) Is the journey from Cambridge to Northampton shorter than the
journey from Cambridge to Wellingborough?
S
EL
EN
2. The table gives the distances, in kilometres,
SS
U
RG
between some European cities. Use the
BR
O
H
U
D
table to answer the following questions: BO

N
136
EI
EM
(a) Jai drives from Paris to Eindhoven

X
212 282
LU
M
and then drives back to Paris. How
A
S
RI
307 435 376 D

ER
PA
far does he travel?

TT
182 113 354 452

RO
ES
(b) Harry leaves Rotterdam and travels to
Y
O
Brussels and on to Troyes before 401 537 296 173 552

TR
returning to Rotterdam. How far does

he travel altogether?
(c) Andrea leaves Paris, drives to Troyes and from there on to Brussels.
How far does she travel?
(d) A driver has to travel from Luxembourg to Brussels, calling at
Eindhoven and Rotterdam on the way. Calculate the shortest length of
this journey.
3. Use the following timetable to answer these questions:

(a) Which train should you catch at Birmingham Moor Street to arrive in
Wilmcote before 1700 ?
(b) Nick arrives in Yardley Wood at 1603. At what time did he leave
Jewellery Quarter?
(c) Ali leaves Spring Road at 1534. At what time will he arrive at
Earlswood?
196
(d) Michaela arrives at Hall Green station at 1445. She wants to travel to
Henley-in-Arden. What is the earliest time that she could arrive
there?
(e) Denise wants to travel from Bordesley to Yardley Wood. At what time
must she leave Bordesley?
(f) Johnny wants to travel from Small Heath to Earlswood. He arrives at

Small Heath station at 1500. Describe how he can get to Earlswood.
Jewellery Quarter 1350 1420 1440 1450 1520 1540 1550 1620 1640 1650 1709
Birmingham Snow Hill 1405 1425 1445 1505 1525 1545 1605 1625 1645 1704 1716
Birmingham Moor Street 1408 1448 1448 1508 1528 1548 1608 1628 1648 1707 1718
Bordesley F F -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1709 --
Small Heath 1412 -- 1452 1512 -- 1552 1612 -- 1652 1712 --
Tyseley 1414 -- 1454 1514 -- 1554 1614 1632 1654 1714 --
Spring Road 1417 1434 1457 1517 1534 1557 1617 1635 1657 1717 1725
Hall Green 1420 1437 1500 1520 1537 1600 1620 1638 1700 1723 1728
Yardley Wood 1423 1440 1503 1523 1540 1603 1623 1641 1703 1727 1731
Shirley 1426 1443 1506 1526 1543 1606 1626 1644 1706 -- 1734
Whitlocks End -- 1446 -- -- 1546 -- -- 1647 -- -- 1737
Wythall -- -- -- -- 1548 -- -- 1649 -- -- 1739
Earlswood -- -- -- -- 1551 -- -- 1652 -- -- 1742
The Lakes -- -- -- -- 1553 -- -- 1654 -- -- 1744
Wood End -- -- -- -- 1555 -- -- 1656 -- -- 1746
Danzey -- -- -- -- 1558 -- -- 1659 -- -- 1749
Henley-in-Arden -- -- -- -- 1603 -- -- 1704 -- -- 1754
Wootton Wawen -- -- -- -- 1605 -- -- 1706 -- -- 1756
Wilmcote -- -- -- -- 1611 -- -- 1714 -- -- 1802
Stratford-upon-Avon -- -- -- -- 1615 -- -- 1718 -- -- 1807
4. Use the following timetable to answer the questions below:
(a) Jack catches the 0933 train from Manchester. At what time would he
arrive in Weston-super-Mare?
(b) Josh wants to travel to Camborne. What is the latest time that hecould
leave Manchester Piccadilly?
(c) Kate catches the 1026 at Stafford. At what time will she arrive in
Torquay?
(d) Hannah leaves Wolverhampton and arrives in Weston-super-Mare at

1522. At what time did she leave Wolverhampton?
(e) Matthew leaves Taunton at 1405. At what time does he arrive in

Penzance?
(f) Serena catches the 1641 at St Austell. At what time does she arrive in
St Erth?
197
8.1
Aberdeen d
Dundee d 0620
Edinburgh d 0710 0815
Haymarket d -- --
Glasgow Central d -- 0820 --
Motherwell d -- 0836 --
Lockerbie d -- -- --
Carlisle d -- 0943 --
Penrith d -- 1000 --
Oxenholme Lake District d -- 1027 --
Lancaster d -- 1045 --
Preston d -- 1109 --
Wigan North Western d -- 1121 --
Warrington Bank Quay d -- 1133 --
Liverpool Lime Street d 0910 0949 -- 1049 --
Runcorn d 0927 1005 -- 1105 --
Hartford d 0940 1017 -- 1119 --
Bolton d 0823 0936 -- 1036 --
Manchester Piccadilly d 0917 0933 1017 -- 1117 --
Stockport d 0905 -- 1005 -- 1105 --
Wilmslow d 0936 0949 1036 -- 1136 --
Crewe d 0955 1013 1050 -- 1157 --
Macclesfield d 1914 -- 1021 -- 1116 --
Congleton d -- -- 1030 -- -- --
Stoke-on-Trent d 0936 -- 1043 -- 1138 --
Stafford d 1026 -- 1119 -- 1225 --
Wolverhampton d 1042 -- 1135 1152 1244 1252
Birmingham New Street a 1100 -- 1151 1225 1303 1321
Birmingham New Street d 0948 1111 -- 1202 1230 1307 1330
Cheltenham Spa a 1110 1151 -- 1242 1310 1355 --
Gloucester a 1118 1224 -- 1312 1318 --
Bristol Parkway a 1152 1231 -- -- 1352 1430 --
Bristol Temple Meads a 1204 1243 1254 1328 1404 1445 1451
Weston-super-Mare a 1257 1317 1320 1423 1424 1522 1556
Taunton a 1241 1319 1346 1405 1447 1630
Tiverton Parkway a 1310 1349 -- -- 1500 --
Exeter St Davids a 1307 1349 1414 1434 1517 1547
Newton Abbot a 1348 1423 1442 1511 1549 1621
Torquay a 1425 1435 -- 1522 1616 1707
Paignton a 1432 1445 -- 1530 1623 1714
Totnes a 1404 1455 1455 1511 1603 1635
Plymouth a 1409 1523 1523 1541 1632 1645
Liskeard a 1432 1552 1551 1609 1713
Bodmin Parkway a 1445 1604 1603 1622 1726
Par a 1456 1615 1615 1651 1740
St Austell a 1503 1623 1622 1641 1757
Truro a 1521 1641 1640 1700 1821
Redruth a 1533 1653 1653 1715 1830
Camborne a 1541 1700 1700 -- 1839
St Erth a 1551 1711 1710 1730 1850
Penzance a 1605 1723 1723 1745 1903
5. As part of a science project, the height of a plant is measured every 3 days.

The readings are listed in the following table:
Day 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Height (cm) 4 6 9 14 16 19 24
(a) Draw a line graph to show how the height of the plant varies with time.
(b) Estimate the height of the plant after 14 days.
(c) Estimate the age of the plant when the height was 8 cm.
198
6. Records were kept of the mass of a baby for the first few days of its life.
The information is listed in the table below:
Day 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Mass (kg) 3.7 3.6 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3
(a) Draw a line graph to show how the mass of the baby changes.
(b) Use the line graph to estimate the mass on:
(i) day 1, (ii) day 7, (iii) day 15.
7. Jane measured the height of her son, Chris, every two years and kept a
record of the heights.
Chris' Age 1 3 5 7 9 11
Height (cm) 59 81 102 110 131 156
(a) Draw a line graph using this data.

(b) Estimate Chris' height when he was:
(i) 2 years old, (ii) 10 years old.
8. The results of a maths test for one class are listed below:
42 31 29 38 24 17 9 18 28 27
34 35 38 40 40 19 32 39 22 11
11 9 2 17 32 19 22 29 31 33
Illustrate this data using an ordered stem and leaf diagram using stems of
0, 10, 20, 30 and 40.
9. The data collected in a survey on the number of children in each family is

listed below:
2 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 6 1 2 3 3 4 1 5 2 3 2
1 3 1 2 4 5 2 2 2 3 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 4 2
(a) Draw up a tally and frequency table for this data.

(b) Illustrate this data using a pictogram.
(c) Illustrate this data using a vertical line graph.
199
8.1
10. Data was collected on the amount, in pence, that children spent in a
tuckshop in one session. This data is illustrated in the following stem and
leaf diagram.
Stem Leaf
20 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 9
30 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 5 5 5 6 6 8 8 9
40 0 0 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 7 7
50 0 0 0
Use a vertical line diagram to illustrate the data.
11. A survey into the types of cars in a car park collected data listed below:
F P F B P Re C M C Re F V
Ro Ro Fi F Fi Fi B P C Re M Re
F Fi M Ro F F F P Re Ro P C
M F F Re Ro C Ro F M
Key: F Ford, P Peugeot, B BMW, C Citroen, M Mazda
Fi Fiat, Ro Rover, Re Renault, V Vauxhall
Illustrate this data with a bar chart.
12. A small cafe sells sandwiches, ice creams, hot drinks and cold drinks. The
pictogram shows what they sold on Monday.
Each symbol in the pictogram represents 10.
Sandwiches
Ice Creams
HOT HOT HO
Hot Drinks
Cold Drinks COLD COLD COLD COLD COLD COLD
Monday
(a) How many cold drinks did they sell?

(b) How many ice creams did they sell?
(c) How many hot drinks did they sell?
200
The pictogram below shows how many sandwiches and ice creams the cafe
sold on Tuesday.
(d) The cafe also sold 40 hot drinks on Tuesday. Show this number on a
copy of the pictogram below.
Each symbol in the pictogram represents 10.
Sandwiches
Ice Creams
Hot Drinks
Cold Drinks
Tuesday
(e) The cafe also sold 12 cold drinks on Tuesday. Show this number of
cold drinks on the pictogram you have drawn.
(f) Look at both the pictograms. What can you tell about the weather on
each day?
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
13. Look at this bus timetable, from Highbury to Colton:

Bus Timetable: Highbury to Colton
Highbury depart: 07:45 08:30 09:30 10:45 11:30
Colton arrive: 08:30 09:15 10:15 11:30 12:15
(a) A bus leaves Highbury at 08:30.

(i) What time does it arrive in Colton?
(ii) How much time does the bus journey take?
(b) 5 friends are going from Highbury to Colton by bus. They want to
arrive by 10:30. Which is the latest bus they can catch from
Highbury?
(c) Each bus ticket costs £2.20. How much do the 5 bus tickets cost
altogether?
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 3-5/P1)
201
8.1
14. (a) Lisa works in a shoe shop. She recorded the size of each pair of
trainers that she sold during a week. This is what she wrote down:
Sizes of Trainers Sold
Monday 7 7 5 6
Tuesday 6 4 4 8
Wednesday 5 8 6 7 5
Thursday 7 4 5
Friday 7 4 9 5 7 8
Saturday 6 5 7 6 9 4 7
Use a tallying method to make a table showing how many pairs of

trainers of each size were sold during the whole week.
(b) Which size of trainer did Lisa sell most of?
(c) Lisa said that most of the trainers sold were bigger than size 6. How
can you tell from the table that Lisa is wrong?
15. This chart shows the distances in miles between six towns.
Cardiff
394 Edinburgh
198 221 Liverpool
152 380 203 London
318 107 157 280 Newcastle
166 496 300 215 410 Plymouth
Example: Cardiff and London are 152 miles apart.
(a) How far apart are Cardiff and Newcastle?

(b) How far apart are London and Edinburgh?
(c) Which town is 198 miles from Cardiff?
(d) Which two towns are exactly 300 miles apart?
(e) Which town is the greatest distance from Plymouth?
(f) Which town is the smallest distance from Cardiff?
202
(g) Gwen is a lorry driver. She drove from London to Newcastle, then
from Newcastle to Edinburgh. She filled in her job sheet.
From To Distance
London Newcastle 280
Newcastle Edinburgh 107
She drove back using the same route. Copy and complete her job
sheet.
From To Distance
Edinburgh
(KS3/94/Ma/3-5/P1)
16. The two frequency diagrams below show the amount of rain that fell in two
different months.
Month A
Frequency
(days) 12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Rainfall (mm)
Month B
Frequency
(days) 12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Rainfall (mm)
(a) Kath says that there are 30 days in month A. Explain how you know
she is right.
203
8.1
(b) Carl asks 5 friends how much rain fell during month A. They said:
Jon: 5 mm, Dipta: 25 mm, Ian: 30 mm, Nerys: 75 mm, Sue: 250 mm
Only one friend could have been right. You can tell who it is without
trying to work out the total rainfall.
Which one of Carl's friends could have been right? Explain how you
know.
(c) Sudi said:
"The diagram for month B shows that it rained more at
the end of the month."
Sudi is wrong. Explain why the diagram does not show this.
(KS3/94/Ma/5-7/P1)
17. There are 50 children altogether in a playgroup.

(a) (i) How many of the children are girls?
(ii) What percentage of the children are girls?
Girls
(b) 25 of the children are 4 years old. Boys
20 of the children are 3 years old.
5 of the children are 2 years old.
Show this information on a pie diagram.
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 4-6/P2)
8.2 Statistical Measures

In this section we recap the statistical measures mean, median, mode and range. The
mean, median and mode give an indication of the 'average' value of a set of data, i.e.
some idea of a typical value. The range, however, provides information on how
spread out the data is, i.e. how varied it is.
Definition Example
sum of all data For 1, 2, 2, 3, 4

Mean =
number of values 1+ 2 + 2 + 3+ 4
Mean =
5
12
=
5
= 2.4
For 1, 2, 2, 3, 4
Mode = most common value Mode = 2
For 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5
Mode = 2 and 4
204
Definition Example
For 1, 2, 2, 3, 4
Median = middle value when data
Median = 2
is arranged in order
For 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4
2+3
Median =
2
= 2.5
Range = largest value – smallest value For 1, 2, 2, 3, 4

Range = 4 − 1
= 3
In this section, we extend these basic ideas to grouped data.
Example 1
The shoe sizes for a class are summarised in the Shoe Size Frequency
table shown. 4 2
Calculate: 5 4
(a) the mode, (b) the median 6 7
(c) the mean (d) the range 7 5
for this data 8 6
9 3
Solution 10 3
(a) The mode = 6 (i.e. the size with highest frequency)
(b) There are 30 values altogether. Since 30 is even, there will be two central
values. These will be the 15th and 16th values. From the frequency table,
these are both 7. (You could list them all in order, but it is easy to see from
the table that there are 13 values before the five '7' values are reached.)
7+7
So the median = = 7.
2
(c) The mean is the sum of all the data values divided by the total number of
values, and is better calculated from the table by adding an extra
'frequency × size'
column, as shown in the following table:
205
(x) (f) ( f x)
Size Frequency Frequency × Size
4 2 2×4 = 8
5 4 4 × 5 = 20
6 7 7 × 6 = 42
7 5 5 × 7 = 35
8 6 6 × 8 = 48
9 3 3 × 9 = 27
10 3 3 × 10 = 30
Total 30 210
∑fx 210
The mean = = = 7
∑f 30
(d) The range = highest value – lowest value

= 10 − 4
= 6
Note
n + 1
If a data set contains n values then the median can be obtained as the  th
 2 
value If n is odd, this formula will pick out the value that you need. For example,
157 + 1
if there are 157 data values then the median will be the  th value, i.e. the
 2 
79th value. If n, the number of data values, is even, then the formula will pick out
the two values that you need to average to obtain the median. In Example 1, we
30 + 1
had n = 30 data values, so the median is the  th value, i.e. the 15.5th
 2 
value. The ' .5' tells us we need to average the 15th and 16th values, which is what
we did to get the median 7.
206
Example 2
The table shows the Morse code for 26 letters and how long it takes to send each
letter.
Letter Code Sending Time Letter Code Sending Time Letter Code Sending Time
A 5 J 13 S 5
B 9 K 9 T 3
C 11 L 9 U 7
D 7 M 7 V 9
E 1 N 5 W 9
F 9 O 11 X 11
G 9 P 11 Y 13
H 7 Q 13 Z 11
I 3 R 7
If a letter is frequent we want to be able to send it quickly. The following table

shows the 6 most frequent letters in 4 languages:
English French Italian Spanish
1 E E E E
2 T A O A
3 A S A O
4 O I I S
5 N R N R
6 I N R I
(a) Copy and complete the following table of the mean, median and modal
sending times for the 6 most frequent letters in each language.
Mean 5.3 5.3

Median 5 5
Mode 3 and 5 5
(b) Use your table in part (a) to decide which two languages are likely to send
the quickest messages in Morse. Explain how you decided.
(c) Samuel Morse invented the code. Messages in his own language are quick
to send. Look at the table of the 6 most frequent letters in each language.
Which one of these letters has a code which suggests that Samuel Morse's
own language was English? Explain how you decided.
(KS3/94/Ma/5-7/P2)
207
8.2
Solution
1 + 3 + 5 + 11 + 5 + 3 28
(a) English : mean time = =
6 6
2
= 4 = 4.7 (to 1 decimal place)
3
median time: in order 1, 3, 3, 5, 5, 11

3+5
median = = 4
2
1+ 5+ 5+3+ 7+ 5 26
French : mean time = =
6 6
1
= 4 = 4.3 (to 1 decimal place)
3
median time: in order 1, 3, 5, 5, 5, 7
5+5
median = = 5
2
Italian times are 1, 11, 5, 3, 5, 7, so modal time is 5.
Spanish times are 1, 5, 11, 5, 7, 3, so modal time is 5.
These values can now be put in the table, as below.
Mean 4.7 4.3 5.3 5.3

Median 4 5 5 5
Mode 3 and 5 5 5 5
(b) English and French , since their mean values are significantly lower than the
mean values for Italian and Spanish.
(c) The letter T, which is the 2nd most frequently used letter in English, has a
very short sending time, but is not in the top 6 for French, Italian or Spanish.
Note
Often data is provided in summary form, so that estimates have to be made to find
the mean value.
208
Example 3
Data on the number of minutes that a particular train service was late have been
summarised in the table. (Times are given to the nearest minute.)
(a) How many journeys have been included? Minutes Late Frequency
(b) What is the modal group? on time 19
(c) Estimate the mean number of minutes the 1-5 12
train is late for these journeys. 6-10 9
(d) Which of the two averages, mode and mean, 11-20 4
would the train company like to use in 21-40 4
advertising its service? Why does this give
41-60 2
a false impression of the likelihood of being
late? over 60 0
(e) Estimate the probability of a train being more

than 20 minutes late on this service.
Solution
(a) Total number of journeys = 19 + 12 + 9 + 4 + 4 + 2 = 50
(b) 'On time'
(c) It is more convenient to use a table for this calculation; for each 'group', the
midpoint is used for the calculation (this is why it is an estimate and not an
exact value).
Minutes Late Midpoint Frequency fx
(x) (f)
On time 0 19 0
1-5 3 12 36
6-10 8 9 72
11-20 15.5 4 62
21-40 30.5 4 122
41-60 50.5 2 101
Total 50 393
(Note that, because the times in the table are given to the nearest minute, the class
described as '11-20' actually means 10.5 ≤ T < 20.5 . This class has width
10 minutes, so half way will be 5 minutes after the start point 10.5, so the
midpoint = 10.5 + 5 = 15.5 .)
393
Mean value ≈ ≈ 7.86 minutes
50
(d) Clearly 'on time'; the modal average, would give a better impression, but it
would be giving a false impression as over 50% of trains were in fact late!
6
(e) Estimate = = 0.12 = 12%
50
209
8.2
Exercises
1. The number of days absence for each pupil No. of Days Absent Frequency
in a class is summarised in the table. 0 10
Calculate: 1 11
(a) the mode, 2 5
(b) the median, 3 0
4 2
(c) the mean,
5 1
(d) the range,
6 1
for the data.
more than 6 0
2. A new minibus service to the nearest town No. of People Frequency

is provided for an isolated village. The Using the Service
number of people using the service during 0 5
the first month of operation is summarised 1 4
in the table.
2 3
(a) Calculate: 3 4
(i) the mode, 4 6
(ii) the median, 5 2
(iii) the mean. 6 2
7 3
(b) Which of these average values give
8 1
the best justification for continuing
the service? Why could it be criticised 9 1
as not giving a fair representation of the 10 0
use of the minibus service?
3. A machine in a youth club sells snacks as listed in the following table.
Crisps 20p
Chocolate bars 35p
Drinks 40p
Rolls 75p
Sandwiches £1.00
Len writes down the amounts of money which different people spend one
evening during each hour that the club is open:
210
Amounts of Money Spent During Each Hour

5 p.m. to 6 p.m. 6 p.m. to 7 p.m. 7 p.m. to 8 p.m.
40p 75p £1.75
60p 55p £1.40
55p 60p £1.60
20p 40p 75p
40p £1.15 £1.40
60p 40p £1.10
55p 75p 60p
40p 40p £1.50
(a) Explain why Len is correct when he says that the mode of the amounts
of money spent is 40p.
(b) Copy the chart below and fill in the column for 7 p.m. to 8 p.m. Then
fill in the column for the total number of people who spent each
amount.
Time Total Number

of People Who
Amount of 5 p.m. to 6 p.m. to 7 p.m. to Spent Each
Money Spent 6 p.m. 7 p.m. 8 p.m. Amount
Under 50p I I I I I I I 7
50p to 99p I I I I I I I I
£1.00 to £1.49 I
Over £1.49
(c) Len says: "Now 50p to 99p is the mode."

Is Len right? Explain your answer.
(d) Look at where the tally marks are on the chart. What do you notice
about the amounts of money people spent at different times in the
evening? Give a reason which could explain the difference you
notice.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 4-6/P2)
211
8.2
Temperature (° C) in Miami
4. This graph shows the range of
temperature in Miami each month. For 0 10 15 20 25 30 35
example, in January the temperature Jan

ranges from 17 ° C to 24 ° C . Feb
Mar
(a) In which month does Miami have Apr
May
the smallest range? Jun
Jul
(b) In July, the range in the temperature Aug
Sep
in Miami is 5 ° C . There are five Oct
Nov
other months in which the range in Dec
the temperature is 5 ° C . Which Miami
five months are they?
Temperature (° C ) in Orlando
(c) This graph shows the range in the
0 10 15 20 25 30 35
temperature in Orlando each month.
In which three months is the Jan
Feb
maximum temperature in Miami Mar
greater than the maximum Apr
May
temperature in Orlando? Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Orlando
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 4-6/P1)
Class P
5. The pupils in five classes did a quiz. 100
The graphs show the scores in each 80
class. Each class had a mean score of % 60
of
7. In three of the classes, 80% of the Pupils 40
pupils got more than the mean score. 20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Class Q Score
100
Class S
80 100
% 60
of 80
Pupils 40 % 60
of
20 Pupils 40
0 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Score 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Score
Class R
100
Class T
80 100
% 60
of 80
Pupils 40 % 60
of
20 Pupils 40
0 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Score 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Score
212
(a) In which three classes did 80% of the pupils score more than 7 ?
(b) Look at the graphs which show that 80% of the pupils scored more
than 7. Some of the statements below are true when 80% of the pupils
scored more than 7.
Write down the letter for each of the statements below which is true.
A: All of the pupils scored at least 2.
B: Most of the pupils scored at least 8.
C: Most of the pupils scored at least 10.
D: Some of the pupils scored less than 6.
(c) In another quiz the mean score was 6. Copy and complete the
following graph to show a mean score of 6.
100
80
% 60
of
Pupils
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Score
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 5-7/P1)
6. A school has 5 Year groups. 80 pupils from the school took part in a
sponsored swim. Lara and Jack drew these graphs.
Lara's graph:
Number of Lengths Swum by Each Year Group
250 230
210
Jack's graph: 200
170
Number of Pupils Who Swam Number 150
Different Numbers of Lengths of 150
Lengths
35 33 100
30 27 70
Number 25
of 50
Pupils 20
15 12 0
7 8 9 10 11
10
6
5 2 Year Group
0
1 to 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25
Number of Lengths
213
8.2
(a) Look at Lara's graph. Did Year 10 have fewer pupils taking part in the
swim than Year 7 ? Write down one of the following as your answer:
Yes, No or Cannot tell
(b) Use Lara's graph to work out the mean number of lengths swum by
each of the 80 pupils. Show your working.
(c) Use Jack's graph to work out the mean number of lengths swum by
each of the 80 pupils. Show your working.
(d) Explain why the means calculated from Lara's graph and Jack's graph
are different.
(KS3/96/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
7. A customer at a supermarket complains to the manager about the waiting

times at the check-outs. The manager records the waiting times of 100
customers at check-out 1.
Results 40
40
30
30
Number
of 20
Customers 14
10
10
6
0
1 2 3 4 5
Waiting Time (Minutes)
(a) Use the graph to estimate the probability that a customer chosen at
random will wait for 2 minutes or longer.
(b) Use the graph to estimate the probability that a customer chosen at
random will wait for 2.5 minutes or longer.
(c) Calculate an estimate of the mean waiting time per customer. Show
your working. You may complete a copy of the table below to help
you with the calculation.
Waiting Time Mid-point Number of

(minutes) of bar (x) Customers (f) (fx)
0- 0.5 6 3
1- 1.5 14
2- 2.5 40
3- 3.5 30
4-5 4.5 10
100
214
(d) The manager wants to improve the survey. She records the waiting
times of more customers. Give a different way the manager could
improve the survey.
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
8. A company makes breakfast cereal containing nuts and raisins. They

counted the number of nuts and raisins in 100 small packets.
Results:
40
Chart A: Nuts 40 Chart B: Raisins
33
30 30 29
26
Number Number 23 24
of 20 of 20
Packets 20 Packets 20
15
10 10
6 4
0 0
4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30
Number of Nuts Number of Raisins
(a) Calculate an estimate of the mean number of nuts in a packet. Show your
working. You may complete a copy of the table below to help you with the
calculation.
Number Mid-point Number of

of Nuts of Bar (x) Packets (f) fx
4-6 5 26 130
7-9 8 33
10 -12 11 20
13 - 15 14 15
16 - 18 17 6
100
(b) Calculate an estimate of the number of packets that contain 24 or

more raisins.
(c) Which of the two charts shows the greater range? Explain your
answer.
(d) A packet is chosen at random. Calculate the probability that it
contains 9 nuts or fewer.
(e) The number of raisins in a packet is independent of the number of
nuts. A packet is chosen at random. Calculate the probability that it
contains 16 to 18 nuts and 6 to 10 raisins. Show your working.
(KS3/97/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
215
8.3 Plotting Scatter Diagrams

In this section we review plotting scatter diagrams and discuss the different types
of correlation that you can expect to see on these diagrams.
y
Strong positive correlation between x and y. The

points lie close to a straight line with
y increasing as x increases.
y
Weak, positive correlation between x and y. The
trend shown is that
y increases as x increases
but the points are not close to a straight line.
y
No correlation between x and y; the points are
distributed randomly
on the graph.
Weak, negative correlation between x and y. The

trend shown is that
y decreases as x increases
but the points do not lie close to a straight line.
x
y
Strong, negative correlation. The points lie close to
a straight line, with
y decreasing as x increases.
If the points plotted were all on a straight line we would have perfect correlation,
but it could be positive or negative as shown in the diagrams above.
216
Example 1
The following table lists values of x and y.
x 2 3 5 6 9 11 12 15
y 10 7 8 5 6 2 5 2
(a) Use the data to draw a scatter graph.

(b) Describe the type of correlation that you observe.
Solution
(a) The scatter graph is shown below.
y
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 x
(b) It shows weak, negative correlation.
Example 2
What sort of correlation would you expect to find between:
(a) a person's age and their house number,
(b) a child's age and their height,
(c) an adult's age and their height ?
Solution
(a) No correlation, because these two quantities are not linked in any way.
(b) Positive correlation, because children get taller as they get older.
(c) No correlation, because the height of adults does not change with their age.
217
8.3
Exercises
1. Consider the following scatter graphs:
y y y
x x x
A B C
(a) Which graph shows strong correlation?

(b) Which graphs show positive correlation?
(c) Which graph shows negative correlation?
(d) Which graph shows a weak, positive correlation?
2. The following table lists values of x and y.

x 2 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
y 3 5 8 5 9 6 9 9 11
(a) Plot a scatter graph for this data.

(b) Describe the correlation between x and y.
3. Copy and complete the table below for 10 people in your class.
House Number
Day of Month of Birthday
(a) Plot a scatter graph for your data.

(b) Describe the type of correlation that there is between these two
quantities.
4. A driver keeps a record of the distance travelled and the amount of fuel in
his tank on a long journey.
Distance Travelled (km) 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Fuel in Tank (litres) 80 73 67 61 52 46 37
(a) Illustrate this data with a scatter plot.

(b) Describe the type of correlation that is present.
218
5. What type of correlation would you expect to find between each of the
following quantities:
(a) Age and pocket money,
(b) IQ and height,
(c) Price of house and number of bedrooms,
(d) Person's height and shoe size ?
6. In a class 10 pupils took a Science test and an English test. Their scores are
listed in the following table:
Pupil A B C D E F G H I J
English Score 2 10 18 4 9 7 18 19 3 10
Science Score 18 12 6 3 11 20 4 17 7 2
(a) Draw a scatter graph for this data.

(b) Describe the correlation between the two scores.
7. Chris carries out an experiment in which he measure the extension of a

spring when he hangs different masses on it. The following table lists his
results:
Mass (grams) 20 50 100 120 200
Extension (cm) 1.2 3.0 6 7.2 12

(b) Describe the correlation between the mass and the extension.
8. Every day Peter picks the ripe tomatoes in his greenhouse. He keeps a
record of their mass and the number that he picks. His results are listed in
the following table:
Number of Tomatoes Picked 1 3 2 5 8 6 7 4
Total Mass (grams) 40 180 60 270 390 220 420 210

(b) Describe the correlation between the number of tomatoes picked and
their total mass.
219
8.3
9. A competition has 3 different games.

(a) Jeff plays 2 of the games.
Game A Game B Game C
Score 62 53
To win, Jeff needs a mean score of 60. How many points does he
need to score in Game C? Show your working.
(b) Imran and Nia play the 3 games. Their scores have the same mean.
The range of Imran's score is twice the range of Nia's scores.
Copy the following table and fill in the missing scores.
Imran's Scores 40
Nia's Scores 35 40 45
The scatter diagrams show the scores of everyone who plays all 3 games.
100 100
80 80
60 60
Game B Game C
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Game A Game A
(c) Look at the scatter diagrams. Write down a statement from the table
below which most closely describes the relationship between the
games.
Game A and Game B
perfect perfect
negative negative no positive positive
relationship relationship relationship relationship relationship
Game A and Game C
perfect perfect
220
(d) What can you tell about the relationship between the scores on Game
B and the scores on Game C? Write down the statement below which
most closely describes the relationship.
Game B and Game C
perfect perfect
(KS3/98/Ma/Tier 6-8/P2)
8.4 Lines of Best Fit

When there reasonable correlation between two variables on a scatter plot, it is
possible to draw a line of best fit. This line represents the underlying relationship
between the two quantities. When drawing a line of best fit the aim is to keep the
distances of all the points from the line to a minimum. Sometimes it is helpful to
try to keep the number of points above the line the same as the number of points
below the line.
Lines of best fit can be used to make predictions. The accuracy and reliability of
those predictions will depend on the strength of the correlation between the two
variables.
Example 1
(a) Draw a line of best fit for the points in the following scatter graph:
y
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 x
(b) Use the line to predict the value of y when x = 12 .
221
8.4
Solution
(a) The line of best fit has been drawn on the following scatter graph:
y
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 x
Note that there are 3 points above the line and 3 below. The total distances
to the points above the line is similar to the total distance to the points below
the line.
(b) Using the dotted line, we have y = 6.4 when x = 12 .
Example 2
The following data was collected from an experiment. In the experiment, objects
of different masses were placed on a horizontal surface and the force needed to
make them start to move was recorded.
Mass (kg) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0
Force (N) 2.1 3.8 6.1 7.9 13.2 19.1
Use a scatter graph to estimate the force needed for a 2.5 kg mass.
Solution
The scatter graph and line of best fit are shown below.
Force (N) 20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 Mass (kg)
The graph also shows that the estimated force for a 2.5 kg mass is 10 N.
222
Exercises
1. (a) Use the data shown to draw
a scatter plot.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b) Draw a line of best fit for
the data. y 7 10 12 15 19 21
(c) Estimate the value of y when x = 0 .
2. The Maths and Science test results for 10 pupils are listed below:
Pupil A B C D E F G H I J
Maths Score 45 83 65 62 71 52 69 72 58 64
Science Score 39 80 59 60 65 54 65 67 56 64
(a) Draw a scatter graph for this data and then draw a line of best fit.
(b) Estimate the score on the Science test for pupils who scored:
(i) 73 (ii) 40
on the Maths test.
3. The following data was collected by a lorry driver who was interested in
how much fuel he used on different journeys.
Length of Journey (miles) 100 250 150 180 220 300
Fuel Used (litres) 24 59 44 50 59 97

(b) Draw a line of best fit.
(c) Estimate how much fuel would be needed for a 200 mile journey.
4. A pupil carried out an experiment where he recorded the length of a spring

when various masses were hung from it.
Mass (grams) 50 80 100 150 200 300
Length (cm) 6.0 6.6 6.9 8.0 9.1 11.1
Use a scatter graph and a line of best fit to estimate the length of the spring
when:
(a) no mass is hung from it,
(b) a mass of 250 grams is hung from it.
223
8.4
5. Rafiq collected the following data on the height and shoe size of some
pupils in his class:
Shoe Size 6 4 8 5 9 10 4 5.5
Height (cm) 143 150 172 146 165 177 141 156
(a) Draw a scatter plot and a line of best fit for the data.
(b) Estimate the height of a person with a shoe size of 7.5.
(c) Ian has a height of 170 cm. Estimate his shoe size.
6. A garage owner keeps a record of the age and price of the small family cars
that the garage sells. Some of these records are given in the following table:
Age (years) 6 5 7 3 1 2 3 7 9 10
Price (£) 5700 6800 5300 7700 8500 7900 7800 5700 3700 3600
(a) Draw a scatter graph and a line of best fit for this data.
(b) Estimate the price of a 4-year-old car and a 12-year-old car.
7. An electric heater was turned on in a cold room. The temperature was

recorded every 2 minutes.
Time (minutes) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Temperature ( ° C ) 8.0 9.3 10.4 11.5 12.7 13.9 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.2 19.4
(a) Estimate the temperature after 15 minutes.

(b) Estimate when the temperature will reach 22 °C .
8. A biology student measured the height of a small plant at weekly intervals.

The results obtained are listed in the following table:
Time (weeks) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Height (cm) 1.2 2.5 3.6 4.5 5.3 6.4 7.2 8.3
(a) Estimate the height of the plant after 3 12 weeks.

(b) Estimate when the height of the plant will be 10 cm.
224
9. The scatter diagram shows the heights and masses of some horses. The
scatter diagram also shows a line of best fit.
700
600
Mass (kg)
500
400
300
140 150 160 170
Height (cm)
(a) What does the scatter diagram show about the relationship between
the height and mass of the horses?
(b) The height of a horse is 163 cm. Use the line of best fit to estimate
the mass of the horse.
(c) A different horse has a mass of 625 kg. Use the line of best fit to
estimate the height of the horse.
(d) A teacher asks his class to investigate this statement:
"The length of the back leg of a horse is always less than
the length of the front leg of a horse."
What might a scatter graph look like if this statement is correct?
Show your answer on a copy of the axes below.
110
100
Length of
Back Leg
(cm) 90
80
70
70 80 90 100 110
Length of Front Leg (cm)
(KS3/99/Ma/Tier 6-8/P1)
225
8.4
10. Nine students were discussing their holiday jobs working on a local farm.
They decided to find out if there were any relationships between the time
they spent working, sleeping, watching television and the distance they had
to travel to work. The students plotted three scatter graphs.
GRAPH 1
40
35
Weekly
Hours 30
Watching 25
Television
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Weekly Hours Worked
GRAPH 2
70
Weekly
Hours 60
Slept 50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Weekly Hours Worked
GRAPH 3
100
Weekly
Travelling 80
Distance
(km) 60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Weekly Hours Worked
(a) What does Graph 1 show about the relationship between the weekly
hours spent watching television and the weekly hours worked?
(b) What does Graph 2 show about the relationship between the weekly
hours slept and the weekly hours worked?
226
(c) What does Graph 3 show about the relationship between the weekly
travelling distance and the weekly hours worked?
(d) Another student works 30 hours per week. Use Graph 1 to estimate
the weekly hours spent watching television by this student. Explain
how you decided on your estimate.
8.5 Equation of the Line of Best Fit

If you draw a line of best fit, it is possible to determine the equation of the line of
best fit. You will remember that the equation of a straight line is given by
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the intercept.
Rise
Rise m=
Step
Step
c


x
Example 1
The points with coordinates (0, 6), (2, 7), (4, 8) and (6, 9) lie on a straight line.
Draw the line and determine its equation.
Solution
y
The points and the line are shown on the graph.
2 1
The intercept is 6. The gradient = = , so the 9
4 2 8 2
equation of the line is 7
6
4
1
y= x+6 5
2 4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
227
8.5
Example 2
The following graph shows a scatter plot and a line of best fit:
y
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 x
(a) Determine the equation of the line of best fit.

(b) Use the equation to estimate y when x = 4 .
(c) Use the equation to estimate x when y = 18 .
Solution
(a) The intercept and the gradient can be found from the graph, as shown on
the following diagram. (Note that the scales on the vertical and horizontal
axes are not the same.)
y
20
18
16
14
12
10
10
8
6
20
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 x
10
c = 5, m =
20
1
=
2
1
so the line of best fit has equation y = x + 5.
2
228
(b) Substitute x = 4 into the equation.

1
y = ×4+5
2
= 2+5
= 7
(c) Substitute y = 18 into the equation for the line of best fit and solve the
equation this gives.
1
18 = x+5
2
1
13 = x (subtracting 5 from both sides)
2
x = 2 × 13 (multiplying both sides by 2)
= 26
Note of Warning!
In (b) above, the value of x used was within the range of values of x provided
by the original data. We can be confident that the estimate we obtain is
reasonable. This process is called interpolation.
In (c) above, the value of x we obtain is well outside the range of values of x
provided by the original data. This process is called extrapolation and the results
must be treated with caution as they may be very unreliable. In some cases,
extrapolation can generate bogus predictions.
Exercises
1. Each set of points below lies on a straight line. Determine the equation of
each line.
(a) (0, 3), (5, 5), (10, 7) and (15, 9)
(b) (1, 5.3), (3, 5.5), (5, 5.7) and (7, 5.9)
(c) (0, 6), (3, 5.4), (5, 5) and (8, 4.4)
2. The relationship between two x 0 100 200 300 400

quantities L and x is to be
investigated using the data shown. L 6 6.4 6.9 7.3 7.6
(a) Draw a scatter graph with x on the horizontal axis and draw a line of
best fit.
(b) Determine the equation of the line of best fit.
229
8.5
(c) Use the equation to estimate L when x = 250 and 500 . Comment
on how reliable your estimates are.
3. In the calibration of a thermometer, the height, H cm, of the mercury is

recorded at different temperatures. The results are listed below.
Temperature ( °C ) 5 20 35 50 80
H (cm) 4.5 21.0 35.2 51.2 78.6
(a) Draw a scatter graph and a line of best fit.

(c) Estimate H when the temperature is 60 ° C and 120 ° C .
(d) Which of your estimates is the more reliable? Explain why.
4. Refer back to the scatter graphs and lines of best fit you used each of the
questions 1 to 8 in the Exercises in section 8.4. Determine the equation of
the line of best fit for each question.
5. A long distance lorry driver records the times it takes to make journeys of
different lengths. This information is recorded below:
Length of Journey (miles) 150 229 260 290 320

Time Taken (hours) 3 14 4 12 6 14 6 12 7 43
(a) Comment on the way that the driver records the time taken.
(b) Plot the data and draw a line of best fit.
(c) Determine the equation of the line of best fit.
6. In an experiment a flask of water is heated. The temperature of the water is

recorded at two minute intervals. The results are recorded in the following
table:
Time (minutes) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature ( ° C ) 18 30 42 56 71 84
(a) Plot the data on a graph and determine the equation of the line of best
fit.
(b) Use the equation to predict the temperature after 11 minutes.
(c) Why would it not be wise to use the line of best fit to predict
temperatures for later times than 11 minutes?
230
7. A driver records the petrol consumed on a number of journeys of different

lengths. The data is presented in the table below:
Journey Length (miles) 100 180 250 300 320 350
Petrol Consumption (gallons) 3.5 5.6 7.9 8.4 9.3 10.9
Plot a graph of petrol consumed (vertical axis) against journey length

(horizontal axis) and determine the equation of the line of best fit. Use
this to predict the petrol needed for a journey of 280 miles.
8. The number of triplets and higher order births per 100 000 of the population,
as recorded for various years between 1984 and 1994, is given in the
following table:
Year 1984 1987 1988 1989 1991 1992 1994
No. of Triplets and Higher Order 13 21 20 29 32 31 40

Births per 100 000 of the Population
(a) Plot a graph to illustrate this data and draw a line of best fit.
(c) Estimate the number of triplets and higher order births per 100 000 of
the population in the year 2020. Comment on the reliability of your
estimate.
231

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MEP Y9 Practice Book A

In base 10 we use a system of place values as shown below:

The base 10 number 3 is written as 11 in base 2.

The base 10 number 11 is written as 1011 in base 2.

The base 10 number 140 is written as 10001100 in base 2.

2. Convert the following base 10 numbers to binary numbers:

3. Convert the following base 10 numbers to binary numbers:

4. Convert the following base 10 numbers to binary numbers:

5. A particular binary number has 3 digits.

6. When a particular base 10 number is converted it gives a 4-digit binary

7. A 4-digit binary number has 2 zeros and 2 ones.

8. A binary number has 8 digits and is to be converted to base 10.

9. The base 10 number 999 is to be converted to binary. How many more

1.2 Adding and Subtracting Binary Numbers

Key Addition Results for Binary Numbers

Key Subtraction Results for Binary Numbers

(a) 111 + 100 (b) 101 + 110 (c) 1111 + 111

Note how important it is to 'carry' correctly.

2. Calculate the binary numbers:

3. Calculate the binary numbers:

4. Calculate the binary numbers:

6. Calculate the binary numbers:

9. Here are 3 binary numbers:

10. Calculate the binary numbers:

1.3 Multiplying Binary Numbers

Calculate the binary numbers:

(c) 1 10 1 1 (d) 11011

2. Calculate the binary numbers:

4. Multiply each of the following binary numbers by itself:

5. Multiply each of the following binary numbers by itself:

6. Calculate the binary numbers:

(c) 111 (1000 − 101) (d) 1011 (10001 − 1010)

7. Here are 3 binary numbers:

8. (a) Multiply the base 10 numbers 45 and 33.

1.4 Other Bases

We use the fact that

(b) For base 7 the place values are 49, 7, 1.

342 = (1 × 243) + (1 × 81) + (0 × 27) + (2 × 9) + ( 0 × 3) + (0 × 1)

(c) 141 + 104 base 5

(d) 212 + 121 base 3

Check your answer in (a) by changing to base 10 numbers.

and 9 + 11 = 20, as expected.

(a) 141 × 23 in base 5

(b) 122 × 12 in base 3

(c) 512 × 24 in base 6

(b) 1 2 2 Note that, in base 3,

(c) 5 1 2 Note that, in base 6,

and 17 × 5 = 85, as expected.

2. Convert the following numbers from base 10 to the base stated:

3. Carry out the following additions in the base stated:

(a) 3 + 2 in base 4 (b) 5 + 8 in base 9

4. In what number bases could each of the following numbers be written:

5. Carry out each of the following calculations in the base stated:

(a) 13 + 23 in base 4 (b) 120 + 314 in base 5

6. Carry out each of the following multiplications in the base stated:

(a) 3 × 2 in base 4 (b) 4 × 3 in base 5

7. Carry out each of the following multiplications in the base stated:

(a) 121 × 11 in base 3 (b) 133 × 12 in base 4

8. In which base was each of the following calculations carried out?