1

King Saud University

College of Sciences
Department of Mathematics

M-104
GENERAL MATHEMATICS -2-

CLASS NOTES
DRAFT - 2017

Dr. Tariq A. AlFadhel 12

Associate Professor
Mathematics Department

1 E-mail : [email protected]
2 URL : http://fac.ksu.edu.sa/alfadhel
2
Contents

1 CONIC SECTIONS 5
1.1 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 29

2.1 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 43

3.1 Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 Cramer’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Gauss elimination method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Gauss-Jordan method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4 INTEGRATION 55
4.1 Indefinite integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Integral of rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION 73
5.1 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2 Volume of a solid of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3 Volume of a solid of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Polar Coordinates and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 95
6.1 Functions of several variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2 Partial derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3 Chain Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4 Implicit differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

7 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 105

7.1 Definition of a differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2 Separable Differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.3 First-order linear differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

3
4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

CONIC SECTIONS

1.1 Parabola

1.2 Ellipse

1.3 Hyperbola

5
6 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

1.1 Parabola

Definition: A parabola is the set of all points in the plane equidistant from
a fixed point F (called the focus) and a fixed line D (called the directrix) in
the same plane.

Notes:

1. The line passing through the focus F and perpendicular to the directrix
D is called the axis of the parabola .

2. The point half-way from the focus F to the directrix D is called the vertex
of the parabola and is denoted by V .

V
D

1.1.1 The vertex of the parabola is the origin :

This section discusses the special case where the vertex of the parabola is (0, 0).
There are four different cases :

1) x2 = 4ay , where a > 0

F H0, aL

V H0, 0L

y = -a
1.1. PARABOLA 7

The parabola opens upwards .

The focus is F (0, a) .
The equation of the directrix is y = −a .
The axis of the parabola is the y-axis .

2) x2 = −4ay , where a > 0

y =a

V H0, 0L

F H0, -aL

The parabola opens downwards (note the negative sign in the formula).
The focus is F (0, −a) .
The equation of the directrix is y = a .
The axis of the parabola is the y-axis .

3) y 2 = 4ax , where a > 0

x = -a

V H0, 0L F Ha, 0L

The parabola opens to the right.

The focus is F (a, 0) .
8 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

The equation of the directrix is x = −a .

The axis of the parabola is the x-axis .

4) y 2 = −4ax , where a > 0

x =a

F H-a, 0L V H0, 0L

The parabola opens to the left (note the negative sign in the formula) .
The focus is F (−a, 0) .
The equation of the directrix is x = a .
The axis of the parabola is the x-axis .

Example 1: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola x2 = 4y , and
sketch its graph.
Solution: Since the variable x is of degree 2 and the formula contains a positive
sign then x2 = 4y is similar to case(1), where the parabola opens upwards .
4a = 4 ⇒ a = 1
The focus is F(0,1) , and the equation of the directrix is y = −1 .

x2 = 4 y

1 F H0, 1L

y = -1
-1
1.1. PARABOLA 9

Example 2: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola y 2 = −8x , and
sketch its graph.
Solution: Since the variable y is of degree 2 and the formula contains a nega-
tive sign then y 2 = −8x is similar to case(4), where the parabola opens to the
left .
−4a = −8 ⇒ a = 2
The focus is F(-2,0) , and the equation of the directrix is x = 2 .

x =2

F H-2, 0L
-2 2

y 2 = -8 x
10 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

1.1.2 The general formula of a parabola :

This section discusses the general formula of a parabol where the vertex of the
parabola is any point V (h, k) in the plane.
There are four different cases :

No. The general formula Focus Directrix The parabola opens

1 (x − h)2 = 4a(y − k) F (h, k + a) y =k−a upwards
2 (x − h)2 = −4a(y − k) F (h, k − a) y =k+a downwards
3 (y − k)2 = 4a(x − h) F (h + a, k) x=h−a to the right
4 (y − k)2 = −4a(x − h) F (h − a, k) x=h+a to the left

Example 1: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola (x + 1)2 =
−4(y − 1) , and sketch its graph.
Solution : The equation of the parabola is similar to case (2).
(x − h)2 = (x + 1)2 = (x − (−1))2 ⇒ h = −1 .
(y − k) = (y − 1) ⇒ k = 1 .
−4a = −4 ⇒ a = 1 .
The vertex is V (−1, 1)
The focus is F (−1, 0) and the equation of the directrix is y = 2.
The parabola opens downwards (note the negative sign in the formula).

y =2
2

V H-1, 1L
1

F H-1, 0L
-1

Hx + 1L2 = -4 Hy - 1L

Example 2: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola (y −1)2 = 8(x+2)
, and sketch its graph.
Solution : The equation of the parabola is similar to case (3).
(y − k)2 = (y − 1)2 ⇒ k = 1 .
(x − h) = (x + 2) = (x − (−2)) ⇒ h = −2 .
4a = 8 ⇒ a = 2 .
The vertex is V (−2, 1)
The focus is F (0, 1) and the equation of the directrix is x = −4.
The parabola opens to the right .
1.1. PARABOLA 11

x = -4

V H-2, 1L 1 F H0, 1L

-4 -2

Hy - 1L2 = 8 Hx + 2L

Example 3: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola 2y 2 −4y+8x+10 =
0 , and sketch its graph.
Solution : By completing the square
2y 2 − 4y + 8x + 10 = 0 ⇒ 2y 2 − 4y = −8x − 10 ⇒ 2(y 2 − 2y) = −8x − 10
⇒ 2(y 2 −2y+1) = −8x−10+2 ⇒ 2(y−1)2 = −8x−8 ⇒ 2(y−1)2 = −8(x+1)
⇒ (y − 1)2 = −4(x + 1)
The equation of the parabola is similar to case (4).
(y − k)2 = (y − 1)2 ⇒ k = 1 .
(x − h) = (x + 1) = (x − (−1)) ⇒ h = −1 .
−4a = −4 ⇒ a = 1 .
The vertex is V (−1, 1) .
The focus is F (−2, 1) and the equation of the directrix is x = 0 (the y-axis).
The parabola opens to the left (note the negative sign in the formula)

x=0

F H-2 , 1L 1
V H-1, 1L

-2 -1

Hy - 1L2 = -4 Hx + 1L
12 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

Example 4: Find the focus and the directrix of the parabola x2 − 6y − 2x = −7

, and sketch its graph.
Solution : By completing the square
x2 − 6y − 2x = −7 ⇒ x2 − 2x = 6y − 7 ⇒ x2 − 2x + 1 = 6y − 7 + 1
⇒ (x − 1)2 = 6y − 6 ⇒ (x − 1)2 = 6(y − 1)
The equation of the parabola is similar to case (1).
(x − h)2 = (x − 1)2 ⇒ h = 1 .
(y − k) = (y − 1)) ⇒ k = 1 .
6 3
4a = 6 ⇒ a = = .
4 2
The vertex is V(1, 1)
5 1
The focus is F 1, and the equation of the directrix is y = − .
2 2
The parabola opens upwards.

5
2
5
F 1,
2

Hx - 1L2 = 6 Hy - 1L
1
V H1, 1L

1
1
-
2
-1
y =
2

Example 5: Find the equation of the parabola with vertex V (2, 1) and focus
F (2, 3) and sketch its graph.
Solution : Since the focus is located upper than the vertex then the parabola
opens upwards.
Hence its equation is (x − h)2 = 4a(y − k) .
Since the vertex is V (2, 1) then h = 2 and k = 1
a equals the distance between V (2, 1) and F (2, 3) which equals 2 .
The equation of the parabola with V (2, 1) and F (2, 3) is (x − 2)2 = 8(y − 1)

3
F H2, 3L

Hx - 2L2 = 8 Hy - 1L
1
V H2, 1L

-1
y = -1
1.1. PARABOLA 13

Example 6: Find the equation of the parabola with focus F (−1, 1) and direc-
trix x = 1 and sketch its graph.
Solution : Since the focus is located to the left of the directrix then the parabola
opens to the left.
Hence its equation is (y − k)2 = −4a(x − h) .
The vertex is half-way beween the focus and the directrix , hence V (0, 1)
a equals the distance between V (0, 1) and F (−1, 1) which equals 1 .
The equation of the parabola with F (−1, 1) and directrix x = 1 is (y−1)2 = −4x

x =1

F H-1, 1L 1 V H0, 1L

-1 1

Hy - 1L2 = -4 x
14 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

1.2 Ellipse

Definition: An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane for which the sum
of the distances to two fixed points is constant.

Notes :

1. The two fixed points are called the foci of the ellipse and are denoted by
F1 and F2 .

2. The midpoint between F1 and F2 is called the center of the ellipse and
is denoted by P .

3. The endpoints of the major axis are called the vertices of the ellipse and
are denoted by V1 and V2 .

4. The endpoints of the minor axis are denoted by W1 and W2 .

W1

V1 V2
P

W2

1.2.1 The center of the ellipse is the origin :

This section discusses the special case where the center of the ellipse is (0, 0).
There are two different cases :

x2 y2
1) 2
+ 2 = 1 , where a > b :
a b
√
The foci of the ellipse are F1 (−c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , where c = a 2 − b2 .

The vertices of the ellipse are V1 (−a, 0) and V2 (a, 0).

The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 (0, b) and W2 (0, −b).

The major axis lies on the x-axis , and its length is 2a.

The minor axis lies on the y-axis , and its length is 2b.
1.2. ELLIPSE 15

W 1 H0, bL

V 1 H-a, 0L PH0, 0L V 2 Ha, 0L

F1 H-c, 0L F2 Hc, 0L

W 2 H0, -bL

x2 y2
2) + = 1 , where b > a :
a2 b2
√
The foci of the ellipse are F1 (0, c) and F2 (0, −c) , where c = b2 − a 2 .

The vertices of the ellipse are V1 (0, b) and V2 (0, −b).

The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 (−a, 0) and W2 (a, 0).

The major axis lies on the y-axis , and its length is 2b.

The minor axis lies on the x-axis , and its length is 2a.

V 1 H0, bL

F1 H0, cL

W 1 H-a, 0L PH0, 0L W 2 Ha, 0L

F2 H0, -cL

V 2 H0, -bL

Example 1: Identify the features of the ellipse 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225 , and sketch
its graph.
9x2 25y 2 x2 y2
Solution : 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225 ⇒ + =1 ⇒ + =1
225 225 25 9
a2 = 25 ⇒ a = 5 and b2 = 9 ⇒ b = 3.
x2 y2
Since a > b then + = 1 is similar to case (1).
√ √ 25 9 √
c = a2 − b2 = 25 − 9 = 16 = 4.
The foci are F1 (−4, 0) and F2 (4, 0).
The vertices are V1 (−5, 0) and V2 (5, 0).
16 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 (0, 3) and W2 (0, −3).
The length of the major axis is 2a = 10.
The length of the minor axis is 2b = 6.

W 1 H0, 3L
3

V 1 H-5, 0L F1 H-4, 0L F2 H4, 0L V 2 H5, 0L

-5 -4 4 5

x2 y2 -3
+ =1
25 9 W 2 H0, -3L

Example 2: Identify the features of the ellipse 16x2 + 9y 2 = 144 , and sketch
its graph.
16x2 9y 2 x2 y2
Solution : 16x2 + 9y 2 = 144 ⇒ + =1 ⇒ + =1
144 144 9 16
2 2
a = 9 ⇒ a = 3 and b = 16 ⇒ b = 4.
x2 y2
Since b > a then + = 1 is similar to case (2).
√ √9 16 √
c 2 = b2 − a 2 = √ 16 −
9 = 7. √

The foci are F1 0, 7 and F2 0, − 7 .
The vertices are V1 (0, 4) and V2 (0, −4).
The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 (−3, 0) and W2 (3, 0).
The length of the major axis is 2b = 8.
The length of the minor axis is 2a = 6.

V 1 H0, 4L
4

7 F1 J0, 7N

W 1 H-3, 0L W 2 H3, 0L
-3 3

- 7 F2 J0, - 7 N

-4
x2 y2
+ =1 V 2 H0, -4L
9 16
1.2. ELLIPSE 17

1.2.2 The general formula of an ellipse :

This section discusses the general formula of an ellipse where the center of the
ellipse is any point P (h, k) in the plane.
There are two different cases :
No. The general Formula The Foci The Vertices W1 and W2
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
1 + =1 F1 (h − c, k) V1 (h − a, k) W1 (h, k − b)
a2 b2√
( a > b ) and c = a2 − b2 F2 (h + c, k) V2 (h + a, k) W2 (h, k + b)
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
2 + =1 F1 (h, k − c) V1 (h, k − b) W1 (h − a, k)
a2 b2√
2
( b > a ) and c = b − a 2 F2 (h, k + c) V2 (h, k + b) W2 (h + a, k)

Example 1: Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at (−3, 1) , (5, 1) , and
one of its vertices is (7, 1) , and sketch its graph.
Solution : The center  of the ellipseP (h, k) is located in the middle of the two
−3 + 5 1 + 1
foci, hence (h, k) = , = (1, 1).
2 2
c is the distance between the center and one of the foci , and it equals to 4 (see
the figure).
Since the major axis (where the two foci lie) is parallel to the x-axis , then the
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
general formula of the ellipse is + = 1 , where a > b .
a2 b2
a is the distance between the center and one of the vertices, and it equals 6 (see
the figure). √
c2 = a2 − b2 ⇒ (4)2 = (6)2 − b2 ⇒ b2 = 36 − 16 = 20 ⇒ b = 2 5.
(x − 1)2 (y − 1)2
The equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
36 20
The vertices of the ellipse are V1 (−5, 1) and V2 (7,√1).
√

The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 1, 1 + 2 5 and W2 1, 1 − 2 5 .

W1
1+2 5

F1 P F2
V1 1 V2

-5 -3 1 5 7

1-2 5 Hx - 1L2 Hy - 1L2

W2 + =1
36 20
18 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

Example 2: Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at (2, 5) , (2, −3) , and
the length of its minor axis equals 6 , and sketch its graph.
Solution : The center of the ellipseP (h, k) is located in the middle of the two
2 + 2 −3 + 5
foci, hence (h, k) = , = (2, 1).
2 2
c is the distance between the center and one of the foci , and it equals to 4 (see
the figure).
Since the major axis (where the two foci lie) is parallel to the y-axis , then the
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
general formula of the ellipse is + = 1 , where b > a .
a2 b2
The length of the minor axis is 6 means that 2a = 6 ⇒ a = 3.
c2 = b2 − a2 ⇒ (4)2 = b2 − (3)2 ⇒ b2 = 16 + 9 = 25 ⇒ b = 5.
(x − 2)2 (y − 1)2
The equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
9 25
The vertices of the ellipse are V1 (2, 6) and V2 (2, −4).
The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 (−1, 1) and W2 (5, 1).

V1
6

5 F1

W1 1 P W2

-1 2 5

-3 F2

-4
V 2 Hx - 2L + Hy - 1L = 1
2 2

9 25

Example 3: Find the equation of the ellipse with vertices at (−1, 4) , (−1, −2)
and the distance between its two foci equals 4 , and sketch its graph.
Solution : The center of  the ellipse P (h,k) is located in the middle of the two
−1 − 1 −2 + 4
vertices, hence (h, k) = , = (−1, 1).
2 2
The distance between the two foci equals 4 means that 2c = 4 ⇒ c = 2.
Since the major axis (where the two vertices lie) is parallel to the y-axis , then
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
the general formula of the ellipse is + = 1 , where b > a.
a2 b2
The length of the major axis (the distance between the two vertices) equals 6 ,
1.2. ELLIPSE 19

this means 2b = 6 ⇒ b = 3. √
c2 = b2 − a2 ⇒ (2)2 = (3)2 − a2 ⇒ a2 = 9 − 4 = 5 ⇒ a = 5.
(x + 1)2 (y − 1)2
The equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
5 9
The foci of the ellipse are F1 (−1, 3) and F2 (−1,√−1).
√

The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 −1 − 5, 1 and W2 −1 + 5, 1 .

V1
4

F1 3

W1 P 1 W2

-1
-1 - 5 5 -1

F2 -1

-2
V2
Hx + 1L 2
Hy - 1L2
+ =1
5 9

Example 4: Identify the features of the ellipse 4x2 + 2y 2 − 8x − 8y − 20 = 0 ,

and sketch its graph.
Solution :
4x2 + 2y 2 − 8x − 8y − 20 = 0 ⇒ (4x2 − 8x) + (2y 2 − 8y) = 20
⇒ 4(x2 − 2x) + 2(y 2 − 4y) = 20
By completing the square
4(x2 − 2x) + 2(y 2 − 4y) = 20 ⇒ 4(x2 − 2x + 1) + 2(y 2 − 4y + 4) = 20 + 12
⇒ 4(x − 1)2 + 2(y − 2)2 = 32
4(x − 1)2 2(y − 2)2 (x − 1)2 (y − 2)2
⇒ + =1 ⇒ + =1
32 32 8
√ √ 16
2 2
b = 16 ⇒ b = 4 and a = 8 ⇒ b = 8 √ = 2 2.√
c2 = b2 − a2 ⇒ c2 = 16 − 8 = 8 ⇒ c = 8 = 2 2.
The center of the ellipse is (1, 2). √
√

The foci of the ellipse are F1 1, 2 + 2 2 and F2 1, 2 − 2 2 .
The vertices of the ellipse are V1 (1, 6) and V2 (1,
√−2).
√

The endpoints of the minor axis are W1 1 − 2 2, 2 and W2 1 + 2 2, 2
√ √
The length of the major axis is 8 and the length of the minor axis is 2 8 = 4 2.
20 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

V1
6

2+2 2 F1

W1 2 P W2

1
1-2 2 1+2 2

2-2 2 F2

-2
V2 Hx - 1L2 Hy - 2L2
+ =1
8 16
1.3. HYPERBOLA 21

1.3 Hyperbola

Definition: A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane for which the
difference of the distances between two fixed points is constant.

Notes :

1. The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola and are denoted
by F1 and F2 .

2. The midpoint between F1 and F2 is called the center of the hyperbola

and is denoted by P .

P
F1 V1 V2 F2

1.3.1 The center of the hyperbola is the origin :

This section discusses the special case where the center of the hyperbola is (0, 0).
There are two different cases :

x2 y2
1) 2
− 2 = 1 , where a > 0 and b > 0 :
a b

√
The foci of the hyperbola are F1 (−c, 0) and F2 (c, 0) , where c = a 2 + b2 .

The vertices of the hyperbola are V1 (−a, 0) and V2 (a, 0).

The line segment between V1 and V2 is the transverse axis , it lies on

the x-axis and its length is 2a.

b b
The equations of the asymptotes are y = x and y = − x.
a a
22 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

-b b
y = x y = x
a a

V 1 H-a, 0L V 2 Ha, 0L
F1 H-c, 0L F2 Hc, 0L

y2 x2
2) − = 1 , where a > 0 and b > 0 :
b2 a2
√
The foci of the hyperbola are F1 (0, c) and F2 (0, −c) , where c = a 2 + b2 .

The vertices of the hyperbola are V1 (0, b) and V2 (0, −b).

The line segment between V1 and V2 is the transverse axis , it lies on

the y-axis and its length is 2b.
b b
The equations of the asymptotes are y = x and y = − x.
a a

-b F1 H0, cL b
y = x y = x
a a

V 1 H0, bL

V 2 H0, -bL

F2 H0, -cL

Example 1: Identify the features of the hyperbola 4x2 −16y 2 = 64 , and sketch
its graph.
Solution :
4x2 16y 2 x2 y2
4x2 − 16y 2 = 64 ⇒ − =1 ⇒ − =1
64 64 16 4
This form is similar to case (1).
a2 =√16 ⇒ a =√4 and b2 = √ 4 ⇒ b= √2
c = a2 + b2 = 42 + 22 = 20 = 2 √5
√

The foci of the hyperbola are F1 −2 5, 0 and F2 2 5, 0 .
The vertices are V1 (−4, 0) and V2 (4, 0).
The transverse axis lies on the x-axis and its length is 2a = 8.
1.3. HYPERBOLA 23

2 1 2 1
The equations of the asymptotes are y = x = x and y = − x = − x
4 2 4 2

-1 1
y = x y = x
2 2 2

F1 V 1 H-4, 0L V 2 H4, 0L F2
-4 4

-2

Example 2: Identify the features of the hyperbola 4y 2 − 9x2 = 36 , and sketch

its graph.
Solution :
4y 2 9x2 y2 x2
4y 2 − 9x2 = 36 ⇒ − =1 ⇒ − =1
36 36 9 4
This form is similar to case (2).
a2 =√4 ⇒ a = 2√and b2 = 9√⇒ b = 3√
c = a2 + b2 = 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = √ 13
√

The foci of the hyperbola are F1 0, 13 and F2 0, − 13, .
The vertices are V1 (0, 3) and V2 (0, −3).
The transverse axis lies on the y-axis and its length is 2b = 6.
3 3
The equations of the asymptotes are y = x and y = − x
2 2

-3 3
y = x 13 F1 y = x
2 2
3
V 1 H0, 3L

-2 2

V 2 H0, -3L
-3

- 13 F2
24 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

1.3.2 The general formula of a hyperbola :

This section discusses the general formula of a hyperbola where the center of
the hyperbola is any point P (h, k) in the plane.
There are two different cases :
No. The general Formula The Foci The Vertices Transverse axis
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
1 − = 1 F1 (h − c, k) V1 (h − a, k) parallel to
a2 2 2
b2 2
( c =a +b ) F2 (h + c, k) V2 (h + a, k) the x-axis
(y − k)2 (x − h)2
2 − = 1 F1 (h, k + c) V1 (h, k + b) parallel to
b2 2 2
a2 2
( c =a +b ) F2 (h, k − c)) V2 (h, k − b) the y-axis

b b
The equations of the asymptotes are y = (x − h) + k and y = − (x − h) + k
a a

Example 1: Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci at (−2, 2) , (6, 2)
and one of its vertices is (5, 2) , and sketch its graph.
Solution :
The center of the
 hyperbola P(h, k) is located in the middle of the two foci ,
−2 + 6 2 + 2
hence (h, k) = , = (2, 2)
2 2
Note that the two foci lie on a line parallel to the x-axis , hence the general
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
formula of the hyperbola is 2
− =1.
a b2
2c is the distance between the two foci , hence 2c = 8 ⇒ c = 4 .
a is the distance between the center (2, 2) and the vertex (5, 2) , hence a = 3 ,
and the other vertex is (−1, 2). √
c2 = a2 + b2 ⇒ 42 = 32 + b2 ⇒ b2 = 16 − 9 = 7 ⇒ c = 7.
(x − 2)2 (y − 2)2
The equation of the hyperbola is − =1
9 √7
7
The equations of the asymptotes are L1 : y = (x − 2) + 2 and
√ 3
7
L2 : y = − (x − 2) + 2
3

L2 L1
2+ 7

P
F1 V1 V2 F2

-2 -1 2 5 6
2- 7
Hx - 2L2 Hy - 2L2
- =1
9 7
1.3. HYPERBOLA 25

Example 2: Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci at (−1, −6) , (−1, 4)
and the length of its transverse axis is 8 , and sketch its graph.
Solution :
The center of the
 hyperbola P (h,  k) is located in the middle of the two foci ,
−1 − 1 −6 + 4
hence (h, k) = , = (−1, −1)
2 2
Note that the two foci lie on a line parallel to the y-axis , hence the general
(y − k)2 (x − h)2
formula of the hyperbola is 2
− =1.
b a2
2c is the distance between the two foci , hence 2c = 10 ⇒ c = 5 .
The length of the transverse axis is 8 , this means 2b = 8 ⇒ b = 4 .
The vertices are (−1, −5) and (−1, 3) .
c2 = a2 + b2 ⇒ 52 = a2 + 42 ⇒ a2 = 25 − 16 = 9 ⇒ a = 3 .
(y + 1)2 (x + 1)2
The equation of the hyperbola is − =1.
16 9
4
The equations of the asymptotes are L1 : y = (x + 1) − 1 and
3
4
L2 : y = − (x + 1) − 1
3

Hy + 1L2 Hx + 1L2
- =1
16 9

L2 F1 4 L1

3
V1

-4 2

-1
P

V2
-5

F2 -6

Example 3: Find the equation of the hyperbola with center at (1, 1) , one of
its foci is (5, 1) and one of its vertices is (−1, 1) , and sketch its graph.
Solution :
Since the center and the focus lie on a line parallel to the x-axis , then the
26 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
general formula of the hyperbola is 2
− =1.
a b2
c is the distance between the center (1, 1) and the focus (5, 1) , hence c = 4 ,
the other foci is (−3, 1).
a is the distance between the center (1, 1) and the vertex (−1, 1) , hence a = 2
, the other vertex is (3, 1). √ √
c2 = a2 + b2 ⇒ 42 = 22 + b2 ⇒ b2 = 16 − 4 = 12 ⇒ b = 12 = 2 3
(x − 1)2 (y − 1)2
The equation of the hyperbola is − = 1.
4 12
The equations
√ of the asymptotes are
2 3 √ √
L1 : y = (x − 1) + 1 = 3(x − 1) + 1 and L2 : y = − 3(x − 1) + 1
2

L2 L1

1+2 3

P
F1 V1 V2 F2

-3 -1 1 3 5

1-2 3

Hx - 1L2 Hy - 1L2
- =1
4 12

Example 4: Identify the features of the hyperbola 2y 2 − 4x2 − 4y − 8x − 34 = 0

, and sketch its graph.
Solution :
2y 2 − 4x2 − 4y − 8x − 34 = 0 ⇒ (2y 2 − 4y) − (4x2 + 8x) = 34
⇒ 2(y 2 − 2y) − 4(x2 + 2x) = 34
⇒ 2(y 2 − 2y + 1) − 4(x2 + 2x + 1) = 34 + 2 − 4 ⇒ 2(y − 1)2 − 4(x + 1)2 = 32
2(y − 1)2 4(x + 1)2 (y − 1)2 (x + 1)2
⇒ − =1 ⇒ − =1
32 32 16
√ √ 8
2 2
b = 16 ⇒ b = 4 and a = 8 ⇒ a = 8 =√2 2. √
c2 = a2 + b2 ⇒ c2 = 16 + 8 = 24 ⇒ c = 24 = 2 6.
The center of the hyperbola is P (−1, 1). √
√

The foci of the hyperbola are F1 −1, 1 + 2 6 and F2 −1, 1 − 2 6 .
The vertices of the hyperbola are V1 (−1, 5) and V2 (−1, −3).
The transverse axis is parallel to the y-axis and its length is 2b = 8.
The equations of the asymptotes are
1.3. HYPERBOLA 27

4 √ √
L1 : y = √ (x + 1) + 1 = 2(x + 1) + 1 and L2 : y = − 2(x + 1) + 1
2 2

L2 F1 L1

5
V1

P
1

-1
-1 - 2 2 2 2 -1

V2
-3

F2

Hy - 1L2 Hx + 1L2
- =1
16 8
28 CHAPTER 1. CONIC SECTIONS
Chapter 2

MATRICES AND
DETERMINANTS

2.1 Matrices

2.2 Determinants

29
30 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

2.1 Matrices

Definition : A matrix A of order m × n is a set of real numbers arranged in

a rectangular array of m rows and n columns. It is written as
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A= . .. .. 
 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn

Notes :

1. aij represents the element of the matrix A that lies in row i and column
j.

2. The matrix A can also be written as A = (aij )m×n .

3. If the number of rows equals the number of columns (m = n) then A is

called a square matrix of order n.

4. In a square matrix A = (aij ) , the set of elements of the form aii is called
the diagonal of the matrix.

Examples :
 
−1 4 0
1. is a matrix of order 2 × 3.
2 −3 7
a11 = −1 , a12 = 4 , a13 = 0 , a21 = 2 , a22 = −3 and a23 = 7 .
 
5 −3 2
2. 0 1 7  is a square matrix of order 3.
0 8 13

The diagonal is the set {a11 , a22 , a33 } = {5, 1, 13}

2.1. MATRICES 31

2.1.1 Special types of matrices :

1. Row vector : A row vector

of order n is a matrix of order 1 × n, and it is
written as a1 a2 . . . an


Example : 2 7 0 −1 is a row vector of order 4.

2. Column vector: Acolumn vector of order n is a matrix of order n × 1,

a1
 a2 
and it is written as  . 
 
 .. 
an
 
8
Example : −1 is a column vector of order 3.
2

3. Null matrix : The matrix (aij )m×n of order m × n is called a null matrix
if aij = 0 for all i and j, and it is denoted by 0 .

 
0 0 0 ... 0
0 0 0 ... 0
0 = . .. .. .. 
 
 .. . . .
0 0 0 ... 0
 
0 0 0 0
Example :0 0 0 0 is a null matrix of order 3 × 4.
0 0 0 0

4. Upper triangular matrix : The square matrix A = (aij ) of order n is

called anupper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for all i > j , and it is written
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
 0 a22 a23 . . . a2n 
 
as A =  0 0 a33 . . . a3n 

 .. .. .. .. 

 . . . . 
0 0 0 . . . ann
 
8 5 −2 1
0 3 1 −6
Example :
0 0 4
 is an upper triangular matrix of order 4.
1
0 0 0 3

5. Lower triangular matrix : The square matrix A = (aij ) of order n is

calleda lower triangular matrix
 if aij = 0 for all i < j , and it is written as
a11 0 0 ... 0
 a21 a22
 0 ... 0 
A=
 a31 a32 a33 . . . 0 
 .. .. .. .. 

 . . . . 
an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
32 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
 
2 0 0
Example : −1 4 0 is a lower triangular matrix of order 3.
3 −5 7

6. Diagonal matrix : The square matrix A = (aij ) of order n is called a

diagonal
 matrix if aij = 0 for  all i 6= j , and it is written as
a11 0 0 ... 0
 0 a22 0 . . . 0 
 
 0 0 a . . . 0 
A= 33
 .. .. .. .. 

 . . . . 
0 0 0 . .. ann
2 0 0
Example : 0 −3 0 is a diagonal matrix of order 3.
0 0 1

7. Identity matrix : The square matrix In = (aij ) of order n is called an

identity matrix  if aij = 0 for alli 6= j and aij = 1 for all i = j, and it is
1 0 0 ... 0
0 1 0 . . . 0
 
written as In = 0 0 1 . . . 0

 .. .. .. .. 

. . . .
0 0 0 . . . 1

1 0 0
Example : I3 = 0 1 0 is an identity matrix of order 3.
0 0 1
2.1. MATRICES 33

2.1.2 Elementary matrix operations :

1. Addition and subtraction of matrices :
Addition or subtraction of two matrices is defined if the two matricest have the
same order.
If A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )m×n any two matrices of order m × n then

1. A + B = (aij + bij )m×n .

 
a11 + b11 a12 + b12 ... a1n + b1n
 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 ... a2n + b2n 
A+B= .. .. ..
 

 . . . 
am1 + bm1 am2 + bm2 ... amn + bmn

2. A − B = (aij − bij )m×n .

 
a11 − b11 a12 − b12 ... a1n − b1n
 a21 − b21 a22 − b22 ... a2n − b2n 
A−B= .. .. ..
 

 . . . 
am1 − bm1 am2 − bm2 ... amn − bmn

   
2 −3 0 5 2 1
Example : If A = and B = then
 1 −4 6   −3 7 −2 
2+5 −3 + 2 0+1 7 −1 1
A+B= =
1 + (−3) −4 + 7 6 + (−2) −2 3 4
   
2−5 −3 − 2 0−1 −3 −5 −1
A−B= =
1 − (−3) −4 − 7 6 − (−2) 4 −11 8

Notes:

1. The addition of matrices is commutative : if A and B any two matrices

of the same order then A + B = B + A .

2. The null matrix is the identity element of addition : if A is any matrix

then A + 0 = A .

2. Multiplying a matrix by a scalar :

If A = (aij ) is a matrix of order m × n and c ∈ R then cA = (caij ).
 
ca11 ca12 . . . ca1n
 ca21 ca22 . . . ca2n 
cA =  . .. .. 
 
 .. . . 
cam1 cam2 ... camn

   
3 −1 4 9 −3 12
Example : If A = then 3A =
2 −2 0 6 −6 0
34 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

3. Multiplying a row
vector by a column vector :

If A = a1 a2 . . . an is a row vector of order n and
 
b1
 b2 
B =  .  is a column vector of order n then
 
 .. 
bn
 
b1
 b2 

 
AB = a1 a2 ... a n  .  = a 1 b1 + a 2 b2 + . . . + a n bn
 .. 
bn
 
4

−2
Example : If A = −1 2 0 5 and B =   1  then


−1
 
4

−2
AB = −1 2 0 5   1  = −4 − 4 + 0 − 5 = −13


−1

4. Multiplication of matrices :

1. If A and B any two matrices then AB is defined if the number of columns

of A equals the number of rows of B .

2. If A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )n×p then AB = (cij )m×p .

cij is calculated by multiplying the ith row of A by the j th column of B.

 
b1j

 b2j 

cij = ai1 ai2 . . . ain  .  = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . + ain bnj
 .. 
bnj

Example 1 :
 
  1 3
−1 3 4 −1 −2
1.
−2 0 5 2×3 4 0 3×2
 
(−1 × 1) + (3 × −1) + (4 × 4) (−1 × 3) + (3 × −2) + (4 × 0)
=
(−2 × 1) + (0 × −1) + (5 × 4) (−2 × 3) + (0 × −2) + (5 × 0) 2×2
   
−1 − 3 + 16 −3 − 6 + 0 12 −9
= =
−2 + 0 + 20 −6 + 0 + 0 2×2
18 −6 2×2
   
3 −1 0 −3 4
2.
−2 5 2×2 −2 0 1 2×3
2.1. MATRICES 35
 
(3 × 0) + (−1 × −2) (3 × −3) + (−1 × 0) (3 × 4) + (−1 × 1)
=
(−2 × 0) + (5 × −2) (−2 × −3) + (5 × 0) (−2 × 4) + (5 × 1) 2×3
   
0+2 −9 + 0 12 − 1 2 −9 11
=
0 − 10 6+0 −8 + 5 2×3 −10 6 −3 2×3

   
1 −2 3 1 −1
Example 2: Let A = 4 5 6 and B = 2 3 
2 0 1 0 4
Compute (if possible) : 2BA and AB
Solution : A is of order 3 × 3 and B is of order 3 × 2
2BA is not possible because the number of columns of B is not equal to the
number of rows of A.
     
1 −2 3 1 −1 (1 − 4 + 0) (−1 − 6 + 12)
AB = 4 5 6 2 3 = (4 + 10 + 0) (−4 + 15 + 24)
2 0 1 3×3 0 4 3×2 (2 + 0 + 0) (−2 + 0 + 4) 3×2
 
−3 5
AB =  14 35
2 2 3×2

Notes :

1. The identity matrix is the identity element in matrix multiplication :

If A is a matrix of order m × n and In is the identity matrix of order n

then A In = In A = A .

2. Matrix multiplication is not commutative :

   
−1 0 2 1
If A = and B =
3 2 1 1
    
−1 0 2 1 −2 −1
AB = =
3 2 1 1 8 5
    
2 1 −1 0 1 2
BA = =
1 1 3 2 2 2
AB 6= BA .

3. AB = 0 does not imply that A = 0 or B = 0 .

   
1 0 0 0
For example, A = 6= 0 and B = 6= 0
0 0 0 1
    
1 0 0 0 0 0
But AB = = =0
0 0 0 1 0 0
36 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

2.1.3 Transpose of a matrix :

If A = (aij )m×n then the transpose of A is At = (aji )n×m .
 
  4 −3
4 0 −2
Example : If A = then At =  0 5
−3 5 1
−2 1

Note : The transpose of a lower triangular matrix is an upper triangular matrix

, and the transpose of an upper triangular matrix is a lower triangular matrix .

Theorem :
If A and B any two matrices and λ ∈ R then

t
1. At = A .
t
2. (A + B) = At + Bt .
t
3. (λA) = λ At .
t
4. (AB) = Bt At .

2.1.4 Properties of operations on matrices :

1. If A , B and C any three matrices of the same order then

A + B + C = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) = (A + C) + B

2. If A , B any two matrices of order m × n and C a matrix of order n × p

then (A + B)C = AC + BC

3. If A , B any two matrices of order m × n and C a matrix of order p × m

then C(A + B) = CA + CB

4. If A a matrix of order m × n , B a matrix of order n × p and C a matrix

of order p × q then ABC = (AB)C = A(BC)
2.2. DETERMINANTS 37

2.2 Determinants

If A is a square matrix then the determinant of A is denoted by det(A) or |A|.

2.2.1 The
 determinant
 of a 2 × 2 matrix :
a11 a12 a a12
If A = then |A| = 11 = a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22 a21 a22

Example : 
5 −1
If A = then |A| = (5 × 3) − (2 × −1) = 15 + 2 = 17
2 3

2.2.2 The
 determinantof a 3 × 3 matrix :
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21 a22 a23  be a square matrix of order 3.
a31 a32 a33
1). The determinant of A is defined as :
a a23 a a23 a a22
|A| = a11 22 − a12 21 + a13 21
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
|A| = a11 (a22 a33 − a23 a32 ) − a12 (a21 a33 − a23 a31 ) + a13 (a21 a32 − a22 a31 )

2). Sarrus Method for calculating the deteminant of a 3 × 3 matrix :

Write the first two columns to the right of the matrix to get a 3 × 5 matrix

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22

a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

|A| = (a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 )− (a31 a22 a13 + a32 a23 a11 + a33 a21 a12 )
 
2 3 −1
Example : If A =  1 2 4 
−5 0 1
1) Using the definition of the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix
2 4 1 4 1 2
|A| = 2 −3 + (−1)
0 1 −5 1 −5 0
|A| = 2 (2 × 1 − 4 × 0) − 3 (1 × 1 − 4 × −5) − 1 (1 × 0 − 2 × −5)

|A| = 2(2 − 0) − 3(1 + 20) − 1(0 + 10) = 4 − 63 − 10 = −69

38 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

2) Using Sarrus Method

2 3 −1 2 3
1 2 4 1 2
−5 0 1 −5 0
|A| = (2 × 2 × 1 + 3 × 4 × −5 + (−1) × 1 × 0)−(−5 × 2 × −1 + 0 × 4 × 2 + 1 × 1 × 3)

|A| = (4 − 60 + 0) − (10 + 0 + 3) = −56 − 13 = −69 .

2.2.3 The
 determinant of a4 × 4 matrix :
a11 a12 a13 a14
a21 a22 a23 a24 
Let A = 
a31 a32 a33
 be a 4 × 4 matrix , then
a34 
a41 a42 a43 a44
|A| = a11 |A1 | − a12 |A2 | + a13 |A3 | − a14 |A4 |
where    
a22 a23 a24 a21 a23 a24
A1 = a32 a33 a34  , A2 = a31 a33 a34 
a42 a43 a44 a41 a43 a44
   
a21 a22 a24 a21 a22 a23
A3 = a31 a32 a34  , A4 = a31 a32 a33 
a41 a42 a44 a41 a42 a43
 
3 1 −2 1
0 4 −1 5
Example : If A = 
2 1

−3 0
1 −2 −1 3
|A| = (3) |A1 | − (1) |A2 | + (−2) |A3 | − (1) |A4 |
where    
4 −1 5 0 −1 5
A1 =  1 −3 0 , A2 = 2 −3 0
−2 −1 3 1 −1 3
   
0 4 5 0 4 −1
A3 =  2 1 0  , A4 = 2 1 −3
1 −2 3 1 −2 −1
- To calculate |A1 |

4 −1 5 4 −1
1 −3 0 1 −3
−2 −1 3 −2 −1

|A1 | = (−36 + 0 − 5) − (30 + 0 − 3) = −36 − 5 − 30 + 3 = −68

- To calculate |A2 |

0 −1 5 0 −1
2 −3 0 2 −3
1 −1 3 1 −1
2.2. DETERMINANTS 39

|A2 | = (0 + 0 − 10) − (−15 + 0 − 6) = −10 + 21 = 11

- To calculate |A3 |

0 4 5 0 4
2 1 0 2 1
1 −2 3 1 −2

|A3 | = (0 + 0 − 20) − (5 + 0 + 24) = −20 − 29 = −49

- To calculate |A4 |

0 4 −1 0 4
2 1 −3 2 1
1 −2 −1 1 −2

|A4 | = (0 − 12 + 4) − (−1 + 0 − 8) = −8 + 9 = 1
|A| = (3) |A1 | − (1) |A2 | + (−2) |A3 | − (1) |A4 |
|A| = (3 × −68) − (1 × 11) + (−2 × −49) − (1 × 1)
|A| = −204 − 11 + 98 − 1 = −216 + 98 = −118 .

2.2.4 Properties of determinants :

1. If A is a square matrix that contains a zero row (or a zero column) then
|A| = 0.

Examples :
3 −1 1
0 0 0 = 0 (the second row R2 is a zero row)
2 −2 4

3 −1 0
−1 5 0 = 0 (the third column C3 is a zero column)
2 −2 0

2. If A is a square matrix that contains two equal rows (or two equal columns)
then |A| = 0.

Examples :
4 −5 4
0 2 0 = 0 (because C1 = C3 ).
−3 1 −3

1 −1 2
3 2 −2 = 0 (because R2 = R3 )
3 2 −2
40 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

3. If A is a square matrix that contains a row which is a multiple of another

row (or a column which is a multiple of another column) then |A| = 0.

Examples :

2 1 −3
0 5 1 = 0 (because R3 = 2R1 ).
4 2 −6

−2 1 3
0 0 1 = 0 (because C1 = −2C2 ).
2 −1 1

4. If A is a diagonal matrix or an upper triangular matrix or a lower tri-

angular matrix the |A| is the the product of the elements of the main
diagonal.

Examples :

2 0 0
0 −1 0 = 2 × −1 × 5 = −10 (Diagonal matrix)
0 0 5

1 3 −7
0 5 4 = 1 × 5 × −3 = 15 (Upper triangular matrix)
0 0 −3

3 0 0
1 1 0 = 3 × 1 × 2 = 6 (Lower triangular matrix)
4 7 2

5. The determinant of the null matrix is 0 and the determinant of the identity
matrix is 1.

6. If A is a square matrix and B is the matrix formed by multiplying one of

the rows (or columns) of A by a non-zero constant λ then |B| = λ|A| .

7. If A is a square matrix and B is the matrix formed by interchanging two

rows (or two columns) of A then |B| = −|A|.

Example :

3 0 4 6 −1 2
R ←→R2
6 −1 2 −−1−−−−→ −1× 3 0 4
0 0 5 0 0 5

−1 6 2
C ←→C2
−−1−−−−→ − 1 × −1 × 0 3 4 = −1 × −1 × −1 × 3 × 5 = −15
0 0 5
2.2. DETERMINANTS 41

8. If A is a square matrix and B is the matrix formed by mutliplying a row by

a non-zero constant and adding the result to another row (or mutliplying
a column by a non-zero constant and adding the result to another column)
then |B| = |A|.

Example :

5 2 3 5 2 3 5 2 3
−3R +R2 −2R +R3
15 8 1 −−−−1−−→ 0 2 −8 −−−−1−−→ 0 2 −8
10 6 2 10 6 2 0 2 −4

5 2 3
−R2 +R3
−−−− −−→ 0 2 −8 = 5 × 2 × 4 = 40
0 0 4

Examples : Use properties of determinants to calculate the derminants of the

following matrices

1 2 3 4
0 2 3 0 3
1. = 0 (because C3 = C2 )
1 2 3 5 2
3 0 0 0

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 −4 −R1 +R2 0 0 0 −8
2. −−−−−−→
1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5
3 0 1 0 3 0 1 0

1 2 3 4
−R1 +R30 0 0 −8
−−−−−−→ = 0 (because R2 = −8R3 )
0 0 0 1
3 0 1 0

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 −R1 +R2 4 4 4 4
3. −−−−−−→
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
8 7 6 5 8 7 6 5

1 2 3 4
−R3 +R44 4 4 4
−−−−−−→ = 0 (because R2 = R4 )
4 3 2 1
4 4 4 4
42 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
Chapter 3

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS

3.1 Systems of Linear Equations

3.2 Cramer’s Rule

3.3 Gauss Elimination Method

3.4 Gauss-Jordan Method

43
44 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

3.1 Systems of Linear Equations

Consider the system of linear equations in n different variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. (∗)
. . . .
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn

Using multiplication of matrices , the above system of linear equations can be

written as : A X = B
     
a11 a12 . . . a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n   x2   b2 
where A =  . .. ..  , X =  ..  and B =  .. 
     
 .. . .   .  .
an1 an2 . . . ann xn bn
A is called the coefficients matrix
X is called the column vector of variables (or column vector of the unknowns)
B is called the column vector of constants (or column vector of the resultants)

Theorem : The system of linear equations (*) has a solution if det(A) 6= 0 .

This chapter presents three metods of solving the system of linear equations
(*), the first method is Cramer’s rule , the second is Gauss elimination method
, and the third is Gauss-Jordan method .
3.2. CRAMER’S RULE 45

3.2 Cramer’s rule

Consider the system of linear equations in n different variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. (∗)
. . . .
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn

AX=B
     
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 
where A =  . .. ..  , X =  ..  and B =  .. 
     
 .. . .   .  .
an1 an2 ... ann xn bn
If det(A) 6= 0 then the solution of the system (*) is given by
det (Ai )
xi = for every i = 1, 2, · · · , n .
det(A)
Where Ai is the matrix formed by replacing the ith column of A by the column
vector of constants.
   
b1 a12 . . . a1n a11 b1 . . . a1n
 b2 a22 . . . a2n   a21 b2 . . . a2n 
A1 =  . . . , A2 =  . .. .. 
   
 .. .. ..   ..

. . 
bn an2 . . . ann an1 bn . . . ann
 
a11 a12 . . . b1
 a21 a22 . . . b2 
An =  . .. .. 
 
 .. . .
an1 an2 ... bn

Example 1: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations

2x + 3y = 7
−x + y = 4
Solution
 : In this system
  of linear equations
 
2 3 x 7
A= ,X= and B =
−1 1 y 4
2 3
det(A) = = (2 × 1) − (−1 × 3) = 2 − (−3) = 2 + 3 = 5
−1 1
 
7 3
A1 = =⇒ det (A1 ) = 7 − 12 = −5
4 1
 
2 7
A2 = =⇒ det (A2 ) = 8 − (−7) = 15
−1 4
det (A1 ) −5 det (A2 ) 15
x= = = −1 and y = = =3
det(A) 5 det(A) 5
46 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
   
x −1
The solution of the system of linear equations is =
y 3

Example 2: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations

2x + y + z = 3
4x + y − z = −2
2x − 2y + z = 6
Solution
 : In this
system oflinear
 equations
 
2 1 1 x 3
A = 4 1 −1 , X = y  and B = −2
2 −2 1 z 6
To calculate det(A) :
2 1 1 2 1
4 1 −1 4 1
2 −2 1 2 −2
det(A) = (2 − 2 − 8) − (2 + 4 + 4) = −8 − 10 = −18
 
3 1 1
A1 = −2 1 −1
6 −2 1
To calculate det (A1 ) :
3 1 1 3 1
−2 1 −1 −2 1
6 −2 1 6 −2
det (A1 ) = (3 − 6 + 4) − (6 + 6 − 2) = 1 − 10 = −9
 
2 3 1
A2 = 4 −2 −1
2 6 1
To calculate det (A2 ) :
2 3 1 2 3
4 −2 −1 4 −2
2 6 1 2 6
det (A2 ) = (−4 − 6 + 24) − (−4 − 12 + 12) = 14 + 4 = 18
 
2 1 3
A3 = 4 1 −2
2 −2 6
To calculate det (A3 ) :
2 1 3 2 1
4 1 −2 4 1
2 −2 6 2 −2
det (A3 ) = (12 − 4 − 24) − (6 + 8 + 24) = 1 − 10 = −16 − 38 = −54
3.2. CRAMER’S RULE 47

det (A1 ) −9 1
x= = =
det(A) −18 2
det (A2 ) 18
y= = = −1
det(A) −18
det (A3 ) −54
z= = =3
det(A) −18
   1 
x 2
The solution of the system of linear equations is y  = −1
z 3
48 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

3.3 Gauss elimination method

Consider the system of linear equations in n different variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. (∗)
. . . .
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn

AX=B
     
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 
where A =  . .. ..  , X =  ..  and B =  .. 
     
 .. . .   .  .
an1 an2 ... ann xn bn
To solve the system of linear equations (*) by Gauss elimination method :

1. Construct the augmented matrix [A|B]

 
a11 a12 ... a1n b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n b2 
.. .. .. ..
 
 
 . . . . 
an1 an2 ... ann bn

2. Use elementary row operations on the augmented matrix to transform

the matrix A to an upper triangular matrix with leading coeficient of each
row equals 1.

(Note: the leading coefficient of a row is the leftmost non-zero element of

that row).

 
1 c12 c13 c14 ... c1n d1
 0 1 c23 c24 ... a2n d2 
.. .. .. .. .. ..
 
 

 . . . . . . 

 0 0 0 ... 1 c(n−1)n dn−1 
0 0 0 ... 0 1 dn

3. From the last augmented matrix , xn = dn and the rest of the unknowns
can be calculated by backward substitution.

Example 1: Use Gauss elimination method to solve the system

x − 2y + z = 4
−x + 2y + z = −2
4x − 3y − z = −4
3.3. GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD 49

Solution : The augmented matrix is

 
1 −2 1 4
 −1 2 1 −2 
4 −3 −1 −4
   
1 −2 1 4 1 −2 1 4
R1 +R2
 −1 2 1 −2  −−−−−−→  0 0 2 2 
4 −3 −1 −4 4 −3 −1 −4
   
1 −2 1 4 1 −2 1 4
R2 ↔R3 −4R +R2
−−− −−−→  4 −3 −1 −4  −−−−1−−→  0 5 −5 −20 
0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2
   
1
R2
1 −2 1 4 1
R3
1 −2 1 4
−−5−−→  0 1 −1 −4  −−2−−→  0 1 −1 −4 
0 0 2 2 0 0 1 1
Therefore, z = 1.
y − z = −4 ⇒ y − 1 = −4 ⇒ y = −4 + 1 = −3
x − 2y + z = 4 ⇒ x − 2(−3) + 1 = 4 ⇒ x + 6 + 1 = 4 ⇒ x = 4 − 7 = −3
   
x −3
The solution is y  = −3
z 1

Example 2: Use Gauss elimination method to solve the system

2x − y + z + 3w = 8
x + 3y + 2z − w = −2
3x + y − z − 2w = 3
x + y + z − w = 0

Solution : The augmented matrix is

 
2 −1 1 3 8
 1 3 2 −1 −2 
 
 3 1 −1 −2 3 
1 1 1 −1 0

   
2 −1 1 3 8 1 1 1 −1 0
 1 3 2 −1 −2  1R ↔R  1 3 2 −1 −2 

 3 1
 −−−−−−4→  
−1 −2 3   3 1 −1 −2 3 
1 1 1 −1 0 2 −1 1 3 8
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
−R1 +R2  0 2 1 0 −2  −3R1 +R3  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−−−−→  3 1
 −−−−−−→  
−1 −2 3   0 −2 −4 1 3 
2 −1 1 3 8 2 −1 1 3 8
50 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
−2R1 +R4  0 2 1 0 −2  R 2 +R 3
 0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−−−−→   0 −2 −4 1
 −−−−−−→  
3   0 0 −3 1 1 
0 −3 −1 5 8 0 −3 −1 5 8
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
2R4  0 2 1 0 −2  3R2 +R4  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−− →  0 0 −3 1
 −− −−−−→  
1   0 0 −3 1 1 
0 −6 −2 10 16 0 0 1 10 10
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
3R4  0 2 1 0 −2  +R4  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−− →   −−R−3− −−→  
 0 0 −3 1 1   0 0 −3 1 1 
0 0 3 30 30 0 0 0 31 31
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
1
R2  0 1 1 0 −1  1
3 R3
 0 1 1 0 −1 
−−2−−→  2  −−−− −→  2
1
0 0 1 − 3 − 31 

 0 0 −3 1 1  
0 0 0 31 31 0 0 0 31 31
 
1 1 1 −1 0
1
1
31 R 4  0 1 2 0 −1 
−− −−→   0 0 1 −1 −1 

3 3
0 0 0 1 1
Therefor, w = 1
1 1 1 1
z− w=− ⇒ z− =− ⇒ z=0
3 3 3 3
1 1
y + z = −1 ⇒ y + (0) = −1 ⇒ y = −1
2 2
x+y+z−w =0 ⇒ x−1+0−1=0 ⇒ x=2
   
x 2
 y  −1
z  =  0 
The solution is    

w 1
3.4. GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD 51

3.4 Gauss-Jordan method

Consider the system of linear equations in n different variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2
.. .. .. .. (∗)
. . . .
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn

AX=B
     
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 
where A =  . .. ..  , X =  ..  and B =  .. 
     
 .. . .   .  .
an1 an2 ... ann xn bn
To solve the system of linear equations (*) by Gauss-Jordan method :
1. Construct the augmented matrix [A|B]

 
a11 a12 ... a1n b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n b2 
.. .. .. ..
 
 
 . . . . 
an1 an2 ... ann bn

2. Use elementary row operations on the augmented matrix to transform the

matrix A to the identity matrix .

 
1 0 ... 0 0 d1
 0 1 ... 0 0 d2 
.. .. .. .. ..
 
 

 . . . . . 

 0 0 ... 1 0 dn−1 
0 0 ... 0 1 dn

3. From the last augmented matrix , xi = di for every i = 1, 2, · · · , n

Example 1: Use Gauss-Jordan method to solve the system

x + y + z = 2
x − y + 2z = 0
2x + z = 2

Solution : The augmented matrix is

 
1 1 1 2
 1 −1 2 0 
2 0 1 2
52 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
   
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
−R1 +R2
 1 −1 2 0  −−−−−−→  0 −2 1 −2 
2 0 1 2 2 0 1 2
   
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
−2R +R3 2 +R3
−−−−1−−→  0 −2 1 −2  −−R −−− −−→  0 −2 1 −2 
0 −2 −1 −2 0 0 −2 0
   
− 12 R3
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
−R3 +R2
−−−−→  0 −2 1 −2  −−−− −−→  0 −2 0 −2 
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
   
1 1 0 2 − 12 R2
1 1 0 2
−R3 +R1
−−−− −−→  0 −2 0 −2  −−− −→  0 1 0 1 
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
 
1 0 0 1
−R2 +R1
−−−− −−→  0 1 0 1 
0 0 1 0
Therefore , x = 1 , y = 1 and z = 0.
   
x 1
The solution is y  = 1
z 0

Example 2: Use Gauss-Jordan method to solve the system

2x − y + z + 3w = 8
x + 3y + 2z − w = −2
3x + y − z − 2w = 3
x + y + z − w = 0

Solution : (Note : This is example 2 in Gauss elimination method)

The augmented matrix is
 
2 −1 1 3 8
 1 3 2 −1 −2 
 
 3 1 −1 −2 3 
1 1 1 −1 0
   
2 −1 1 3 8 1 1 1 −1 0
 1 3 2 −1 −2  R ↔R
1
 1 3 2 −1 −2 

 3
 −−−−−−4→  
1 −1 −2 3   3 1 −1 −2 3 
1 1 1 −1 0 2 −1 1 3 8
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
−R1 +R2  0 2 1 0 −2  −3R1 +R3  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−−−−→   3 1
 −−−−−−→  
−1 −2 3   0 −2 −4 1 3 
2 −1 1 3 8 2 −1 1 3 8
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
−2R1 +R4  0 2 1 0 −2  R2 +R3  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−−−−→   0 −2
 −−−−−−→  
−4 1 3   0 0 −3 1 1 
0 −3 −1 5 8 0 −3 −1 5 8
3.4. GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD 53
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
2R4  0 2 1 0 −2  3R2 +R4  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−− →   0 0 −3 1
 −− −−−−→  
1   0 0 −3 1 1 
0 −6 −2 10 16 0 0 1 10 10
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
3R4  0 2 1 0 −2  +R4  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−− →   −−R−3− −−→  
 0 0 −3 1 1   0 0 −3 1 1 
0 0 3 30 30 0 0 0 31 31
   
1 1 1 −1 0 1 1 1 −1 0
1
31 R4
 0 2 1 0 −2  4 +R3
 0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−−→   −−R
−− − −−→  
 0 0 −3 1 1   0 0 −3 0 0 
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
   
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
R +R  0 2 1 0 −2  − 13 R3  0 2 1 0 −2 
−−−4−−−1→   0 0 −3 0 0  −−−−→  0 0 1 0 0 
  

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
   
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
−R3 +R2  0 2 0 0 −2  −R3 +R1  0 2 0 0 −2 
−−−− −−→  0 0 1 0 0  −−−−−−→  0 0 1 0 0 
  

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
   
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2
1
R2  0 1 0 0 −1  −R2 +R1  0 1 0 0 −1 
−−2−−→   0 0 1 0 0  −−−−−−→  0 0 1 0 0 
  

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Therefore, x = 2, y= −1
, z 
= 0 and w = 1.
x 2
 y  −1
z  =  0 
The solution is    

w 1
54 CHAPTER 3. SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
Chapter 4

INTEGRATION

4.1 Indefinite integral

4.2 Integration by substitution

4.3 Integration by parts

4.4 Integration of rational functions

(Method of partial fractions)

55
56 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

4.1 Indefinite integral

Definition (Antiderivative): A function G is called an antiderivative of the

function f on the interval [a, b] if G′ (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b].

Examples : What is the antiderivative of the following functions

1. f (x) = 2x .

2. f (x) = cos x .

3. f (x) = sec2 x
1
4. f (x) =
x
5. f (x) = ex

Solution :

1. G(x) = x2 + c
d d
x2 + c = 2x + 0 = 2x


G′ (x) = G(x) =
dx dx
2. G(x) = sin x + c
d d
G′ (x) = G(x) = (sin x + c) = cos x
dx dx
3. G(x) = tan x + c
d d
G′ (x) = G(x) = (tan x + c) = sec2 x
dx dx
4. G(x) = ln |x| + c
d d 1
G′ (x) = G(x) = (ln |x| + c) =
dx dx x
5. G(x) = ex + c
d d x
G′ (x) = G(x) = (e + c) = ex
dx dx

Note: If G1 (x) and G2 (x) are both antiderivatives of the function f (x) then
G1 (x) − G2 (x) = constant.

Definition (indefiniteZ integral): If G(x) is the antiderivative of f (x) then

Z
f (x) dx = G(x)+c , f (x) dx is called the indefinite integral of the function
f (x).
4.1. INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 57

Basic Rules of integration :

Z
1. 1 dx = x + c

xn+1
Z
2. xn dx = + c , where n 6= −1
n+1
Z
3. cos x dx = sin x + c
Z
4. sin x dx = − cos x + c
Z
5. sec2 x dx = tan x + c
Z
6. csc2 x dx = − cot x + c
Z
7. sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
Z
8. csc x cot x = − csc x + c

1
Z
9. dx = ln |x| + c
x
Z
10. ex dx = ex + c

1
Z
11. √ dx = sin−1 x + c , where |x| < 1
1 − x2
1
Z
12. dx = tan−1 x + c
1 + x2
1
Z
13. √ dx = sec−1 x + c , where |x| > 1
x x2 − 1

Properties of indefinite integral :

Z Z
1. k f (x) dx = k f (x) dx , where k ∈ R
Z Z Z
2. (f (x) ± g(x)) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
58 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

Examples : Evaluate the following integrals

Z  
2 5
1. 4x − 3 dx
x
Z  
5 5
Z Z
2 2
Solution : 4x − 3 dx = 4x dx − dx
x x3
x3 x−2 4 5
Z Z
= 4 x2 dx − 5 x−3 dx = 4 −5 + c = x3 + 2 + c
3 −2 3 2x

Z  
1 1
2. 3x + √3 dx
x
Z  
1
Z Z
1 1 1
Solution : 3x 3 + √ dx = 3 x 3 dx + x− 2 dx
x
4
! 1
!
x3 x2 9 4 1
=3 4 + 1 + c = x 3 + 2x 2 + c
3 2
4

Z
3. (2 cos x − 3 sec2 x) dx
Z Z Z
2
Solution : (2 cos x − 3 sec x) dx = 2 cos x dx − 3 sec2 x dx

= 2 sin x − 3 tan x + c

Z
4. (7 sec x tan x + 5 csc2 x) dx
Z Z Z
Solution : (7 sec x tan x + 5 csc2 x) dx = 7 sec x tan x dx+5 csc2 x dx

= 7 sec x + 5(− cot x) + c = 7 sec x − 5 cot x + c

Z  
2 3
5. − 2 dx
x x
Z  
2 3 1
Z Z
Solution : − dx = 2 dx − 3 x−2 dx
x x2 x
 −1 
x 3
= 2 ln |x| − 3 + c = 2 ln |x| + + c
−1 x
4.1. INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 59
Z  
3
6. 9ex − dx
1 + x2
Z  
3 1
Z Z
x x
Solution : 9e − dx = 9 e dx − 3 dx
1 + x2 1 + x2
= 9ex − 3 tan−1 x + c

Z  
4 1
7. √ + √ dx
1 − x2 3
x
Z  
4 1 1
Z Z
1
Solution : √ + √ dx = 4 √ dx + x− 3 dx
1 − x2 3
x 1 − x2
2
!
−1 x3 3 2
= 4 sin x + 2 + c = 4 sin−1 x + x 3 + c
3
2

The definite integral :

If f is a continuous function on the interval [a, b] and G is the antiderivative of
f on [a, b] then the definite integral of f on [a, b] is
Z b
b
f (x) dx = [G(x)]a = G(b) − G(a)
a

Examples : Evaluate the following integrals :

Z 3
1. (3x2 + 5)dx
1
Z 3 3
(3x2 + 5)dx = x3 + 5x 1

Solution :
1

= 3 + 5 × 3 − 13 + 5 × 1 = (27 + 15) − (1 + 5) = 36
3

Z 1
2. (2x + ex ) dx
0
Z 1 1
(2x + ex ) dx = x2 + ex 0

Solution :
0
2 1
− 02 + e0 = 1 + e − 1 = e



= 1 +e
60 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

4.2 Integration by substitution

The main idea of integration by substitution is to use a suitable substitution to

transform the given integral to an easier integral that can be solved by one of
the basic rules of integration.
Z
Example : Evaluate the integral x(x2 + 3)6 dx
Solution : Use the substitution u = x2 + 3
1
Then du = 2x dx ⇒ du = x dx
Z 2
1 1
Z Z
x(x2 + 3)6 dx = u6 du = u6 du
2 2
1 u7 (x2 + 3)7
= +c= +c
2 7 14
d n+1 n
By the chain rule [f (x)] = (n + 1) [f (x)] f ′ (x) , where n 6= −1
dx
n+1
[f (x)]
Z
n
Hence [f (x)] f ′ (x) dx = + c , where n 6= −1
n+1
So,
Z the above integralZcan be solved as follows 2
1 1 (x + 3)7
x(x2 + 3)6 dx = (x2 + 3)6 (2x) dx = +c
2 2 7

Basic rules of integrations and their general forms :

xn+1
Z
1. xn dx = + c , where n 6= −1
n+1
n+1
[f (x)]
Z
n
[f (x)] f ′ (x) dx = + c , where n 6= −1
n+1
1
Z
2. dx = ln |x| + c
x
Z ′
f (x)
dx = ln |f (x)| + c
f (x)
Z
3. ex dx = ex + c
Z
ef (x) f ′ (x) dx = ef (x) + c
Z
4. cos x dx = sin x + c
Z
cos (f (x)) f ′ (x) dx = sin (f (x)) + c
4.2. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 61
Z
5. sin x dx = − cos x + c
Z
sin (f (x)) f ′ (x) dx = − cos (f (x)) + c
Z
6. sec2 x dx = tan x + c
Z
sec2 (f (x)) f ′ (x) dx = tan (f (x)) + c
Z
7. csc2 x dx = − cot x + c
Z
csc2 (f (x)) f ′ (x) dx = − cot (f (x)) + c
Z
8. sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
Z
sec (f (x)) tan (f (x)) f ′ (x) dx = sec (f (x)) + c
Z
9. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + c
Z
csc (f (x)) cot (f (x)) f ′ (x) dx = − csc (f (x)) + c

1
Z x
10. √ dx = sin−1 + c , where a > 0 and |x| < a
a2 − x 2 a
 
f ′ (x) f (x)
Z
q dx = sin−1 + c , where a > 0 and |f (x)| < a
2 a
a2 − [f (x)]

1 1
Z
−1 x
 
11. dx = tan + c , where a > 0
a2 + x 2 a a
 
f ′ (x) 1 f (x)
Z
−1
2 dx = a tan a
+ c , where a > 0
a2 + [f (x)]
1 1
Z x
12. √ dx = sec−1 + c , where a > 0 and |x| > a
x x 2 − a2 a a
 
f ′ (x) 1 f (x)
Z
−1
q dx = sec + c , where |f (x)| > a
2 a a
f (x) [f (x)] − a2
62 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

Examples : Evaluate the following integrals

Z
1. (x2 + 2x)(x3 + 3x2 + 5)10 dx

Solution :
1
Z Z
(x2 + 2x)(x3 + 3x2 + 5)10 dx = (x3 + 3x2 + 5)10 3(x2 + 2x) dx
 
3
1 1 (x3 + 3x2 + 5)11
Z
= (x3 + 3x2 + 5)10 (3x2 + 6x) dx = +c
3 3 11

x+1
Z
2. dx
(x2 + 2x + 6)5
Solution :
x+1
Z Z
dx = (x2 + 2x + 6)−5 (x + 1) dx
(x2 + 2x + 6)5
1 1 (x2 + 2x + 6)−4
Z
= (x2 + 2x + 6)−5 (2x + 2) dx = +c
2 2 −4

x3 + x
Z
3. √ dx
x4 + 2x2 + 5
Solution :
x3 + x
Z Z
1
√ dx = (x4 + 2x2 + 5)− 2 (x3 + x) dx
4 2
x + 2x + 5
1
1 1 (x4 + 2x2 + 5) 2
Z
1
= (x4 + 2x2 + 5)− 2 (4x3 + 4x) dx = 1 +c
4 4 2

x2 + 1
Z
4. dx
x3 + 3x + 8
Solution :
x2 + 1 1 3(x2 + 1)
Z Z
3
dx = dx
x + 3x + 8 3 x3 + 3x + 8
1 3x2 + 3 1
Z
= 3
dx = ln |x3 + 3x + 8| + c
3 x + 3x + 8 3

sin x
Z
5. dx
1 + cos x
Solution :
sin x − sin x
Z Z
dx = − dx = − ln |1 + cos x| + c
1 + cos x 1 + cos x
4.2. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 63

e5x
Z
6. dx
e5x −2
Solution :
e5x 1 5e5x 1
Z Z
5x
dx = 5x
dx = ln |e5x − 2| + c
e −2 5 e −2 5

Z
7. (3x2 + 1) sin(x3 + x + 1) dx

Solution :
Z Z
(3x + 1) sin(x + x + 1) dx = sin(x3 + x + 1) (3x2 + 1) dx
2 3

= − cos(x3 + x + 1) + c

√
sec2 x
Z
8. √ dx
x
Solution :
√
sec2 x √ 1
Z Z
√ dx = sec2 x √ dx
x x
√ 1 √
Z
= 2 sec2 x √ dx = 2 tan x + c
2 x

Z
9. x csc(x2 + 2) cot(x2 + 2) dx

Solution :
Z Z
x csc(x2 + 2) cot(x2 + 2) dx = csc(x2 + 2) cot(x2 + 2) x dx

1 1
Z
csc(x2 + 2) cot(x2 + 2) (2x) dx = − csc(x2 + 2) + c
2 2

Z
10. e7 sin x cos x dx

Solution :
1 1
Z Z
e7 sin x cos x dx = e7 sin x (7 cos x) dx = e7 sin x + c
7 7
Z 3
ex
11. dx
x2
Solution :
Z 3
1
Z
ex 3
dx = e x 2 dx
x2 x
64 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

1 −3 1 3
Z
3
=− ex 2
dx = − e x + c
3 x 3

Z
x
12. √ dx
9 − x4
Solution :
Z Z
x x
√ dx = q dx
9−x 4 2
32 − (x2 )
 2
1 2x 1
Z
x
= q dx = sin−1 +c
2 2 2 3
32 − (x2 )

1
Z
13. dx
x2 − 6x + 10
Solution
1 1
Z Z
dx = dx
x2 − 6x + 10 (x2 − 6x + 9) + (10 − 9)
1
Z
= dx = tan−1 (x − 3) + c
(x − 3)2 + 1

3
Z
14. dx
x2 + 2x + 5
Solution
3 3
Z Z
2
dx = 2
dx
x + 2x + 5 (x + 2x + 1) + (5 − 1)
 
1 1 x+1
Z
−1
=3 dx = 3 tan +c
(x + 1)2 + 22 2 2

1
Z
15. dx
x ln |x|
Solution
1
1
Z Z
x
dx = dx = ln | ln |x|| + c
x ln |x| ln |x|

2x − 1
Z
16. dx
x2 + 1
Solution :
2x − 1 2x 1
Z Z Z
2
dx = 2
dx − 2
dx
x +1 x +1 x +1
= ln(x2 + 1) − tan−1 x + c
4.3. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 65

4.3 Integration by parts

It is used to solve an integral of a product of two functions using the formula

Z Z
u dv = u v − v du

Examples : Evaluate the following integrals

Z
1. xex dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u=x dv = ex dx
du = dx v = ex
Z Z
xe dx = xe − ex dx = xex − ex + c
x x

Z
2. x2 sin x dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u = x2 dv = sin x dx
du = 2xdx v = − cos x
Z Z
x2 sin x dx = −x2 cos x − 2x(− cos x) dx
Z
2
= −x cos x + 2 x cos x dx

Using integration by parts again

u=x dv = cos x dx
du = dx v = sin x
Z  Z 
x2 sin x dx = −x2 cos x + 2 x sin x − sin x dx

= −x2 cos x + 2 (x sin x − (− cos x)) + c

= −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + c

Z
3. x ln |x| dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u = ln |x| dv = x dx
1 x2
du = dx v=
x 2
66 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

x2 1 x2
Z Z
x ln |x| dx = ln |x| − dx
2 x 2
x2 1 x2 1 x2 x2 x2
Z
= ln |x| − x dx = ln |x| − +c= ln |x| − +c
2 2 2 2 2 2 4

Z
4. ln |x| dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u = ln |x| dv = dx
1
du = dx v=x
x
1
Z Z Z
ln |x| dx = x ln |x| − x dx = x ln |x| − 1 dx
x
= x ln |x| − x + c

Z
5. tan−1 x dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u = tan−1 x dv = dx
1
du = dx v=x
1 + x2
1
Z Z
tan−1 x dx = x tan−1 x − x dx
1 + x2
1 2x 1
Z
dx = x tan−1 x − ln 1 + x2 + c


= x tan−1 x − 2
2 1+x 2

Z
6. sin−1 x dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u = sin−1 x dv = dx
1
du = √ dx v=x
1 − x2
Z Z
x
sin−1 x dx = x sin−1 x − √ dx
1 − x2
1
1 1 (1 − x2 ) 2
Z
1
= x sin−1 x + (1 − x2 )− 2 (−2x) dx = x sin−1 x + 1 +c
2 2 2
p
= x sin−1 x + 1 − x2 + c
4.3. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 67
Z
7. ex sin x dx

Solution : Using integration by parts

u = sin x dv = ex dx
du = cos x dx v = ex
Z Z
e sin x dx = e sin x − ex cos x dx
x x

Using integration by parts again

u = cos x dv = ex dx
du = − sin x dx v = ex
Z  Z 
ex sin x dx = ex sin x − ex cos x − ex (− sin x) dx
Z  Z 
ex sin x dx = ex sin x − ex cos x + ex sin x dx
Z Z
ex sin x dx = ex sin x − ex cos x − ex sin x dx
Z
2 ex sin x dx = ex sin x − ex cos x + c

1 x
Z
ex sin x dx = (e sin x − ex cos x + c)
2
68 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

4.4 Integral of rational functions

(The metod of partial fractions)

P (x)
Z
Method of partial fractions is used to solve integrals of the form dx
Q(x)
where P (x) , Q(x) are polynomials and degree P (x) < degree Q(x).
If degree P (x) ≥ degree Q(x) use long division of polynomials .

Definition (linear factor) :

A linear factor is a polynomial of degree 1.
It has the form ax + b where a, b ∈ R and a 6= 0 .

Examples :
x , 3x , 2x − 7 are examples of linear factors .

Definition (irreducible quadratic) :

An irreducible quadratic is a polynomial of degree 2.
It has the form ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R , a 6= 0 and b2 − 4ac < 0 .

Examples :

1. x2 + 9 and x2 + x + 1 are examples of irreducible quadratics.

2. x2 = x x and x2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1) are reducible quadratics .

P (x)
How to write as partial fractions decomposition ?
Q(x)
Write Q(x) as a product of linear factors and irreducible quadratics (if possible).
If Q(x) = (a1 x + a2 )m (b1 x2 + b2 x + b3 )n where m, n ∈ N then
P (x) A1 A2 Am
= + 2
+ ··· +
Q(x) a1 x + a2 (a1 x + a2 ) (a1 x + a2 )m
B 1 x + C1 B 2 x + C2 B n x + Cn
+ + + ··· +
b1 x 2 + b2 x + b3 (b1 x2 + b2 x + b3 )2 (b1 x2 + b2 x + b3 )n
Where A1 , A2 , · · · , Am , B1 , B2 , · · · , Bn , C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn ∈ R .

Examples : Write the partial fractions decomposition of the follwoing

2x + 6
1.
x2 − 2x − 3
Solution :
2x + 6 2x + 6 A1 A2
= = +
x2 − 2x − 3 (x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1
4.4. INTEGRAL OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 69

x+5
2.
x2 + 4x + 4
Solution :
x+5 x+5 A1 A2
= = +
x2 + 4x + 4 (x + 2)2 x + 2 (x + 2)2

x2 + 1
3.
x4 + 4x2
Solution :
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 A1 A2 B 1 x + C1
4 2
= 2 2
= + 2 +
x + 4x x (x + 4) x x x2 + 4

2x + 7
4.
(x + 1)(x2 + 9)2
Solution :
2x + 7 A1 B 1 x + C1 B 2 x + C2
2 2
= + 2
+ 2
(x + 1)(x + 9) x+1 x +9 (x + 9)2

x
5.
(x − 1)(x2 − 1)
Solution :
x x A1 A2 A3
= = + +
(x − 1)(x2 − 1) (x + 1)(x − 1)2 x + 1 x − 1 (x − 1)2

x3 + x
6.
x2 − 1
Solution : Using long division of polynomials
x3 + x (x3 − x) + 2x x(x2 − 1) + 2x 2x
= = =x+ 2
x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x −1
x3 + x 2x A1 A2
=x+ =x+ +
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x−1 x+1

Examples : Evaluate the following integrals

x+3
Z
1. dx
(x − 3)(x − 2)
Solution : Using the method of partial fractions
x+3 A1 A2
= +
(x − 3)(x − 2) x−3 x−2
x+3 A1 (x − 2) A2 (x − 3)
= +
(x − 3)(x − 2) (x − 3)(x − 2) (x − 2)(x − 3)
70 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

x+3 A1 (x − 2) + A2 (x − 3)
=
(x − 3)(x − 2) (x − 3)(x − 2)
x + 3 = A1 (x − 2) + A2 (x − 3) = A1 x − 2A1 + A2 x − 3A2

x + 3 = (A1 + A2 ) x + (−2A1 − 3A2 )

By comparing the coefficients of the polynomials


A1 + A2 = 1 −→ (1)
−2A1 − 3A2 = 3 −→ (2)

Muliplying equation (1) by 2 and adding it to equation (2) :

−A2 = 5 =⇒ A2 = −5

From Equation (1) : A1 − 5 = 1 =⇒ A1 = 1 + 5 = 6

x+3 6 −5
= +
(x − 3)(x − 2) x−3 x−2
Z  
x+3 6 5
Z
dx = − dx
(x − 3)(x − 2) x−3 x−2
1 1
Z Z
=6 dx − 5 dx = 6 ln |x − 3| − 5 ln |x − 2| + c
x−3 x−2

x+1
Z
2. dx
x2 − 1
Solution :
x+1 x+1
Z Z
dx = dx
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
1
Z
= dx = ln |x − 1| + c
x−1

x−1
Z
3. dx
(x + 1)(x + 2)2
Solution : Using the method of partial fractions
x−1 A1 A2 A3
= + +
(x + 1)(x + 2)2 x + 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
x−1 A1 (x + 2)2 A2 (x + 1)(x + 2) A3 (x + 1)
2
= 2
+ 2
+
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2)2
x − 1 = A1 (x + 2)2 + A2 (x + 1)(x + 2) + A3 (x + 1)

x − 1 = A1 (x2 + 4x + 4) + A2 (x2 + 3x + 2) + A3 (x + 1)

x − 1 = A1 x2 + 4A1 x + 4A1 + A2 x2 + 3A2 x + 2A2 + A3 x + A3

x − 1 = (A1 + A2 ) x2 + (4A1 + 3A2 + A3 ) x + (4A1 + 2A2 + A3 )

4.4. INTEGRAL OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 71

By comparing the coefficients of the polynomials


 A1 + A2 = 0 −→ (1)
4A1 + 3A2 + A3 = 1 −→ (2)
4A1 + 2A2 + A3 = −1 −→ (3)


Subtracting equation (3) from equation (2) : A2 = 2

From equation (1) : A1 + 2 = 0 ⇒ A1 = −2

From equation (2) :

(4 × −2) + (3 × 2) + A3 = 1 ⇒ − 8 + 6 + A3 = 1 ⇒ A3 = 3
x−1 −2 2 3
2
= + +
(x + 1)(x + 2) x + 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
Z  
x−1 −2 2 3
Z
dx = + + dx
(x + 1)(x + 2)2 x + 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
1 1
Z Z Z
= −2 dx + 2 dx + 3 (x + 2)−2 dx
x+1 x+2
(x + 2)−1
= −2 ln |x + 1| + 2 ln |x + 2| + 3 +c
−1
3
= −2 ln |x + 1| + 2 ln |x + 2| − +c
x+2

2x2 + 3x + 2
Z
4. dx
x3 + x
Solution : Using the method of partial functions
2x2 + 3x + 2 2x2 + 3x + 2 A Bx + C
3
= = + 2
x +x x(x2 + 1) x x +1
2x2 + 3x + 2 A(x2 + 1) x(Bx + C)
= +
x3 + x x(x2 + 1) x(x2 + 1)
2x2 + 3x + 2 = A(x2 + 1) + x(Bx + C) = Ax2 + A + Bx2 + Cx

2x2 + 3x + 2 = (A + B)x2 + Cx + A

By comparing the coefficients of the polynomials


A + B = 2 −→ (1)
C = 3 −→ (2)
A = 2 −→ (3)


From equation (1) : 2 + B = 2 ⇒ B = 0

2x2 + 3x + 2 2 3
= + 2
x3 + x x x +1
72 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION

2x2 + 3x + 2
Z  
2 3
Z
dx = + dx
x3 + x x x2 + 1
1 1
Z Z
=2 dx + 3 dx
x x2 + 1
= 2 ln |x| + 3 tan−1 x + c
Chapter 5

APPLICATIONS OF
INTEGRATION

5.1 Area

5.2 Volume of a solid of revolution

(using disk or washer method)

5.3 Volume of a solid of revolution

(using cylindrical shells method)

5.4 Polar Coordinates and Applications

73
74 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

5.1 Area

f Hx L

a b

In the above figure the area under the graph of f (x) on the interval [a, b] is
Z b
given by the definite integral f (x) dx
a

f Hx L

g Hx L

a b

In the above figure the graphs of f (x) and g(x) intersect at the points x = a
and x = b .
The area bounded by the graphs of the curves of f (x) and g(x) equals
Z b Z b Z b
f (x) dx − g(x) dx = [f (x) − g(x)] dx
a a a
5.1. AREA 75

Examples :
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of x = 0 , y = 0 , x = 2
and y = x2 + 1

y = x2 + 1

x =2

-1 1 2 3

y = x2 + 1 is a parabola with vertex (0, 1) and opens upwards.

x = 0 is the y-axis and y = 0 is the x-axis.
x = 2 is a straight line parallel to the y-axis and passing through (2, 0)
Z 2  3 2
2 x
Area = (x + 1) dx = +x
0 3 0
 3   3 
2 0 8 14
Area = +2 − +0 = +2=
3 3 3 3

2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x and y = x2

y =x

y = x2

1
76 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

y = x2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and opens upwards.

y = x is a straight line passing through the origin with slope equals 1.

Points of intersection of y = x2 and y = x :

x2 = x ⇒ x2 − x = 0 ⇒ x(x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 , x = 1
Z 1  2 1
x x3
Area = (x − x2 ) dx = −
0 2 3 0
 2
13 02 03
  
1 1 1 1
Area = − − − = − =
2 3 2 3 2 3 6

3. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y =

−x2 + 2

2
y = -x 2 + 2

y = x2

-1 1

y = −x2 + 2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 2) and opens downwards

y = x2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and opens upwards.

Points of intersection of y = x2 and y = −x2 + 2 :

x2 = −x2 + 2 ⇒ 2x2 = 2 ⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1
Z 1 Z 1
(−x2 + 2) − x2 dx = (2 − 2x2 ) dx
 
Area =
−1 −1

3 1
     
2x 2 2
Area = 2x − = 2− − −2 +
3 −1 3 3
2 2 4 12 − 4 8
Area = 2 − +2− =4− = =
3 3 3 3 3
5.1. AREA 77

√
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = x

y = x

y = x2

y = x2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and opens upwards.

√
y = x ⇒ x = y 2 is the upper half of the parabola with vertex (0, 0)
and opens to the right.
√
Points of intersection of y = x2 and y = x :
√
x2 = x ⇒ x4 = x ⇒ x4 − x = 0 ⇒ x(x3 − 1) = 0

⇒ x = 0 , x3 = 1 ⇒ x = 0 , x = 1
Z 1 " 3 #1  1
3
√ 2

x 2 x 2 3 x3
Area = x − x dx = 3 − = x −
2

0 2
3 3 3 0
0
 
2 1 1
Area = − − (0 − 0) =
3 3 3

5. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of x + y = 2 , y = 2

and y = 2x − 4

y =2
2

1 y = 2x -4
y +x = 2

1 2 3

-1

y = 2 , y = 2x − 4 and y = −x + 2 are three straight lines.

78 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

Point of intersection of y = 2 and y = −x + 2 :

−x + 2 = 2 ⇒ x = 0
y = 2 and y = −x + 2 intersect at the point (0, 2).
Point of intersection of y = 2 and y = 2x − 4 :
2x − 4 = 2 ⇒ x = 3
y = 2 and y = 2x − 4 intersect at the point (3, 2)
Point of intersection of y = −x + 2 and y = 2x − 4 :
2x − 4 = −x + 2 ⇒ 3x = 6 ⇒ x = 2
y = −x + 2 and y = 2x − 4 intersect at the point (2, 0).
Z 2 Z 3
Area = [2 − (−x + 2)] dx + [2 − (2x − 4)] dx
0 2

2 3 2
x2
Z Z 
3
+ 6x − x2 2

Area = x dx + (6 − 2x) dx =
0 2 2 0
2 2
 
2 0
+ (6 × 3 − 32 ) − (6 × 2 − 22 )
 
Area = −
2 2
Area = (2 − 0) + [(18 − 9) − (12 − 4)] = 2 + (9 − 8) = 2 + 1 = 3

Another solution :
1
y + x = 2 ⇒ x = −y + 2 and y = 2x − 4 ⇒ 2x = y + 4 ⇒ x = y+2
2
2 
 
1
Z
Area = y + 2 − (−y + 2) dy
0 2
Z 2  Z 2
1 3
Area = y + y dy = y dy
0 2 0 2
 2
3 y2 3 22 02
 
3
Area = = − = ×2=3
2 2 0 2 2 2 2

6. Find the √
area of the region bounded by the graphs of y = 0 , y = −x + 6
and y = x

y = x
y = -x + 6

4 6
5.1. AREA 79

y = −x + 6 is a straight line passing through (0, 6) with slope equals −1.

√
y = x ⇒ x = y 2 is the upper half of the parabola with vertex (0, 0)
and opens to the right.

Points of intersection of x = y 2 and x = −y + 6 :

y 2 = −y + 6 ⇒ y 2 + y − 6 = 0 ⇒ (y − 2)(y + 3) = 0 ⇒ y = 2 , y = −3

(Note that y = −3 is not in the desired region).

Z 2 2
y2 y3

(−y + 6) − y 2 dy = 6y −
 
Area = −
0 2 3 0
 
4 8 8 8 30 − 8 22
Area = 12 − − − (0 − 0 − 0) = 12 − 2 − = 10 − = =
2 3 3 3 3 3
80 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

5.2 Volume of a solid of revolution

(using disk or washer method)
5.2.1 Disk Method
Recall that the volume of a right circular cylinder equals πr2 h where r is the
radius of the base (which is a circle) and h is the height of the cylinder .

f Hx L

R1

a b

In the above figure R1 is the region bounded by the graphs of the curves of f (x)
, x = a , x = b and the x-axis.
Using disk method , the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving
Z b
the region R1 around the x-axis is V = π [f (x)]2 dx
a

R2

g Hy L

In the above figure R2 is the region bounded by the graphs of the curves of g(y)
, y = d and the y-axis.
Using disk method , the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving
Z d
the region R2 around the y-axis is V = π [g(y)]2 dy
c
5.2. VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION 81

5.2.2 Washer Method 

V olume of a washer = π (outer radius)2 − (inner radius)2 (thickness)


f Hx L

R3

g Hx L

a b

In the above figure R3 is the region bounded by the graphs of the curves of f (x)
, g(x) , x = a and x = b.
Using washer method , the volume of the solid of revolution generated by re-
Z bh i
2 2
volving the region R3 around the x-axis is V = π (f (x)) − (g(x)) dx
a

f Hy L

g Hy L R4

In the above figure R4 is the region bounded by the graphs of the curves of f (y)
and g(y) , where f (y) and g(y) intersect at the points y = c and y = d.
Using washer method , the volume of the solid of revolution generated by re-
Z dh i
2 2
volving the region R4 around the y-axis is V = π (f (y)) − (g(y)) dy
c
82 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

Examples : Use Disk or washer method to calculate the volume of the solid of
revolution generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of :

1. y = x2 + 2 , y = 0 , x = 0 , x = 1 , around the x-axis

y = x2 + 2

x =1

-1 1

y = x2 + 2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 2) and opens upwards.

x = 1 is a straight line parallel to the y-axis and pasing through (1, 0)

Using Disk method :

Z 1 Z 1
Volume = π (x2 + 2)2 dx = π (x4 + 4x2 + 4) dx
0 0
 5 3
1   
x 4x 1 4 83π
=π + + 4x =π + + 4 − (0 + 0 + 0) =
5 3 0 5 3 15

√
2. y = x , y = 2 and x = 0 , around the y-axis

y =2
2

1
y = x

1 4

√
y = x is the upper half of the parabola x = y 2 with vertex (0, 0) and
opens to the right

y = 2 is a straight line parallel to the x-axis and passing through (0, 2)

5.2. VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION 83

Using Disk method :

Z 2 Z 2
Volume = π (y 2 )2 dy = π y 4 dy
0 0
2
y5 25
 

32π
=π =π −0 =
5 0 5 5

3. y = x2 + 1 and y = −x + 3 , around the x-axis

y = -x + 3

2
y = x2 + 1

-2 1

y = x2 + 1 is a parabola with vertex (0, 1) and opens upwards.

y = −x + 3 is a straight line with slope −1 and passing through (0, 3).

Points of intersection of y = x2 + 1 and y = −x + 3 :

x2 +1 = −x+3 ⇒ x2 +x−2 = 0 ⇒ (x+2)(x−1) = 0 ⇒ x = −2 , x = 1

Using Washer method :

Z 1
(−x + 3)2 − (x2 + 1)2 dx
 
volume = π
−2
Z 1
(x2 − 6x + 9) − (x4 + 2x2 + 1) dx
 
Volume = π
−2

1  5 1
x3
Z
x
−x4 − x2 − 6x + 8 dx = π − − − 3x2 + 8x


Volume = π
−2 5 3 −2
   
1 1 32 8
=π − − −3+8 − + − 12 − 16
5 3 5 3
 
1 1 32 8
=π − − +5− − + 28
5 3 5 3
84 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
   
33 33 150 − 33 117π
= π 33 − 3 − = π 30 − = π=
5 5 5 5

√
4. y = x , y = 0 and x = 1 , around the y-axis

y = x
x =1

√
y = x is the upper half of the parabola x = y 2 with vertex (0, 0) and
opens to the right
x = 1 is a straight line parallel to the y-axis and passing through (1, 0)
√
Note that y = x intersects x = 1 at the point (1, 1).

Using Washer method :

Z 1 Z 1
 2
(1) − (y 2 )2 dy = π (1 − y 4 ) dy

Volume = π
0 0
1
y5
     
1 1 4π
=π y− =π 1− − (0 − 0) = π 1 − =
5 0 5 5 5
5.3. VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION 85

5.3 Volume of a solid of revolution

(using cylindrical shells method)
Volume of a shell = 2π (average radius) (altitude) (thickness)

f Hx L

R1

a b

In the above figure R1 is the region bounded by the graphs of the curves of f (x)
, x = a , x = b and the x-axis.
Using cylindrical shells method , the volume of the solid of revolution generated
Z b
by revolving the region R1 around the y-axis is V = 2π x f (x) dx
a

R2

g Hy L

In the above figure R2 is the region bounded by the graphs of the curves of g(y)
, y = d and the y-axis.
Using cylindrical shells method , the volume of the solid of revolution generated
Z d
by revolving the region R2 around the x-axis is V = 2π y g(y) dy
c
86 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

Examples : Use cylindrical shells method to calculate the volume of the solid
of revolution generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of :
√
1. y = x , y = 0 and x = 4 , around the y-axis.

y = x

x =4

y = 0 is the x-axis
√
y = x is the upper half of the parabola x = y 2 with vertex (0, 0) and
opens to the right.

x = 4 is a straight line parallel to the y-axis and passing through (4, 0).

Using Cylindrical shells method

Z 4 4
√
Z
3
Volume = 2π x x dx = 2π x 2 dx
0 0
 4
2 5 2 5 2 128π
Volume = 2π x2 = 2π (4) 2 = 2π (32) =
5 0 5 5 5

2. x + y = 1 , x = 1 and y = 2x + 1 , around the y-axis .

y = 2x +1

x =1

y = -x + 1
1
5.3. VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION 87

y = −x + 1 is a straight line with slope −1 and passing through (0, 1).

y = 2x + 1 is a straight line with slope 2 and passing through (0, 1).
x = 1 is a straight line parallel to the y-axis and passing through (1, 0).
Point of intersection of x = 1 and y = −x + 1 is (1, 0).
Point of intersection of x = 1 and y = 2x + 1 is (1, 3).
Point of intersection of y = −x + 1 and y = 2x + 1 :
2x + 1 = −x + 1 ⇒ 3x = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
Using Cylindrical shells method
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
Volume = 2π x[(2x + 1) − (−x + 1)] dx = 2π x(3x) dx = 2π 3x2 dx
0 0 0
 1
Volume = 2π x3 0 = 2π[1 − 0] = 2π

3. y = x2 and y = 1 , around the x-axis.

y =1
1

y = x2

-1 1

y = x2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and opens upwards.

y = 1 is a straight line parallel to the x-axis and passing through (0, 1).
Since the bounded region is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, consider
√
the right half of the parabola y = x2 which is x = y.
Using Cylindrical shells method
 Z 1  1
√
Z
3
Volume = 2 2π y y dy = 4π y 2 dy
0 0
 1  
2 5 2 8π
Volume = 4π y2 = 4π −0 =
5 0 5 5

4. y = x2 and y = x , around the x-axis.

y = x2 is a parabola with vertex (0, 0) and opens upwards.
y = x is a straigh line passing through the origin with solpe 1.
88 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

y =x

y = x2

√
Consider x = y which is the right half of the parabola y = x2 .
√
Points of intersection of x = y and x = y :
√
y = y ⇒ y 2 = y ⇒ y 2 − y = 0 ⇒ y(y − 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 0 , y = 1

Using Cylindrical shells method

Z 1 1
√
Z  
3
Volume = 2π y ( y − y) dy = 2π y 2 − y2 dy
0 0
1
y3
   
2 5 2 1
Volume = 2π y2 − = 2π − − (0 − 0)
5 3 0 5 3
   
2 1 6−5 2π
Volume = 2π − = 2π =
5 3 15 15
5.4. POLAR COORDINATES AND APPLICATIONS 89

5.4 Polar Coordinates and Applications

5.4.1 Polar coordinates system :

In the recatangular coordinates system the ordered pair (a, b) represents a point,
where ”a” is the x-coordinat and ”b” is the y-coordinate.

The polar coordinates system can be used also to represents points in the plane.
The pole in the polar coordinates system is the origin in the rectangular coor-
dinates system , and the polar axis is the directed half-line (the non-negative
part of the x-axis).

If P is any point in the plane different from the origin, then its polar coor-
dinates consists of two components r and θ , where r is the distance between P
and the pole O , and θ is the measure of the angle determined by the polar axis
and OP .

PHr,ΘL

Θ
O polar axis

The meaning of polar coordinates (r, θ) can be extended to the case in which
r is negative by considering the points (r, θ) and (−r, θ) lying on the same line
through O and at a same distance |r| from O but in opposite directions.

Remark : In this case the representation of a point using polar coordinates is

not unique, for instance if P (r, θ) then other possible represenations are
(−r, π + θ) , (−r, θ − π) (r, θ − 2π) and (r, θ ± 2nπ) where n ∈ N.
90 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

PH-r,Θ+ΠL

-r
Θ+Π

O polar axis

Example
 1: Plot the points whose polar coordinates
 are
 given :
5π 2π 3π
P1 1, , P2 (2, 3π) , P3 2, − and P4 −3, .
4 3 4
Solution :

3Π

3Π P2
0. 1. 2. 3.
P1

P3
P4

5Π

4
2Π
-
3

 π
Example 2: Write other polar reprsentations of the point 1, .
4
Solution :
 π   5π

−1, + π = −1, .
4 4
 π   3π

−1, − π = −1, −
4 4
 
 π  7π
1, − 2π = 1, −
4 4
 
 π  13π
1, + 3π = 1,
4 4
5.4. POLAR COORDINATES AND APPLICATIONS 91

5.4.2 Relationship with Cartesian coordinates :

Hx,yL PHr,ΘL

r
y

Θ
O x polar axis

From the above figure , the relationship between the polar and cartesian coor-
dinates is given by the formulas :
x
cos θ = =⇒ x = r cos θ
r
y
sin θ = =⇒ y = r sin θ
r
p
r2 = x2 + y 2 =⇒ r = x 2 + y2
y −1 y

tan θ = =⇒ θ = tan where x 6= 0.
x x
Examples :
 π
1. Convert the point 2, from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
3
2. Convert the point (1, 1) from Cartesian to polar coordinates.
Solution :
 π π
1. The point 2, is written in polar coordinates where r = 2 and θ =
3 3
π 1
x = r cos θ = 2 cos = 2 × = 1.
3 2
√
π  3 √
y = r sin θ = 2 sin =2× = 3.
3 2
 π √

The Cartesian coordinates of the point 2, is 1, 3 .
3
2. The point (1, 1) is written in Cartesian coordinates where x = 1 and y = 1
p p √ √
r = x2 + y 2 = (1)2 + (1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2
y 1 π
tan θ = = = 1 =⇒ θ = tan−1 (1) =
x 1 4
√ π 
The polar coordinates of the point (1, 1) is 2,
4
92 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

5.4.3 Polar curves:

A polar curve is an equation of r and θ of the form r = r(θ) or r = f (θ) where
θ1 ≤ θ ≤ θ2 .

This section focuses on the circles centered at the origin and of radius a > 0.
The polar curve r = a where a > 0 represents a circle with center (0, 0) and its
radius equals a.

Examples : Sketch the following polar curves :

1. r = 2 where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
π
2. r = 3 where 0 ≤ θ ≤
2
Solution :

1. r = 2 where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π represents a whole circle centered at (0, 0) and its

radius is 2.
Π

r=2

Π 0
0. 1. 2.

3Π

π
2. r = 3 where 0 ≤ θ ≤ represents the first quarter of a circle centered at
2
(0, 0) and its radius is 3.
Π

r=3

Π 0
0. 1. 2. 3.

3Π

2
5.4. POLAR COORDINATES AND APPLICATIONS 93

5.4.4 Area with polar coordinates :

r=rHΘL

Θ=Θ2

Θ=Θ1

The area of the region bounded by the graph of r = r(θ) , and the two lines
θ = θ1 , θ = θ2 is given by the formula
1 θ2
Z
Area = [r(θ)]2 dθ
2 θ1

r=r1 HΘL

r=r2 HΘL

Θ=Θ2 Θ=Θ1

The area of the region bounded by the graphs of r1 = r1 (θ) , r2 = r2 (θ) and
the two lines θ = θ1 , θ = θ2 is given by the formula
1 θ2 
Z 
2 2
Area = [r1 (θ)] − [r2 (θ)] dθ
2 θ1
Example 1 : Find the area of the region inside the polar curve r = 1.
Solution : r = 1 is a whole circle centered at (0, 0) and its radius is 1.

r=1

O
94 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

1 2π 1 2π
Z Z
2
Area = (1) dθ = 1 dθ
2 0 2 0
1 2π 1 1
= [θ]0 = [2π − 0] = × 2π = π
2 2 2

Example 2 : Find the area of the region inside the polar curve r = 2 and
outside the polar curve r = 1.
Solution : r = 1 is a whole circle centered at (0, 0) and its radius is 1.
r = 2 is a whole circle centered at (0, 0) and its radius is 2.

r=2

r=1

2π
1 1 2π 1 2π
Z Z Z
(2)2 − (1)2 dθ =
 
Area = (4 − 1) dθ = 3 dθ
2 0 2 0 2 0
1 2π 1 1
= [3θ]0 = [3 × 2π − 0] = × 6π = 3π
2 2 2

Example 3 : Find the area of the region inside the polar curve r = 2 and at
the first quadrant.
Solution : r = 2 is a circle centered at (0, 0) and its radius is 2.
The region in the first quadrant means that it is bounded by the two lines θ = 0
π
and θ =
2

r=2

π π
1 1
Z 2
Z 2
Area = (2)2 dθ = 4 dθ
2 0 2 0
1 π 1 π 1
= [4θ]02 = [4 × − 0] = × 2π = π
2 2 2 2
Chapter 6

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

6.1 Functions of several variables

6.2 Partial derivatives

6.3 Chain Rules

6.4 Implicit differentiation

95
96 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

6.1 Functions of several variables

6.1.1 Functions of two variables :

Definition: A function of two variables is a rule that assigns an ordered pair
(x, y) (in the domain of the function) to a real number w.

f : R2 −→ R
(x, y) −→ w

Example :
y
f (x, y) = is a function of two variables x and y
x2 + y 2
1 1
f (3, 1) = = .
32 + 12 10
1
Note that f (x, y) takes (3, 1) ∈ R2 to ∈R
10

6.1.2 Functions of three variables :

Definition: A function of three variables is a rule that assigns an ordered triple
(x, y, z) (in the domain of the function) to a real number w .

f : R3 −→ R
(x, y, z) −→ w

Example :
z
f (x, y, z) = is a function of three variables x , y and z
x + y2 + 3
4 4 1
f (1, −2, 4) = = = .
1 + (−2)2 + 3 8 2
1
Note that f (x, y, z) takes (1, −2, 4) ∈ R3 to ∈R
2
6.2. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 97

6.2 Partial derivatives

6.2.1 Partial derivatives of a function of two variables :

If w = f (x, y) is a function of two variables, then :
∂f ∂w
1. The partial derivative of f with respect to x is denoted by , , fx
∂x ∂x
or wx , and it is calculated by applying the rules of differentiation to x
and regarding y as a constant .
∂f ∂w
2. The partial derivative of f with respect to y is denoted by , , fy
∂y ∂y
or wy , and it is calculated by applying the rules of differentiation to y
and regarding x as a constant .

Example 1: Calculate fx and fy of the functiuon f (x, y) = x2 y 3 + xy ln(x + y)

Solution:
∂
x2 y 3 + xy ln(x + y)


1. fx =
∂x
 
1 xy
fx = (2x)y 3 + (1)y ln(x + y) + xy = 2xy 3 + y ln(x + y) +
x+y x+y
∂
x2 y 3 + xy ln(x + y)


2. fy =
∂y
 
1 xy
fy = x2 (3y 2 ) + x(1) ln(x + y) + xy = 3x2 y 2 + x ln(x + y) +
x+y x+y

x + y2
Example 2: Calculate fx and fy of the functiuon f (x, y) =
x+y
Solution:
∂f (1 + 0)(x + y) − (x + y 2 )(1 + 0) x + y − (x + y 2 )
1. fx = = 2
=
∂x (x + y) (x + y 2 )
x + y − x − y2 y − y2
fx = =
(x + y)2 (x + y)2
∂f (0 + 2y)(x + y) − (x + y 2 )(0 + 1) 2y(x + y) − (x + y 2 )
2. fy = = =
∂y (x + y)2 (x + y)2
2xy + 2y 2 − x − y 2 2xy − x + y 2
fy = 2
=
(x + y) (x + y)2
98 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

6.2.2 Partial derivatives of a function of three variables :

If w = f (x, y, z) is a function of three variables, then :

∂f ∂w
1. The partial derivative of f with respect to x is denoted by , , fx
∂x ∂x
or wx , and it is calculated by applying the rules of differentiation to x
and regarding y and z as constants .

∂f ∂w
2. The partial derivative of f with respect to y is denoted by , , fy
∂y ∂y
or wy , and it is calculated by applying the rules of differentiation to y
and regarding x and z as constants .

∂f ∂w
3. The partial derivative of f with respect to z is denoted by , , fz
∂z ∂z
or wz , and it is calculated by applying the rules of differentiation to z
and regarding x and y as constants .

Example : If f (x, y, z) = 2z 3 x − 4(x2 + y 2 )z , then calculate fx , fy and fz at

(0, 1, 2).
Solution :
∂
2z 3 x − 4(x2 + y 2 )z = 2z 3 − 4(2x)z = 2z 3 − 8xz


1. fx =
∂x
fx (0, 1, 2) = 2 (23 ) − 8(0)(2) = 16

∂
2z 3 x − 4(x2 + y 2 )z = 0 − 4(0 + 2y)z = −8yz


2. fy =
∂y

fy (0, 1, 2) = −8(1)(2) = −16

∂
2z 3 x − 4(x2 + y 2 )z = 6z 2 x − 4(x2 + y 2 )


3. fz =
∂z
fz (0, 1, 2) = 6(22 )(0) − 4(02 + 12 ) = −4

6.2.3 Second partial derivatives :

If w = f (x, y) is a function of two variables , then :

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f ∂
1. = = (fx ) = fxx .
∂x2 ∂x ∂x ∂x

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f ∂
2. = = (fy ) = fyy .
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y ∂y

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f ∂
3. = = (fy ) = fyx .
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x

∂2f
 
∂ ∂f ∂
4. = = (fx ) = fxy .
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
6.2. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 99

Note : Second partial derivatives of a function of three variables are defined in

a same manner.

Theorem : Let f (x, y) be a function of two variables. If f , fx , fy , fxy and

fyx are continuous, then fxy = fyx .

Note : If f (x, y, z) is a function of three variables and f has continuous second

partial derivatives, then fxy = fyx , fxz = fzx and fyz = fzy .

∂2f ∂2f
Example 1: Let f (x, y) = x3 y + xy 2 sin(x + y) , calculate and
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
Solution :

fx = 3x2 y + y 2 sin(x + y) + xy 2 cos(x + y)

fy = x3 + 2xy sin(x + y) + xy 2 cos(x + y)

fxy = 3x2 + 2y sin(x + y) + y 2 cos(x + y) + 2xy cos(x + y) − xy 2 sin(x + y)

fyx = 3x2 + 2y sin(x + y) + 2xy cos(x + y) + y 2 cos(x + y) − xy 2 sin(x + y)

Note : fxy = fyx according to the theorem .

∂2f ∂2f
Example 2: Let f (x, y, z) = x3 y 2 z + xy sin(y + z) , calculate and
∂y∂x ∂x∂z
Solution :

fx = 3x2 y 2 z + y sin(y + z)

fz = x3 y 2 + xy cos(y + z)

∂2f
= fxy = 6x2 yz + sin(y + z) + y cos(y + z)
∂y∂x
∂2f
= fzx = 3x2 y 2 + y cos(y + z)
∂x∂z

∂2f ∂2f ∂2f

Example 3: Let f (x, y, z) = 2z 3 −3(x2 +y 2 )z , Show that + + =0
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Solution :

fx = 0 − 3z(2x) = −6xz

fy = 0 − 3z(2y) = −6yz

fz = 6z 2 − 3(x2 + y 2 )

∂2f
= fxx = −6z
∂x2
∂2f
= fyy = −6z
∂y 2
100 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

∂2f
= fzz = 12z
∂z 2
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
2
+ 2 + 2 = −6z − 6z + 12z = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
6.3. CHAIN RULES 101

6.3 Chain Rules

Theorem (Chain Rules):

1. If w = f (x, y) and x = g(t) , y = h(t) , such that f , g and h are

differentiable then
df dw ∂w dx ∂w dy
= = +
dt dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
2. If w = f (x, y) and x = g(t, s) , y = h(t, s) , such that f , g and h are
differentiable then
∂f ∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y
= = +
∂t ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t
∂f ∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y
= = +
∂s ∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s
3. If w = f (x, y, z) and x = g(t, s) , y = h(t, s) , z = k(t, s) such that f , g ,
h and k are differentiable then
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= + +
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t ∂z ∂t
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= + +
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂z ∂s

∂f
Example 1 : Let f (x, y) = xy + y 2 , x = s2 t , and y = s + t , calculate
∂s
∂f
and .
∂t
Solution :
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
1. = +
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s
∂f ∂x
=y , = 2st
∂x ∂s
∂f ∂y
= x + 2y , =1
∂y ∂s
∂f
= y (2st) + (x + 2y)(1) = (s + t)2st + s2 t + 2(s + t)
 
∂s
= 2s2 t + 2st2 + s2 t + 2s + 2t = 3s2 t + 2st2 + 2s + 2t
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
2. = +
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t
∂f ∂x
=y , = s2
∂x ∂t
∂f ∂y
= x + 2y , =1
∂y ∂t
102 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

∂f
= ys2 + (x + 2y)(1) = (s + t)s2 + s2 t + 2(s + t)
∂t
= s3 + s2 t + s2 t + 2s + 2t = s3 + 2s2 t + 2s + 2t

Example 2 : Let f (x, y, z) = x + sin(xy) + cos(xz) , x = ts , y = s + t and

s ∂f ∂f
z = , calculate and .
t ∂s ∂t
Solution :
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂z
1. = + +
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂z ∂s
∂f ∂x
= 1 + y cos(xy) − z sin(xz) , =t
∂x ∂s
∂f ∂y
= x cos(xy) , =1
∂y ∂s
∂f ∂z 1
= −x sin(xz) , =
∂z ∂s t
 
∂f 1
= t [1 + y cos(xy) − z sin(xz)] + x cos(xy) + (−x sin(xz))
∂s t
∂f x sin(xz)
= t + ty cos(xy) − tz sin(xz) + x cos(xy) −
∂s t
∂f ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y ∂f ∂z
2. = + +
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t ∂z ∂t
∂f ∂x
= 1 + y cos(xy) − z sin(xz) , =s
∂x ∂t
∂f ∂y
= x cos(xy) , =1
∂y ∂t
∂f ∂z −s
= −x sin(xz) , = 2
∂z ∂t t
 
∂f −s
= s [1 + y cos(xy) − z sin(xz)] + x cos(xy) + (−x sin(xz))
∂t t2
∂f sx sin(xz)
= s + sy cos(xy) − sz sin(xz) + x cos(xy) +
∂t t2
6.4. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 103

6.4 Implicit differentiation

1. Suppose that the equation F (x, y) = 0 defines y implicitly as a function

of x say y = f (x) , then
dy Fx
=−
dx Fy
2. Suppose that the equation F (x, y, z) = 0 implicitly defines a function
z = f (x, y) , where f is differentiable , then
∂z Fx ∂z Fy
=− and =−
∂x Fz ∂y Fz

dy
Example 1 : Let y 2 − xy + 3x2 = 0 , find .
dx
2 2
Solution 1: Let F (x, y) = x − xy + 3x then F (x, y) = 0

Fx = −y + 6x and Fy = 2y − x .
dy Fx (−y + 6x) y − 6x
=− =− = .
dx Fy 2y − x 2y − x

Solution 2 : y 2 − xy + 3x2 = 0

Differentiate both sides implicitly

2yy ′ − (y + xy ′ ) + 6x = 0 ⇒ 2yy ′ − y − xy ′ + 6x = 0

⇒ 2yy ′ − xy ′ = y − 6x ⇒ (2y − x)y ′ = y − 6x

dy y − 6x
⇒ = y′ =
dx 2y − x

∂z ∂z
Example 2 : Let F (x, y, z) = x2 y + z 2 + sin(xyz) = 0 , find and .
∂x ∂y
Solution :
Fx = 2xy + yz cos(xyz)

Fy = x2 + xz cos(xyz)

Fz = 2z + xy cos(xyz)
∂z Fx 2xy + yz cos(xyz)
=− =−
∂x Fz 2z + xy cos(xyz)
∂z Fy x2 + xz cos(xyz)
=− =−
∂y Fz 2z + xy cos(xyz)
104 CHAPTER 6. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Chapter 7

DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS

7.1 Definition of a differential equation

7.2 Separable Differential equations

7.3 First-order linear differential equations

105
106 CHAPTER 7. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

7.1 Definition of a differential equation

Definition : An equation that involves x , y , y ′ , y ′′ , · · · , y (n) for a function

y(x) with nth derivative y (n) of y with respect to x is an ordinary differential
Equation of order n.

Examples :
1. y ′ = x2 + 5 is a differential equation of order 1.
4
2. y ′′ + x (y ′ ) − y = x is a differential equation of order 2

3
3. y (4) + x2 y ′′ = 2x is a differnetial equation of order 4

y = y(x) is called a solution of a differential equation if y = y(x) satisfies that

differential equation.
Consider the differential equation y ′ = 6x + 4 , then y = 3x2 + 4x + c is the
general solution of that differential equation.

If an initial condition was added to the differential equation to assign a certain

vallue for c then y = y(x) is called the particular solution of the differential
equation .
Consider the differential equation y ′ = 6x+4 with the initial condition y(0) = 2,
y = 3x2 + 4x + c is the general solution of the differential equation ,
y(0) = 2 ⇒ 3(0)2 + 4 × 0 + c = 2 ⇒ c = 2 , hence y = 3x2 + 4x + 2 is the
particular solution of the differential equation.
7.2. SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 107

7.2 Separable Differential equations

The separable differential equation has the form M (x) + N (y) y ′ = 0 .

where M (x) and N (y) are continuous functions.

To solve the separable differential equation :

1. Write it as M (x) dx + N (y) dy = 0 =⇒ N (y) dy = −M (x) dx .
2. Integrate the left-hand side with respect to y and the right-hand side with
respect to x
Z Z
N (y) dy = − M (x) dx

Example 1 : Solve the differential equation y ′ + y 3 ex = 0 .

Solution :
dy
y ′ + y 3 ex = 0 =⇒ = −y 3 ex ,
dx
1
=⇒ − 3 dy = ex dx =⇒ − y −3 dy = ex dx
y
y −2
Z Z
=⇒ − y −3 dy = ex dx =⇒ − = ex + c
−2
1 1
=⇒ = ex + c =⇒ = 2 (ex + c)
2y 2 y2
s
1 1
=⇒ y 2 = =⇒ y =
2 (ex + c) 2 (ex + c)

dy
Example 2 : Solve the differential equation = y 2 ex , y(0) = 1.
dx
Solution :
dy 1
= y 2 ex =⇒ dy = ex dx
dx y2
Z Z
−2 x
=⇒ y dy = e dx =⇒ y dy = ex dx
−2

y −1 −1
=⇒ = ex + c =⇒ y = x
−1 e +c
−1
Using the initial condition y(0) = 1 =⇒ 1 =
e0 + c
−1
=⇒ 1 = =⇒ 1 + c = −1 =⇒ c = −2
1+c
−1
The particular solution is y =
ex−2
108 CHAPTER 7. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Example 3 : Solve the differential equation dy − sin x(1 + y 2 )dx = 0 .

Solution :

dy − sin x(1 + y 2 )dx = 0 =⇒ dy = sin x(1 + y 2 )dx

1 1
Z Z
=⇒ dy = sin x dx =⇒ dy = sin x dx
1 + y2 1 + y2
=⇒ tan−1 y = − cos x + c =⇒ y = tan(− cos x + c)

Example 4 : Solve the differential equation e−y sin x − y ′ cos2 x = 0 .

Solution :
dy
e−y sin x − y ′ cos2 x = 0 =⇒ − cos2 x = −e−y sin x
dx
1 − sin x 1 sin x
=⇒ dy = dx =⇒ ey dy = dx
e−y − cos2 x cos x cos x
Z Z
=⇒ ey dy = sec x tan x dx =⇒ ey dy = sec x tan x dx

=⇒ ey = sec x + c =⇒ y = ln | sec x + c|

Example 5 : Solve the differential equation y ′ = 1 − y + x2 − yx2 .

Solution :
dy
y ′ = 1 − y + x2 − yx2 =⇒ = 1 − y + x2 (1 − y)
dx
dy 1
=⇒ = (1 − y)(1 + x2 ) =⇒ dy = (1 + x2 ) dx
dx 1−y
1 −1
Z Z Z Z
2
=⇒ dy = (1 + x ) dx =⇒ − dy = (1 + x2 ) dx
1−y 1−y
x3 x3
=⇒ − ln |1 − y| = x + + c =⇒ ln |1 − y| = −x − −c
3 3
x3 x3
=⇒ 1 − y = e−x− 3 −c
=⇒ y = 1 − e−x− 3 −c
7.3. FIRST-ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 109

7.3 First-order linear differential equations

The first-order linear differential equation has the form y ′ + P (x) y = Q(x) ,
where P (x) and Q(x) are continuous functions of x

To solve the first-order linear differential equation :

R
P (x) dx
1. Compute the integrating factor u(x) = e

2. The general solution of the first-order linear differential equation is

1
Z
y(x) = u(x) Q(x) dx
u(x)

dy
Example 1 : Solve the differential equation x + y = x2 + 1 .
dx
Solution :
x2 + 1
 
dy 1
x + y = x2 + 1 =⇒ y ′ + y=
dx x x
 
1 1
=⇒ y ′ + y =x+
x x
1 1
P (x) = and Q(x) = x +
x x
R 1
The integrating factor is u(x) = e x dx = eln x = x
Z  
1 1
The general solution is y = x x+ dx
x x

1 x3 x2
 
1
Z
c
y= (x2 + 1) dx = +x+c = +1+
x x 3 3 x

2
Example 2 : Solve the differential equation y ′ − y = x2 ex , y(1) = e .
x
Solution :
2
P (x) = − and Q(x) = x2 ex
x
The integrating factor is
R 2
R 1
dx
= e−2 ln x = eln x = x−2
x dx
−2
−x
u(x) = e = e−2
1
Z
The general solution is y = −2 x−2 x2 ex dx
x
Z
y = x2 ex dx = x2 (ex + c) = x2 ex + cx2

Using the initial condition y(1) = e

110 CHAPTER 7. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

y(1) = e =⇒ e = (1)2 e1 + c (1)2 =⇒ e = e + c =⇒ c = 0

The particular solution is y = x2 ex

Example 3 : Solve the differential equation y ′ + y = cos(ex )

Solution :

P (x) = 1 and Q(x) = cos(ex )

R
The integrating factor is u(x) = e 1 dx = ex
1
Z
The general solution is y = x ex cos(ex ) dx
e
Z
y=e −x
cos(ex )ex dx = e−x (sin(ex ) + c) = e−x sin(ex ) + ce−x

Example 4 : Solve the differential equation xy ′ − 3y = x2

Solution :
3
xy ′ − 3y = x2 =⇒ y ′ − y=x
x
3
P (x) = − and Q(x) = x
x
The integrating factor is
R 3
R 1
dx
= e−3 ln x = eln x
x dx
−3
−x
u(x) = e = e−3 = x−3
1
Z
The general solution is y = −3 x−3 x dx
x
Z  −1 
x
y = x3 x−2 dx = x3 +c
−1
 
1
y = x3 − + c = −x2 + cx3
x