Technology in Society 78 (2024) 102613

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

The utility of remote work solutions in the post-pandemic era: Exploring

the mediating effects of productivity and work flexibility☆
Heetae Yang
Hannam University, Department of Management Information Systems, 70 Hannamro, Daedeok-Gu, Daejeon, 34430, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aimed to develop a comprehensive research model to investigate the factors that impact the
Remote work solutions continuance intention to use remote work solutions. A new research model focusing on the mediating impacts of
Technology-organization-environment (TOE) productivity and work flexibility was developed based on the TOE framework to explore how technological,
framework
organizational, and environmental factors influence the intention to use RWS post-pandemic era. Data were
Productivity
Work flexibility
collected through a survey of 411 current RWS users in South Korea and analyzed using partial least squares
structural equation modeling. The findings reveal that productivity and work flexibility exert significant medi­
ating effects on the intention to continue using RWS. Furthermore, the roles of technological, organizational, and
environmental factors are validated, except for the relationships between security and work flexibility, as well as
management support and work flexibility. Finally, these results provide valuable insights and recommendations
for RWS providers, user organizations, and government entities on meeting user needs and expanding the market
size.

1. Introduction Research (NBER), in its working paper published in February 2023, also
revealed that over 55 % of respondents in the United States, as of
The traditional office environment is undergoing a significant October 2021, considered remote work options when making job
transformation. Fueled by technological advancements and the unex­ choices. The study also disclosed that even assuming the end of the
pected disruption of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, remote pandemic, approximately 30 % of work hours would be allocated to
work solutions (RWS) have become increasingly popular. Organizations remote work one year later [3]. Projections for the future of remote work
swiftly adopted RWS to facilitate effective operations from employees’ are equally optimistic. AT&T’s study predicts a remarkable growth
homes or other remote locations, as evidenced by various surveys and trajectory for hybrid work models, with an anticipated increase from 42
studies conducted in recent years. For instance, In January 2021, % in 2021 to 81 % by 2024 [4]. Market analyses conducted by Mar­
Microsoft conducted a survey targeting 31 countries and 30,000 in­ ketsandMarkets project substantial growth in the remote workplace
dividuals, revealing that 66 % of entrepreneurs responded that they are services market, with an expected size expansion from USD 20.1 billion
renovating their offices to expand flexible work arrangements [1]. in 2022 to approximately USD 58.5 billion by 2027, exhibiting a
Similarly, a Gallup poll conducted in June 2022 found that approxi­ remarkable compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 23.8 % [5].
mately 80 % of individuals are engaged in hybrid or remote work ar­ However, whether remote work will become the new normal re­
rangements, with only about 20 % of the workforce exclusively mains uncertain. This is because there are also skeptical views regarding
operating from on-site locations [2]. The National Bureau of Economic the effectiveness, including productivity, of remote work. The Work

☆
Heetae Yang is an assistant professor in Hannam University of South Korea. He had been involved in research on a social impact of new technologies such as AI,
technological drivers and industrial impacts of the fourth industrial revolution, platform strategy to take the lead in the global Internet of Things (IoT) market related
to digital transformation, and innovation policies in Science and Technology Policy Institute (STEPI) and Samsung Economic Research Institute (SERI), Handong
Global University before joining Hannam University. He received his PhD in business studies from Graduate School of Innovation and Technology Management at
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST). His academic research interests include user adoption of new high-tech products and online services,
disruptive business model and science, technology, and innovation policy. His papers have appeared in Telematics & Informatics, Information Systems and e-Business
Management, Industrial Management and Data Systems, Online Information Review, International Journal of Mobile Communications, Current Issues in Tourism,
and Kybernetes.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102613
Received 14 January 2024; Received in revised form 28 April 2024; Accepted 28 May 2024
Available online 31 May 2024
0160-791X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
H. Yang Technology in Society 78 (2024) 102613

Trend Index published by Microsoft in 2022 said 85 % of leaders claim commerce adoption in Saudi SMEs, emphasizing perceived usefulness
that the transition to hybrid work has created difficulties in having and management support. Chittipaka et al. [20] found that blockchain
assurance about employees’ productivity [6]. Stanford’s Institute for adoption in Indian supply chains is influenced by TOE constructs like
Economic Policy and Research recently released a working paper in trust and compatibility. Aligarh et al. [21] explored cloud computing
March 2023 called ’The Evolution of Remote Work,’ which revealed that adoption in MSMEs using and Ng et al. (2022) showed that technological
in the United States, fully remote work is linked to a productivity support positively impacts remote workers’ job performance in Hong
decrease of 10 %–20 % compared to fully in-person work [7]. Forbes Kong.
[8]’ January 2023 article "Is Remote Work Dying A Fast Death?" re­
ported that many CEOs prefer employees to return to the office despite 2.2. RWS
the demand for workplace flexibility, and the proportion of remote work
positions declined from 20 % in February 2022 to 14 % in September of Remote work refers to the type of work where employees perform
the same year, raising uncertainty about remote work’s future. their tasks from their homes or other places, such as shared offices, using
Furthermore, as the urgent and unexpected situation caused by information and communication technologies to facilitate flexible
COVID-19 is gradually coming to an end, the users’ intention to utilize working arrangements [22]. Therefore, in this study, RWS could be
RWS in the post-Covid-19 era may change. Indeed, Zoom’s revenue defined as digital technologies used to create working environments for
growth decelerated sharply post-pandemic, with only a 3 % increase to workers in remote locations.
USD 4.53 billion in 2024, compared to the over 300 % rise in 2021 and In the competitive market, platforms like Microsoft Teams, Google
55 % rise in 2022 [9]. In 2023, South Korea, which has an employment Meet, Cisco WebEx, and Zoom offer features for conference calls, virtual
structure with a 21.1 % proportion of workers in the manufacturing meetings, and access to organizational software [23]. These enterprises
sector, 80.9 % in small and medium-sized enterprises, an unemployment drive innovation in RWS, continually introducing new functionalities.
rate of 3.3 %, and annual working hours per person of 1901 h, also For example, Zoom recently integrated AI features such as virtual
experienced a surge in the adoption of remote work due to COVID-19. backgrounds, avatars, and gesture recognition to enhance meeting
Despite this, between April and May 2023, the average number of engagement, alongside automated meeting summaries [24]. Microsoft
days per week dedicated to full remote work was only 0.4 days, placing regularly updates Teams, introducing features like ’Spatial audio’ for a
South Korea at the lowest rank among the 34 countries surveyed by natural audio experience in meetings and a dedicated Teams button on
Aksoy et al. [10] on June 28, 2023. certified peripheral devices for quick meeting access [25].
The objective of this research is to investigate the essential elements Academia has also been conducting various studies on RWS tech­
influencing the continuance intention to use RWS for its sustainable nologies and users’ behaviors. Ilag [26] introduced Unified Communi­
growth in the post-pandemic era. While several Information Systems (IS) cations and Collaboration (UCC) as essential technologies for RWS,
studies have offered valuable insights into the key factors influencing integrating various collaboration solutions into a single interface to
user acceptance or organizational benefits of various technologies in the enhance productivity. Miele and Tirabeni [27] compared remote work
context of COVID-19 pandemic, including e-wallet payment apps [11], with workplace wearables. Chatterjee et al. [23] found that imple­
sharing economy services [12], fin-tech products [13], exposure detec­ menting RWS enhances employee satisfaction and productivity,
tion apps [14] and data warehouse system effectiveness [15], a critical improving organizational performance. In a developing country context,
research gap remains in our understanding of continuous usage in­ Ofosu-Ampong and Acheampong [28] examined RWS adoption factors
tentions for RWS in the post-pandemic era. Thus, this study addresses in Ghana, highlighting influences such as relative advantage and orga­
the question “Under what conditions are current users likely to continue nizational readiness. Seo and Kim [29] stressed the importance of
using RWS in the post-pandemic era in South Korea?”. To answer this adapting employee development strategies to flexible work systems to
question, the study employs the Technology-Organization-Environment maintain organizational culture and talent retention, given reduced
(TOE) framework, creating a comprehensive research model that in­ face-to-face interactions.
cludes constructs representing the functional benefits of RWS, internal
and external determinants influencing users’ decision-making, as well as 3. Research model and hypotheses development
two pivotal mediating factors - work flexibility and productivity.
Our study’s model proposes that the continuation intention of RWS is
2. Theoretical background mediated by productivity and work flexibility. We derived determinants
for these mediators from earlier studies: functionality and security in the
2.1. TOE framework technology perspective, and management support in the organizational
perspective. Additionally, we considered competitive pressure and
The TOE model, comprising technology, organization, and environ­ government support as environmental factors influencing the continu­
ment, serves as a theoretical framework that elucidates organizations’ ance intention of RWS.
decision-making processes when adopting new technologies [16]. In
addition, Tornatzky and Fleischer, pioneers of the TOE model, describe 3.1. Productivity
it as a theoretical framework at the organizational level aimed at iden­
tifying influential factors affecting an organization’s decision-making Conflicting research findings exist regarding the enhancement of
process [17]. Specifically, ’technology’ encompasses the organiza­ productivity through remote work. As previously mentioned, studies by
tion’s internal technological competence and information technology Microsoft [6] and Barrero et al. [7] concluded that remote work is not
infrastructure. ’Organization’ pertains to the organization’s prepared­ more productive than in-person work. However, an analysis of data
ness level in utilizing technology and the extent of support from man­ collected until March 2021 indicates that close to 60 % of employees
agement. Lastly, ’environment’ refers to external factors, such as reported achieving higher productivity levels while working from home
government backing and competitive pressures, influencing the than they initially anticipated, in comparison to only 14 % who indi­
decision-making process. cated decreased productivity [30]. A recent study by the Becker Fried­
The TOE model has been widely applied in studies on the adoption of man Institute at the University of Chicago also revealed that remote
technological innovations in organizations. It provides a robust frame­ workers saved approximately 2 h per person per week in 2021 and 2022,
work for examining factors that influence user behavior in IS research. allocating 40 % of the saved time to tasks and thereby increasing pro­
For instance, Awa and Ojiabo [18] validated its effectiveness for ERP ductivity [31].
software adoption in SMEs. Abed [19] proposed a model based on social Given that it is the early stages of remote work implementation, some

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experimentation is inevitable. However, it is evident that leveraging technological innovation for RWS, resulting in a continuous influx of
RWS can lead to enhanced productivity, as employees can save novel functionalities. In line with the discussion presented in section 2.2,
commuting time and collaborate efficiently with colleagues situated providers of RWS are persistently introducing a spectrum of innovative
remotely. Thus, in this study, productivity is defined as the degree of attributes, spanning from conventional video conferencing technologies
improvement in time and cost efficiency resulting from the adoption and to those fortified by the capabilities of AI. With the recent introduction
utilization of RWS. Productivity has been identified in some previous of the advanced AR headset, Vision Pro, Apple has sparked industry
remote work-related studies to be a significant factor in understanding expectations for the potential robust integration of its associated tech­
users and organizations’ behaviors. For example, Chatterjee et al. [23] nology into RWS, as the headset operates without physical controllers,
perceived the effective impact of employee productivity on organiza­ relying on a person’s bodily movements for input and featuring 12
tional performance and revealed a significantly positive relationship cameras, five sensors, and six microphones for tracking hands, eyes, and
between them. Ko and Kim [32] also confirmed that a flexible work voice ([38].6.7). Therefore, this study defines the functionality of RWS
arrangement, where employees have the flexibility to decide when, as “comprising technological capabilities encompassing video confer­
where, and for how long they engage in their work, is positively affected encing, group discussions, chat, file sharing, and various other collab­
by the motivation for productivity. Raj et al. [33] insisted that most of orative support features”.
the companies observed increased productivity when adopting the The intuitive comprehension of RWS’s potential to positively impact
work-from-home approach, and productivity stands as a crucial factor productivity and work flexibility is evident. This stems from the ratio­
that can contribute to overall firm performance and proved Maintain nale behind the continuous integration of novel features into RWS
Interest and Productivity (MIP) positively affects firm performance. platforms, aimed at facilitating seamless remote collaboration and
Dzandu et al. [34] also verified that employee productivity is positively supporting efficient task execution with enhanced flexibility. For
related to remote work intention, which is a central factor reflecting the instance, functionalities such as automated meeting transcription within
motivational influences on behavior in the Theory of Planned Behavior RWS contribute to heightened productivity, while features encompass­
(TPB), in the post-pandemic era. Based on the findings of previous ing data sharing, video conferencing, and real-time chat collectively
studies, we posit that productivity positively influences the continuance elevate work flexibility. Given that prior Information Systems (IS)
intention of RWS. studies have also validated the positive correlation between new tech­
nological innovations and functionalities with productivity ([39]; [40];
H1. Productivity is positively related to continuance intention of RWS.
[41]) or work flexibility [42], this study formulated the following
hypotheses.
3.2. Work flexibility
H4. Functionality is positively related to productivity.
The introduction of RWS amid the COVID-19 pandemic has brought H5. Functionality is positively related to work flexibility.
about an improved work-life balance through enhanced work flexibility
and decreased boundaries between the professional and personal 3.4. Security
spheres [35]. In other words, employees have the capability to perform
their duties from any place and at any moment empowered by RWS In the context of RWS, which typically involves the participation of
implemented by advanced information and communication technology numerous individuals sharing their faces and exchanging diverse ma­
(ICT) and refined digital tools. Regarding the impact of utilizing RWS, terials for collaborative purposes, privacy and security concerns inevi­
flexibility firm theory underscores that enhanced flexibility in the tably emerge as significant challenges. In reality, the year 2020
workplace boosts worker efficiency. This is due to the opportunity for witnessed a notable surge in the adoption of RWS within corporate,
employees to work from home, enabling them to seamlessly attend to educational, and social realms, as the global COVID-19 pandemic
personal tasks. Concurrently, organizations can harness the full poten­ compelled a substantial portion of the population to remain at home.
tial of employees’ contributions [36]. This transformative shift towards virtual interactions brought about the
More recent studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of work inception of the term ’Zoombombing,’ denoting the undesirable and
flexibility created by RWS. Ng et al. [37] emphasized that remote work, disruptive encroachment, often orchestrated by internet trolls, into
facilitated by IT-based RWS, highlights how work flexibility positively video conference calls [43]. Deloitte [44] also identified ’IP & Data se­
influences personal behavioral control. Chatterjee et al. [23] also veri­ curity’ as one of the ten essential factors to be considered when
fied remote work flexibility exhibits a favorable correlation with formulating effective strategies for remote work. The significance of
employee productivity. Ko and Kim [32] hypothesized the positive ensuring intellectual property safety, as well as addressing data privacy
relationship between motivation for personal life, conceptually con­ and network security risks, was underscored.
taining work flexibility aspect, and intention to use flexible work ar­ Hence, ensuring the security of RWS would prevent unauthorized
rangements and confirmed the significant relationship. Dzandu et al. participation, disruptions, and data breaches, thereby enhancing pro­
[34] demonstrated a positive association between IS capability, groun­ ductivity. Additionally, RWS users would be able to perform tasks with
ded in the Resource-Based View (RBV) framework and encompassing greater flexibility, underpinned by a heightened sense of trust in the
various productivity attributes, and the intention to remote work reliability of RWS. Thus, this study operationally defines security as “the
post-COVID-19. This study operationally defines work flexibility as “the extent to which RWS safeguard and respond to external threats such as
empowerment of employees to manage the timing and location of their hacking, ensuring the protection of work-related information and
tasks within the framework of the organization’s designated schedule, participant data,” and posits the following hypotheses.
irrespective of their geographical location with RWS”, and proposes the
following hypotheses. H6. Security is positively related to productivity.

H2. Work flexibility is positively related to continuance intention of H7. Security is positively related to work flexibility.
RWS.
3.5. Management support
H3. Work flexibility is positively related to productivity.
Management support refers to the degree to which the adoption and
3.3. Functionality utilization of RWS are supported by management levels of a firm,
including the CEO and other senior managers in this study. The effective
This vigorous environment has spurred enterprises to take the lead in implementation and operation of a specific technology within an

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H. Yang Technology in Society 78 (2024) 102613

organization can be challenging without management support, as it can significant and positive association between the two constructs. Ng et al.
be difficult to secure the necessary operational budget and establish [37] insisted that government support is vital to guarantee the successful
relevant internal regulations [45]. discovered that a deficiency in sup­ integration of remote work into businesses, as this assistance has an
port from top management was one of the primary causes of the failure impact on both employee performance and the rate of employment. And
of CRM initiatives. Reinking and Resch [46] also found that the absence then this study revealed that government support has a positive impact
of management support is often recognized as a significant hindrance to on technological competence and organizational support.
the successful execution of advanced accounting and management As remote work and online collaboration become more prevalent,
control systems. In the context of positive relationships, Jeyaraj et al. RWS is poised to become a crucial system that determines the compet­
[47] proposed that among the key factors influencing the adoption of IT itiveness of businesses. Therefore, the government should enhance
innovation within an organization, top management support stands out policy support, particularly focusing on small and startup companies
as one of the three most crucial predictors on the organizational level. that may face budget constraints or lack operational expertise, to lower
Additionally, studies utilizing the TOE framework have observed a the barriers to RWS adoption. In reality, the Ministry of Employment and
substantial and favorable association between top management support Labor in South Korea officially published a ’comprehensive remote work
and an organization’s inclination to embrace innovative technology [19, manual’ in September 2020 to support the implementation of remote
48,49]. work by companies in South Korea [58]. Hence, the following hypoth­
In this study, both productivity and work flexibility are grounded in esis will be tested (see Fig. 1).
the adoption and utilization of RWS. Therefore, it is reasonable to as­
H11. Government support is positively related to continuance inten­
sume that strong management support for the adoption and utilization
tion of RWS.
of RWS will lead to increased productivity and improved work flexi­
bility, ultimately having a positive impact on the continuance intention
4. Method
of RWS.
H8. Management support is positively related to productivity. 4.1. Instrument development
H9. Management support is positively related to work flexibility.
The scale items in this study were crafted based on prior research
that focused on the TOE framework and the intention to use RWS, as
3.6. Competitive pressure illustrated in Table 1. For each construct, we assessed 28 items using a 7-
point Likert scale, where 1 signifies strong disagreement and 7 indicates
Competitive pressure refers to the impact of the competitive land­ strong agreement. A comprehensive suite of measures was formulated
scape on an organization’s need to utilize technology to uphold or based on previous relevant research to ensure the validity and reliability
enhance its competitive position from the innovative technology of this study as depicted in Table 1. Some measures were tailored to
perspective [49,50]. Amico [51] states that the COVID-19 pandemic better suit the context of this study.
sparked what economist Nicholas Bloom calls the ’working-from-home
economy,’ and many companies were forced to competitively adopt
remote work when the pandemic broke out. McKinsey & Company [52] 4.2. Data collection
also mentioned that as the pandemic begins to ease, many companies are
competitively planning a new combination of remote and on-site This study aims to explore the significant factors that influence the
working, a hybrid virtual model. decision to continue using RWS, including two mediating variables:
Many prior studies support a positive relationship between such productivity and work flexibility. To achieve this, we enlisted the ser­
competitive pressure and the acceptance of new technological products vices of a domestic marketing research company to administer an online
and services. Mohammad et al. [53] proved that statistically significant survey in November 2022. The survey consisted of three main sections.
association between the level of competitive pressure and the extent of In the initial section, we screened respondents based on their prior usage
business intelligence and analytics usage. In addition, Nguyen et al. [54] of RWS, introduced the research objectives, and explained the purpose
confirmed that competitive pressure is one of the key environmental of the survey. The second section comprised survey questions addressing
context-related factors positively affecting online retailing adoption in eight latent constructs, namely, productivity, work flexibility, func­
Vietnam. Gangwar et al. [55] also verified that competitive pressure has tionality, security, management support, competitive pressure, govern­
a positive effect on cloud computing adoption. Accordingly, this study ment support, and continuance intention. The final section collected
defines competitive pressure as the impact of the competitive business demographic information from the respondents. We collected 411 valid
environment, motivating organizations to utilize RWS to maintain or responses through a systematic completion of all questionnaire items
increase competitiveness, and proposes the following hypothesis. (see Table 2). To address concerns regarding common method bias
(CMB), which involves a single common factor explaining most of the
H10. Competitive pressure is positively related to continuance inten­ variance, we conducted a multicollinearity test using Harman’s single-
tion of RWS. factor analysis and variance inflation factors (VIFs). According to the
findings of the single-factor analysis, seven factors were identified, and
3.7. Government support the variance explained by the first factor was less than 50 percent (36.5
percent). In addition, all constructs in the model had VIFs below the
Government support refers to the assistance and guidance that cutoff threshold of 3.5, with values ranging from a minimum of 1.206 to
companies receive from the government to foster innovation. It en­ a maximum of 1.707. Therefore, these results suggest that CMB was not
compasses technical help, training, and financial backing for innovative a significant issue in this study [63,64].
initiatives [54,56]. Consequently, it plays a crucial role in influencing a Typically, studies using the PLS-SEM approach do not necessitate
company’s adoption of innovative technologies, as confirmed by several assessing model fit, as PLS-SEM operates differently from covariance-
prior research studies. Al-Fahim et al. [57] analyzed the key elements based SEM and does not focus on minimizing discrepancies between
within the TOE framework that significantly impact the implementation observed and estimated covariance matrices, unlike chi-square-based fit
of Internet banking services and confirmed that government support is measures [65]. However, several prior studies showed that the alter­
one of the key determinants in adopting Internet banking services. native assessment of goodness of fit (GoF), following the framework of
Nguyen et al. [54] also hypothesized that government support is posi­ Tenenhaus et al. [66], could be conducted to evaluate the overall
tively related to the intention to use online retailing, finally verifying the appropriateness of the research model based on PLS-SEM [12,67,68].

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Fig. 1. Research model.

The established thresholds for GoF are categorized as small = 0.1, me­ determinants of the technological dimension, functionality showed
dium = 0.25, and large = 0.36 [69]. In this study, the calculated GoF positive relationships with productivity and work flexibility (H4, β =
value is 0.582, surpassing the threshold indicative of a large effect size. 0.115, t-value = 2.167, p < 0.005; H5, β = 0.469, t-value = 9.868, p <
Consequently, the GoF of this research model is deemed notably high. 0.001). However, security was only positively related to productivity,
but not to work flexibility (H6, β = 0.178, t-value = 3.323, p < 0.01).
5. Data analysis and result Management support, which is the organizational factor of our research
model, also had a positive impact on productivity, but not work flexi­
In this study, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling bility (H8, β = 0.123, t-value = 2.269, p < 0.05). Finally, two envi­
(PLS-SEM) was applied using Smart PLS 4 software to investigate the ronmental factors such as competitive pressure and government support
research model and test the hypotheses. PLS-SEM focuses on maximizing all had positive impacts on continuance intention (H10, β = 0.108, t-
the explained variance and generating consistent path estimates, making value = 2.947, p < 0.01; H11, β = 0.092, t-value = 2.465, p < 0.05). The
it a suitable choice for evaluating research models in situations where R2 value of continuance intention was 65.3 %.
the data distribution is non-normal, as observed in this study [65,70]. To
confirm both convergent validity and internal reliability, we examined 6. Discussion
several indicators for each construct, including factor loadings, average
variance extracted (AVE), construct reliability (CR), and Cronbach’s 6.1. Key findings
alpha. Table 3 displays the results, indicating that all these measures
surpass the specified minimum thresholds (factor loadings: 0.6, AVE: In the current research endeavor, we incorporated productivity and
0.5, composite reliability: 0.6, Cronbach’s alpha: 0.7). This confirms the work flexibility as two mediators. Simultaneously, we classified func­
presence of convergent validity in our study [71]. tionality and security as technological constructs, while categorizing
Discriminant validity was assessed through multiple criteria, competitive pressure and government support as environmental con­
including the Fornell-Larcker method, cross-loading analysis, and the structs, and management support as an organizational construct, all
Hetero-Trait Mono-Trait Ratio (HTMT). As indicated in Tables 4 and 5, within the framework of the TOE model. This methodological approach
the square roots of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each was devised to construct a comprehensive research model, aimed at
construct exceeded the inter-construct correlations, and the cross- probing the continuous adoption of RWS.
loadings for each indicator were higher than those observed for other The data analysis uncovered several important findings. Firstly, the
constructs. Finally, Table 6 presents the results of HTMT, revealing that confirmation of the substantial mediating roles of productivity and work
all HTMT values were lower than the specified threshold of 0.85 [72]. flexibility in the continuous usage intention of RWS for existing users
This confirms that there are no issues with the discriminant validity of establishes a positive relationship between these variables. This un­
our model. derscores the significant influence of these mediators on the continued
Table 7 illustrates the outcomes of a structural equation modeling intention to use RWS, supporting our first set of hypotheses (H1, H2,
analysis that utilized a bootstrapping resampling approach to assess the H3). Secondly, among H1 to H3, H3 (β = 0.491) indicates a strong
significance of the model’s pathways, as this method is a nonparametric positive relationship between work flexibility and productivity. This
statistical technique. Of the eleven proposed hypotheses, nine are sup­ suggests that when users experience increased work flexibility through
ported. First, both productivity and work flexibility—two mediators of RWS, it leads to a significant improvement in their productivity.
our model—had a positive effect on continuance intention (H1, β = Moreover, the significant positive impact of work flexibility on pro­
0.285, t-value = 6.518, p < 0.001; H2, β = 0.511, t-value = 13.314, p < ductivity (H3) suggests that work flexibility may serve as an amplifier
0.001). Furthermore, work flexibility had a significantly positive impact for productivity. This means that not only does work flexibility directly
on productivity (H3, β = 0.491, t-value = 9.988, p < 0.001). Among two contribute to continuance intention, but it also enhances productivity,

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Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Survey items. Construct Item Items References
Construct Item Items References No.
No.
GS4 Overall, the role of the government
Continuance CI1 I am willing to use RWS for Davis [59] is important for the penetration of
intention business purposes RWS for business purposes
CI2 It is worthwhile to use RWS for
business purposes
CI3 I predict I would use RWS for
business purposes in the future Table 2
CI4 I recommend others use RWS for Sample demographics.
business purposes
Characteristics Respondents (n = 411)
Productivity PD1 I believe employees become more Chatterjee et al.
productive while using RWS [23] Number Percentage
PD2 One of the main objectives of RWS
Gender
is to enhance employee
Male 237 57.7 %
productivity
Female 174 42.3 %
PD3 I believe organizations adopting
Age
RWS can realize better employee
20-29 89 21.7 %
productivity
30-39 107 26.0 %
PD4 Improving employee productivity
40-49 94 22.9 %
through RWS will lead to improved
50+ 121 29.4 %
organizational productivity
Education
Work flexibility WF1 I like to work as per my choice of Chatterjee et al.
~ High school 41 10.0 %
location with RWS [23]
University 321 78.1 %
WF2 I believe that work flexibility is an
Graduate school 47 11.4 %
essential component for remote
Other 2 0.5 %
working with RWS
Monthly Income($)
WF3 Given a choice, I would like to
Less than 2000 24 5.8 %
work from my preferred locations
2000–3500 180 43.8 %
with RWS
3500~5000 109 26.5 %
Functionality FU1 Using RWS is good to collaborate Yang et al. [60]
5000 + 98 23.8 %
with other workers from a distance
Occupation
FU2 RWS is efficient for easily working
Start-up worker 12 2.9 %
in various places with many
SME worker 274 66.7 %
features such as video
Major company worker 55 13.4 %
conferencing, group discussion,
Self-employer 20 4.9 %
chatting, file sharing, etc.
Public service worker 31 7.5 %
FU3 The performance of features on
NGO worker 17 4.1 %
RWS is stable
Other 2 0.5 %
Security SC1 We believe that RWS has effective Abed [19]
ways to protect users’ privacy
SC2 We believe that RWS has effective
ways to combat hacking which in turn further contributes to continuance intention. This ampli­
SC3 I believe that RWS will be able to fying effect could explain the higher Beta value in H2. Thirdly, among
prevent system downtime caused the three variables within the technological and organizational di­
by cyber attacks mensions, which also serve as antecedents of productivity and work
SC4 Secure electronic transactions and
services are available and
flexibility, it was observed that functionality and work flexibility
affordable on RWS exhibited the strongest correlation, while other notable associations
Management MS1 Our (top) management is likely to Chen and Yao showed weaker associations. This outcome aligns with expectations, as
support consider the implementation of [61], Abed [19] the majority of features offered by RWS, such as video conferencing,
RWS as strategically important
online group discussions, chat functions, and file sharing, directly
MS2 Our (top) management is willing to
take risks involved in the adoption contribute to enhancing users’ work flexibility. Fourthly, even though
of RWS the positive relationship between security and productivity underscores
MS3 According to (top) managers in our the critical role of secure environments in enhancing user performance,
firm, incorporating RWS is a very some security protocols such as stringent security requirements may
important way to gain a
competitive advantage
inadvertently impose restrictions on the fluidity of work practices, thus
Competitive CP1 Firms think that RWS has an Cruz-Jesus et al. not contributing to work flexibility (H7: β = 0.030, p = 0.648). Simi­
pressure influence on competition in their [49] larly, the absence of a significant effect between management support
industry and work flexibility (H9: β = − 0.008, p = 0.896) could be due to a
CP2 Our firm is under pressure from
managerial focus on output over process or a lack of institutional
competitors to adopt RWS
CP3 Our competitors know the mechanisms to facilitate flexible work arrangements.
importance of RWS and are using Lastly, two environmental factors such as competitive pressure and
them for operations government support all were shown to have significant effects on
Government GS1 Incentives such as monetary Leicht et al. continuance intention, which is consistent with previous IS studies [54,
support subsidies are needed to activate the [62]
use of RWS for business purposes
54,55,57]. This result is reasonable because governments should pro­
GS2 It is necessary to establish a legal vide remote work guidelines and technological assistance to businesses
and institutional foundation for adopting RWS in the early stages of the current markets. Government
RWS for business purposes support through initiatives and policies is also crucial, as remote work
GS3 The government can influence the
has the potential to reduce unemployment rates and improve employee
public’s awareness of the benefits
of RWS for business purposes performance [37]. In conclusion, the key findings of our study demon­
strate the importance of productivity and work flexibility as mediators
of continuance intention for RWS, and the overall validity of the TOE

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Table 3
Construct validity and reliability.
Construct Items Factor loading Std. error t-value AVE (>0.5) Composite Reliability (>0.7) Cronbach’s alpha(>0.7)

Continuance intention CI1 0.911 0.009 49.591 0.822 0.949 0.928

CI2 0.890 0.016 46.283
CI3 0.909 0.012 105.656
CI4 0.916 0.009 114.124
Productivity PD1 0.871 0.018 104.136 0.795 0.940 0.914
PD2 0.861 0.019 57.180
PD3 0.915 0.009 73.568
PD4 0.919 0.008 107.009
Work flexibility WF1 0.900 0.011 84.153 0.803 0.924 0.877
WF2 0.910 0.010 89.909
WF3 0.878 0.016 56.402
Functionality FU1 0.810 0.032 25.342 0.668 0.857 0.750
FU2 0.867 0.016 53.933
FU3 0.771 0.032 23.845
Security SC1 0.902 0.014 63.499 0.771 0.931 0.903
SC2 0.869 0.025 34.320
SC3 0.862 0.025 34.537
SC4 0.879 0.015 59.391
Management support MS1 0.903 0.014 62.445 0.824 0.933 0.893
MS2 0.909 0.012 73.926
MS3 0.911 0.015 58.963
Competitive pressure CP1 0.821 0.028 29.319 0.737 0.894 0.824
CP2 0.872 0.022 40.200
CP3 0.881 0.023 38.657
Government support GS1 0.834 0.018 46.729 0.732 0.916 0.878
GS2 0.859 0.017 49.502
GS3 0.862 0.015 57.284
GS4 0.867 0.016 48.670

Table 4
Fornell-Larcker criterion.
CI PD WF FU SC MS CP GS

CI 0.907
PD 0.666 0.892
WF 0.746 0.602 0.896
FU 0.622 0.457 0.477 0.817
SC 0.375 0.374 0.192 0.353 0.878
MS 0.341 0.339 0.177 0.361 0.492 0.908
CP 0.393 0.371 0.280 0.378 0.432 0.713 0.859
GS 0.425 0.360 0.367 0.363 0.191 0.3341 0.394 0.855

framework in explaining RWS adoption. area.

Practical implications involve establishing the roles of
manufacturing companies, adopting enterprises, and governments in the
6.2. Theoretical and practical implications
widespread adoption of RWS. Specifically, RWS manufacturing com­
panies need to devise strategies for enhancing RWS capabilities by
This study significantly contributes to the literature on RWS and the
expanding the application of cutting-edge technologies such as AI and
existing TOE framework. Theoretically, it represents the first empirical
metaverse, while simultaneously strengthening technical security at the
investigation into the intention to continue using RWS beyond the global
network and endpoint levels and establishing institutional foundations.
pandemic, based on data collected in late 2022 marking the conclusion
RWS-adopting enterprises should designate RWS as critical systems that
of the COVID-19 pandemic [73]. Previous research has predominantly
are maintained long-term like existing IT systems, ensuring the alloca­
focused on demonstrating the effectiveness of remote work during the
tion of resources for relevant technologies and budgets. Furthermore,
pandemic in specific domains [74–76]. While some prior research has
organizations looking to sustain or improve the use of RWS in the post-
explored the post-pandemic adoption of RWS within the TOE frame­
pandemic era should consider bolstering management support as a
work, the limitation of these studies may arise from the fact that data
strategic initiative. This could involve training managers to better un­
collection occurred during the pandemic period, potentially preventing
derstand the challenges and needs of remote work, providing them with
researchers from accurately reflecting RWS user intentions in the true
tools to effectively communicate and monitor work progress, and
post-pandemic period [28]. Despite establishing remote work as a new
fostering a culture that values and rewards productivity.
standard during the pandemic, it remains uncertain whether the inten­
Finally, governments should enhance R&D and support policies for
tion to use RWS will persist post-pandemic. Therefore, this study ad­
the advancement and widespread adoption of RWS, including initiatives
vances TOE by confirming the significant influence of technological,
like developing RWS tailored for small and medium-sized enterprises
organizational, and environmental factors on the intention to continue
and expanding support for RWS procurement and maintenance.
using RWS after the pandemic. Moreover, it proposes a new research
model within the TOE framework, emphasizing the mediating role of
7. Conclusions
productivity and work flexibility. Notably, the proposed model dem­
onstrates strong explanatory power with an R2 value of 65.3 % among
This study aimed to investigate the factors that impact the
current RWS users, providing valuable insights for future research in this

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H. Yang Technology in Society 78 (2024) 102613

Table 5
Construct cross-loadings.
CI PD WF FU SC MS CP GS

CI1 0.911 0.556 0.697 0.550 0.335 0.301 0.355 0.377

CI2 0.890 0.600 0.683 0.551 0.311 0.294 0.300 0.374
CI3 0.909 0.615 0.630 0.591 0.352 0.342 0.414 0.401
CI4 0.916 0.641 0.697 0.562 0.360 0.301 0.358 0.390
PD1 0.536 0.871 0.474 0.383 0.295 0.282 0.326 0.300
PD2 0.545 0.861 0.506 0.347 0.315 0.314 0.334 0.289
PD3 0.630 0.915 0.569 0.430 0.370 0.312 0.339 0.321
PD4 0.652 0.919 0.588 0.459 0.346 0.302 0.326 0.367
WF1 0.655 0.563 0.900 0.460 0.195 0.176 0.267 0.364
WF2 0.670 0.531 0.910 0.432 0.157 0.141 0.246 0.321
WF3 0.682 0.524 0.878 0.390 0.165 0.158 0.239 0.301
FU1 0.495 0.323 0.383 0.810 0.183 0.279 0.294 0.295
FU2 0.530 0.393 0.456 0.867 0.194 0.269 0.297 0.341
FU3 0.499 0.401 0.322 0.771 0.507 0.344 0.339 0.248
SC1 0.370 0.341 0.191 0.373 0.902 0.509 0.424 0.222
SC2 0.260 0.236 0.108 0.240 0.869 0.377 0.322 0.124
SC3 0.253 0.300 0.094 0.241 0.862 0.408 0.340 0.157
SC4 0.387 0.390 0.237 0.345 0.879 0.416 0.403 0.154
MS1 0.310 0.311 0.185 0.363 0.490 0.903 0.634 0.331
MS2 0.306 0.272 0.158 0.320 0.401 0.909 0.644 0.301
MS3 0.313 0.335 0.137 0.299 0.443 0.911 0.664 0.295
CP1 0.279 0.267 0.191 0.309 0.344 0.632 0.821 0.340
CP2 0.310 0.313 0.184 0.310 0.406 0.682 0.872 0.300
CP3 0.402 0.361 0.319 0.349 0.366 0.551 0.881 0.369
GS1 0.387 0.337 0.317 0.283 0.231 0.318 0.339 0.834
GS2 0.341 0.266 0.314 0.286 0.074 0.285 0.338 0.859
GS3 0.384 0.332 0.345 0.329 0.156 0.294 0.324 0.862
GS4 0.336 0.287 0.275 0.344 0.184 0.266 0.348 0.867

the study’s exclusive focus on respondents in South Korea raises con­

Table 6
siderations about the generalizability of the findings to a global context.
HTMT ratio.
Cultural and regional variations in attitudes toward remote work may
CI PD WF FU SC MS CP influence RWS adoption differently across countries. Future research
PD 0.719 should strive to include more diverse samples from countries with
WF 0.827 0.669 varying levels of RWS adoption to capture a broader understanding of
FU 0.745 0.547 0.584 the factors influencing usage behaviors in different cultural contexts.
SC 0.394 0.395 0.200 0.423
MS 0.375 0.373 0.199 0.444 0.538
Secondly, while this study validated meaningful factors associated with
CP 0.440 0.421 0.316 0.479 0.491 0.841 the TOE dimensions, further exploration of additional factors could
GS 0.469 0.397 0.416 0.444 0.207 0.383 0.460 enhance the comprehensiveness of future research. For instance,
investigating the role of user satisfaction, organizational readiness, or
compatibility with various devices as determinants of productivity and
Table 7 work flexibility could provide a more nuanced understanding of the
Summary of hypotheses testing results. complex dynamics influencing RWS usage intention. Thirdly, this study
Hypothesis Path coefficient S.E t-value Supported
did not delve into potential variations in results based on organizational
types, such as company size and organizational culture. Recognizing the
H1: PD → CI(+) 0.285 0.044 6.518 Yes
diversity among organizations is crucial for developing more effective
H2: WF → CI(+) 0.511 0.038 13.314 Yes
H3: WF → PD(+) 0.491 0.049 9.988 Yes corporate strategies and formulating national policies that cater to the
H4: FU → PD(+) 0.115 0.053 2.167 Yes unique needs and challenges of different organizational contexts. Future
H5: FU → WF(+) 0.469 0.048 9.868 Yes research should conduct a more comprehensive analysis, considering
H6: SC → PD(+) 0.178 0.054 3.323 Yes
factors like company size, organizational culture, and industry-specific
H7: SC → WF(+) 0.030 0.066 0.456 No
H8: MS → PD(+) 0.123 0.054 2.269 Yes
characteristics to unveil nuanced insights that can inform tailored ap­
H9: MS → WF(+) − 0.008 0.058 0.130 No proaches for diverse organizational settings. Lastly, while the quanti­
H10: CP → CI(+) 0.108 0.037 2.947 Yes tative research design employed in this study is suitable for testing the
H11: GS → CI(+) 0.092 0.037 2.465 Yes proposed hypotheses through data collection and analysis, it is
acknowledged that relying solely on a single cross-sectional dataset may
continuance intention to use RWS emphasizing the mediating roles of not fully ensure methodological robustness. Future research utilizing
productivity and work flexibility. A novel and comprehensive research longitudinal or mixed methods approaches could provide deeper in­
model based on the TOE perspective was developed, demonstrating sights into the reasons behind users’ RWS preferences and how these
strong explanatory capability in predicting and elucidating users’ motivations might change over time.
behavioral intentions towards RWS adoption. The results significantly
contribute to our comprehension of the pivotal roles played by pro­ CRediT authorship contribution statement
ductivity, work flexibility, and TOE framework antecedents in the post-
pandemic context. Ultimately, this research offers valuable insights for Heetae Yang: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
both academic scholars and practitioners engaged in this field. Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Resources, Methodol­
While this study offers valuable insights into the continuance ogy, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
intention of RWS, several limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly,

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H. Yang Technology in Society 78 (2024) 102613

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