Government Engineering College, Siwan

Department of Electrical Engineering

B.Tech. Semester VIII
Model Paper for End Semester Exam
(Subject Code: PEC-EE07)

Power Quality and FACTS

Time: 3 Max. Marks:
Hours 70

Note: Attempt any five questions. Question number 1 is mandatory.

1. Answer any seven: (7×2=14)
(a) The parameters that define the quality of electrical power.
(A) Voltage
(B) Current
(C) Frequency
(D) All of these
(b) The CBEMA power quality graph plots the depth of voltage sags on
the axis against the duration of voltage sags on the
axis.
(A) horizontal, vertical
(B) vertical, horizontal
(C) Both
(D) None of these
(c) Cause of power interruption
(A) Power system faults
(B) Equipment failure
(C) Cascading failure
( D) All of the above
(d) DSTATCOM is a connected device designed to regulate the
either by generating or absorbing the reactive power.
(A) series, voltage
(B) shunt, voltage
(C) series, current
(D) shunt, current
(e) The presence of a DC in an AC power system is termed as
DC offset.
(A) voltage
(B) current
(C) voltage or current
(D) none of these
(f) What are the various type of FACTS controllers?
(A) Series Controllers
(B) Shunt Controllers
(C) Combined series-series controllers
 (D) Combined series-shunt controllers
(E) All the above

(g) FACTS devices are generally used for to compensate..................... of

the transmission line.
(A) Reactance
(B) Resistance
(C) Conductance
(D) Admittance
(h) Full form of UPFC is
(A) Unified power flow controller
(B) Unified power factor controller
(C) Unified power flow compensator
(D) Unique power flow controller
(i) STATCOM + SSSC will make
(A) UPQC
(B) TCSC
(C) SVR
(D) UPFC
2.(A) Explain the Power Quality Issues with necessary diagrams.

Power quality issues refer to disturbances or variations in the voltage, current, or frequency of electrical
power that can affect the performance of electrical equipment and systems. These issues can manifest in
various forms, and addressing them is crucial to ensure reliable and efficient operation of electrical networks
and equipment.

Common Power Quality Issues

1. Voltage Sag (or Dip):

o Voltage sag is a short-duration decrease in RMS voltage magnitude.
o It is typically caused by faults in the distribution network, starting of large motors, or sudden
changes in load.
o During a voltage sag, the voltage drops below the nominal value for a short period, which can
cause equipment to malfunction or shut down.
2. Voltage Swell:
o Voltage swell is a short-duration increase in RMS voltage magnitude.
o It can occur due to switching off large loads or capacitor banks, or network switching
operations.
o Voltage swell can lead to overvoltage conditions, potentially damaging sensitive equipment.
3. Voltage Interruption:
o Voltage interruption is a complete loss of voltage for a short or extended period.
o It is usually caused by faults in the power system, equipment failure, or deliberate isolation
for maintenance.
o Equipment dependent on continuous power supply will shut down during voltage
interruptions.
4. Harmonics:
o Harmonics are sinusoidal components of a periodic waveform at frequencies that are integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz).
o They are caused by non-linear loads such as variable speed drives, rectifiers, and arc
furnaces.
o Harmonics can distort voltage and current waveforms, leading to overheating of equipment,
reduced efficiency, and interference with communication systems.
5. Voltage Imbalance:
 o Voltage imbalance refers to unequal distribution of voltage magnitudes among the three
phases of a three-phase system.
o It is caused by unbalanced loads, unequal impedances in distribution lines, or faults.
o Voltage imbalance can lead to overheating of motors, increased losses in equipment, and
reduced lifespan of connected devices.

(B). What are the characteristics of thyristor-based FACTS devices?

Thyristor-based FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) devices utilize thyristors (also known as
silicon-controlled rectifiers or SCR) as their switching elements. These devices are used in power systems to
control and optimize the flow of electric power. Here are the key characteristics of thyristor-based FACTS
devices:

1. Reactive Power Control: Thyristor-based FACTS devices can generate or absorb reactive power to
regulate voltage and improve power factor in the AC transmission system. They are capable of rapid
and precise reactive power compensation.
2. Voltage Control: These devices can control voltage at specific points in the power grid, helping to
maintain voltage stability and regulate voltage profiles. This is particularly important during voltage
dips, swells, or fluctuations.
3. Power Flow Control: Thyristor-based FACTS devices can control the amount of active power
flowing through a transmission line or network. By adjusting the phase angle or impedance, they can
optimize power flow, reduce congestion, and enhance the overall efficiency of the power system.
4. Dynamic Response: They have fast response times, allowing them to quickly react to changes in
system conditions such as load variations or faults. This rapid response capability helps in
maintaining system stability and reliability.
5. Flexible Configuration: Thyristor-based FACTS devices can be configured in various topologies
such as shunt-connected (like STATCOMs), series-connected (like SSSCs), or combined shunt-
series configurations (like UPFCs). This flexibility allows for customized solutions based on specific
grid requirements.
6. High Efficiency: Thyristor-based devices typically have high efficiency due to the low losses
associated with thyristor switching compared to other semiconductor devices. This efficiency is
 crucial for minimizing energy losses and maximizing the economic benefits of deploying FACTS
technology.
7. Modular Design: They are often designed in modular configurations, which facilitates scalability
and ease of installation in both new and existing power systems. Modular designs also support easier
maintenance and upgrades.
8. Voltage Source Converters (VSCs): Some modern FACTS devices use voltage source converters
(VSCs) instead of thyristors. VSC-based FACTS devices offer additional advantages such as
bidirectional power flow capability, improved controllability, and the ability to generate or absorb
both active and reactive power.

Overall, thyristor-based FACTS devices play a crucial role in enhancing the flexibility, reliability, and
efficiency of AC transmission systems by providing dynamic control of voltage, reactive power, and power
flow. Their deployment helps utilities and grid operators to address challenges related to power quality,
stability, and grid congestion effectively.

3.(A) Draw the power angle curve of SMIB system with midpoint SVC compensation

In a Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system with midpoint Static Var Compensator (SVC)
compensation, the power angle curve represents the relationship between the rotor angle (δ) of the
synchronous generator and the active power output (P) of the generator. The SVC is used to control the
system voltage and reactive power.

Here's how the power angle curve typically looks for an SMIB system with midpoint SVC compensation:

1. Power Angle Curve Description:

o The power angle curve shows the active power output of the synchronous generator (P) as a
function of the rotor angle (δ).
o As the rotor angle δ increases, the active power output P also increases until reaching the
maximum power point.
2. Characteristics:
o Initially, the active power output P increases linearly with the rotor angle δ.
 o At a certain point, the active power output P reaches its maximum value (Pmax)
corresponding to the maximum power transfer condition.
o Beyond this point, the active power output P decreases due to the loss of synchronism
(generator instability).
3. Impact of Midpoint SVC Compensation:
o The midpoint SVC compensates for reactive power requirements, ensuring voltage stability
and enhancing the power transfer capability of the system.
o It helps to maintain the voltage within acceptable limits and can influence the shape and
stability of the power angle curve.

3.(B) Explain the operating principle of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for Harmonics Mitigation.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique used in power electronics to control the power delivered to
electrical devices. It is widely employed in various applications including motor drives, uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS), and also for mitigating harmonics in power systems. Here’s how PWM operates and
how it can be utilized for harmonics mitigation:

Operating Principle of PWM:

1. Basic Concept:
o PWM involves switching a power semiconductor device (typically a transistor or an
insulated-gate bipolar transistor, IGBT) on and off at a high frequency.
o The width (duration) of the on-time (conduction period) of the switch is varied while keeping
the switching frequency constant.
o By controlling the width of the pulses (pulse width), the average voltage or current delivered
to the load can be adjusted.
2. High-Frequency Switching:
o PWM operates at a high frequency, typically in the range of several kHz to tens of kHz
(commonly 2 kHz to 20 kHz).
o The high switching frequency allows for smooth control of the output waveform and reduces
audible noise in applications like motor drives.
3. Harmonics Mitigation:
o In the context of power quality and harmonics mitigation, PWM is utilized to mitigate
harmonic distortion in AC power systems.
o Non-linear loads such as variable speed drives, rectifiers, and power converters draw non-
sinusoidal current from the grid, introducing harmonics.
o PWM techniques can shape the current waveform drawn by these loads to reduce or eliminate
specific harmonics.
4. Selective Harmonic Elimination:
o PWM techniques such as Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) or Selective Harmonic
Mitigation (SHM) are used.
o These techniques involve controlling the switching times of the power semiconductors to
eliminate or minimize specific harmonic components of the load current.
o By adjusting the timing of the switching events, the fundamental frequency component of the
load current can be maintained while suppressing undesirable harmonics.
5. Benefits:
o Effective harmonics mitigation: PWM allows for precise control over the current waveform,
reducing harmonic content.
o Compliance with power quality standards: By reducing harmonics, PWM helps in meeting
regulatory requirements and standards for power quality.
o Improved efficiency: The high efficiency of PWM-based converters and inverters contributes
to overall energy savings.
6. Implementation:
 o PWM is implemented using microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSPs) that generate
pulse patterns based on control algorithms.
o The control algorithm calculates the optimal pulse width based on desired output
characteristics and feedback signals such as load current or voltage.

4.(A) Explain the working of STATCOM. Draw the V-I characteristics of SVC and STATCOM, and
compare their performance.

Working of STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) is a type of FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System)

device used for reactive power compensation and voltage control in AC power systems. Here's how
STATCOM works and its key characteristics:

1. Basic Operation:
o STATCOM consists of a voltage source inverter (VSI) that is connected to the AC system through
coupling transformers.
o It operates by generating or absorbing reactive power as needed to regulate the voltage at its point of
connection.
2. Control Strategy:
o The control system of STATCOM continuously monitors the voltage at the point of connection and
adjusts the output of the VSI to maintain the desired voltage level.
o By injecting or absorbing reactive power, STATCOM can dynamically compensate for fluctuations in
the system voltage, thereby enhancing voltage stability.
3. Voltage Regulation:
o When the system voltage decreases, STATCOM injects reactive power (VARs) into the system,
thereby raising the voltage.
o Conversely, when the system voltage increases, STATCOM absorbs reactive power, helping to lower
the voltage.
4. Advantages:
o Fast response time: STATCOM can respond rapidly to changes in voltage, making it effective for
maintaining voltage stability during transient conditions.
o Continuous operation: Unlike traditional capacitor banks, STATCOM can provide dynamic
compensation over a wide range of operating conditions.
o Independent control: STATCOM can independently control reactive power generation or absorption
without relying on fixed capacitors or inductors.

V-I Characteristics: SVC vs STATCOM

Static Var Compensator (SVC):

1. Basic Operation:
o SVC typically consists of a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) or thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)
banks.
o It is primarily used for reactive power compensation by varying the impedance in the AC circuit.
o SVC responds to changes in system voltage by adjusting the reactance (inductive or capacitive) in the
circuit.
2. V-I Characteristics:
o SVC provides a nonlinear relationship between voltage (V) and current (I).
o Below a certain threshold voltage, SVC provides negligible reactive power compensation (off-state).
o Above the threshold voltage, SVC rapidly increases its reactive power output (on-state) to maintain
voltage stability.
3. Characteristics:
o Fast response: SVC can switch between states (off-state to on-state) relatively quickly, depending on
the control strategy and thyristor firing.
o Limited range: The reactive power output of SVC is limited by the design of the TCR or TSC banks,
which have fixed steps of compensation.
STATCOM:

1. Basic Operation:
o STATCOM utilizes a voltage source inverter (VSI) to generate or absorb reactive power.
o It continuously adjusts its output voltage and current to provide precise control over the reactive
power injected into the system.
2. V-I Characteristics:
o STATCOM provides a linear relationship between voltage (V) and current (I) due to its continuous
control capability.
o The slope of the V-I characteristic depends on the control strategy and the modulation index of the
voltage source inverter.
3. Characteristics:
o Continuous control: STATCOM can provide reactive power compensation over a wide range, from
zero to full capacity, without discrete steps.
o High dynamic response: STATCOM can respond very quickly to voltage fluctuations, offering
superior transient performance compared to SVC.
o Higher efficiency: STATCOM operates with lower losses compared to SVC due to its use of inverters
instead of thyristor-based switching.

(B). What are the types of FACTS controllers?

FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) controllers are devices used in power systems to enhance
the controllability and flexibility of AC transmission lines. These controllers are designed to improve the
efficiency, reliability, and stability of electrical grids by dynamically controlling voltage, current, and
impedance characteristics. The types of FACTS controllers include:

1. Shunt Controllers:
o Shunt-connected FACTS controllers are connected in parallel with the transmission line to
regulate the voltage and reactive power flow. Examples include:
▪ Static Var Compensator (SVC): Utilizes capacitors and reactors controlled by
thyristors to dynamically generate or absorb reactive power, thereby stabilizing
voltage.
▪ Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM): Uses a voltage source inverter
(VSI) to generate or absorb reactive power, offering fast response and continuous
control.
 2. Series Controllers:
o Series-connected FACTS controllers are inserted in series with the transmission line to
regulate the impedance and control the power flow. Examples include:
▪ Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC): Adjusts the series capacitance
using thyristor switches to vary the line reactance and control power flow.
▪ Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC): Similar to STATCOM but
inserted in series, providing variable impedance to control power flow and enhance
stability.
3. Combined Controllers:
o Combined or hybrid FACTS controllers utilize both series and shunt configurations to
provide comprehensive control over transmission line parameters. Examples include:
▪ Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): Integrates a STATCOM and a TCSC (or
SSSC) to independently control voltage magnitude and phase angle, offering
enhanced power flow control and stability.

5.(A) Explain the Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) with neat and clean diagram.

The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a type of FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission
System) device used in power systems to control and optimize power flow, improve transient stability, and
enhance the overall performance of AC transmission lines. Here’s an explanation of SSSC along with a
diagram:

Working Principle of SSSC:

1. Basic Configuration:
o The SSSC is inserted in series with the transmission line and is typically composed of a
voltage source inverter (VSI) and a DC capacitor.
o The VSI generates a controllable voltage that is injected in series with the line to adjust the
line impedance and control power flow.
2. Control Strategy:
o The control system of the SSSC continuously monitors the line current and adjusts the output
of the VSI to inject a voltage that is in phase opposition to the line current.
o By injecting a controlled voltage in series with the line, the SSSC can dynamically vary the
line impedance (reactance) to either increase or decrease the effective series reactance.
3. Operation Modes:
o Inductive Mode: When the line impedance needs to be increased, the SSSC injects a voltage
that is inductive in nature, effectively raising the line reactance.
o Capacitive Mode: Conversely, when the line impedance needs to be decreased, the SSSC
injects a voltage that is capacitive in nature, lowering the line reactance.
4. Benefits:
o Power Flow Control: By adjusting the line impedance, the SSSC can control the active
power flow through the transmission line, alleviating congestion and optimizing power
transfer capability.
o Transient Stability Improvement: SSSC can enhance transient stability by damping out
oscillations and improving the electromechanical damping of the system.
o Voltage Regulation: SSSC helps in regulating the voltage profile along the transmission
line, maintaining voltage stability during variations in load and generation.
(B). Give the importance of FACTS controller for Power Quality.

FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) controllers play a crucial role in improving power quality in
electrical networks. Here are several key reasons why FACTS controllers are important for power quality:

1. Voltage Stability: FACTS controllers such as STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) and
SVC (Static Var Compensator) help regulate voltage levels by injecting or absorbing reactive power.
This capability ensures that voltage variations (sags and swells) are minimized, thereby improving the
stability and reliability of the electrical supply.
2. Reactive Power Compensation: Non-linear loads in electrical systems, such as variable speed drives
and rectifiers, can distort voltage and current waveforms, leading to poor power quality. FACTS
controllers can provide dynamic reactive power compensation to mitigate these distortions, ensuring
that power factor remains close to unity and reducing harmonic content in the system.
3. Enhanced Power Transfer Capability: FACTS devices like TCSC (Thyristor-Controlled Series
Capacitor) and SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator) optimize the impedance of
transmission lines, thereby increasing the efficiency of power transfer over long distances. This helps
in minimizing losses and maintaining voltage levels within acceptable limits, thus improving overall
power quality.
4. Transient Stability Improvement: In the event of sudden changes in load or faults in the network,
FACTS controllers can provide rapid response to stabilize the system. Devices like UPFC (Unified
Power Flow Controller) can independently control voltage and power flow, enhancing transient
stability and reducing the risk of system disturbances that can affect power quality.
5. Mitigation of Voltage Flicker: Voltage flicker can occur due to rapid changes in load, particularly
from industrial equipment like welding machines or arc furnaces. FACTS controllers can dampen
these rapid fluctuations by smoothing out the voltage profile, thereby minimizing flicker and ensuring
consistent voltage supply.
6. Grid Congestion Management: FACTS controllers help manage grid congestion by dynamically
controlling the flow of power and optimizing utilization of transmission assets. By alleviating
congestion, FACTS devices improve reliability and reduce the likelihood of voltage instability or
interruptions, thereby enhancing overall power quality.
7. Compliance with Power Quality Standards: In many regions, utilities are required to comply with
stringent power quality standards to ensure reliable service to customers. FACTS controllers enable
utilities to meet these standards by providing precise control over voltage, reactive power, and power
flow parameters.
6.(A) Derive the expression for active as well as reactive power flow in a lossless transmission line and
draw its necessary phasor diagram.
6.(B) Discuss application of facts devices for power flow control and stability improvement

FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) devices are critical for enhancing power flow control and
improving stability in electrical power systems. Here’s a detailed discussion on their applications in these
areas:

Power Flow Control:

1. Voltage and Reactive Power Control:

o Static Var Compensator (SVC) and Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) are
commonly used FACTS devices for voltage and reactive power control.
o SVC adjusts the reactive power flow by controlling the impedance connected in parallel with
the line, thereby stabilizing voltage and improving power factor.
o STATCOM, on the other hand, provides dynamic reactive power compensation by injecting
or absorbing reactive power as needed, which helps in maintaining voltage stability and
improving power quality.
2. Series Compensation:
o Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSSC) are used for series compensation.
o TCSC adjusts the series capacitance to control the line impedance, thereby optimizing power
transfer capability and reducing transmission losses.
o SSSC operates similarly but with a voltage source inverter (VSI) providing continuous
control over the injected voltage, enhancing power flow control and stability.
3. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):
o UPFC integrates series and shunt compensation capabilities into a single device.
o It can independently control both active and reactive power flow, providing flexibility in
optimizing power flow paths, mitigating congestion, and enhancing grid stability.

Stability Improvement:

1. Transient Stability Enhancement:

o FACTS devices like STATCOM and SVC can improve transient stability by providing rapid
and precise control over voltage and reactive power.
o During disturbances such as faults or sudden changes in load, these devices can quickly inject
or absorb reactive power to stabilize voltage and dampen oscillations, thereby preventing
cascading failures and maintaining system stability.
2. Damping of Power System Oscillations:
o SSSC and UPFC are particularly effective in damping power system oscillations.
o SSSC can vary the series impedance to provide damping characteristics that help in
stabilizing the system during electromechanical oscillations.
o UPFC’s ability to independently control voltage and phase angle allows it to actively dampen
oscillations by optimizing the power flow and damping characteristics of the transmission
network.
3. Congestion Management:
o FACTS devices play a crucial role in managing grid congestion.
o By optimizing the utilization of transmission assets, FACTS devices reduce line losses and
alleviate congestion in heavily loaded transmission corridors.
o This not only enhances operational efficiency but also ensures reliable and stable power
delivery across the grid.

7.(A) Why FACTS controllers are used? What is difference between STATCOM and SVC?

FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) controllers are used primarily to enhance the controllability,
flexibility, and efficiency of AC transmission systems. Here’s why FACTS controllers are employed and the
key differences between STATCOM and SVC:
Why FACTS Controllers are Used:

1. Power Flow Control:

o FACTS devices can control the flow of active and reactive power within the transmission
network. They optimize power transfer capability, reduce transmission losses, and mitigate
congestion by adjusting voltage and impedance characteristics.
2. Voltage Stability and Regulation:
o FACTS devices such as STATCOM and SVC stabilize and regulate voltage levels in the
network. They provide reactive power support to maintain voltage within acceptable limits,
especially during varying load conditions or disturbances.
3. Transient Stability Improvement:
o FACTS controllers enhance transient stability by damping out oscillations and improving the
dynamic response of the power system. This helps in preventing voltage collapse and
maintaining system stability during faults or sudden changes in operating conditions.
4. Grid Reliability and Resilience:
o By enhancing voltage stability, controlling power flow, and improving stability margins,
FACTS devices contribute to the overall reliability and resilience of the electrical grid. They
reduce the likelihood of blackouts and ensure continuous supply to consumers.
5. Integration of Renewable Energy:
o With the increasing penetration of renewable energy sources like wind and solar, FACTS
controllers help in integrating these intermittent sources into the grid more effectively. They
manage the variability and uncertainty of renewable generation by providing grid support and
maintaining system stability.
6. Compliance with Grid Codes and Standards:
o FACTS devices enable utilities to comply with grid codes and power quality standards by
regulating voltage, controlling reactive power, and managing grid conditions in accordance
with regulatory requirements.

Key Differences:

• Technology: STATCOM employs voltage source inverters (VSIs) for continuous and precise
control, while SVC uses thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) or thyristor-switched capacitors (TSCs)
for discrete compensation.
• Response Time: STATCOM has a faster response time compared to SVC, making it more suitable
for applications requiring rapid voltage support and transient stability enhancement.
• Control Flexibility: STATCOM offers continuous and independent control over reactive power
generation or absorption, whereas SVC operates in predefined steps based on the switching of
reactive components.
• Complexity and Efficiency: STATCOM typically operates with higher efficiency and lower losses
due to its use of modern semiconductor devices, whereas SVC may have higher losses associated
with thyristor switching.

7.(B) Explain the power quality terms in detail:

(i) Tolerance of equipment
(ii) DC-offset

(i) Tolerance of Equipment:

In the context of power quality, the tolerance of equipment refers to its ability to operate correctly and
reliably under varying electrical conditions without being adversely affected. This term is particularly
relevant in industrial and commercial settings where electrical equipment and devices are sensitive to
fluctuations in voltage, frequency, and other power disturbances.
Factors Affecting Equipment Tolerance:

1. Voltage Tolerance:
o Voltage Sag: A short-term reduction in voltage levels that can affect equipment operation. Equipment
with lower tolerance may malfunction or shut down during voltage sags.
o Voltage Swell: A short-term increase in voltage levels. Equipment with low tolerance may experience
overheating or damage during voltage swells.
o Voltage Unbalance: Unequal distribution of voltage among phases in a three-phase system, which
can affect equipment performance, especially motors and sensitive electronics.
2. Frequency Tolerance:
o Frequency Variation: Fluctuations in the nominal frequency of the power supply. Some equipment,
especially those with synchronous motors or clocks, may require precise frequency control within a
narrow tolerance range.
3. Harmonics:
o Harmonic Distortion: Non-linear loads can introduce harmonic currents into the electrical system,
which can lead to voltage distortion. Equipment with low tolerance to harmonics may experience
overheating, increased losses, and reduced lifespan.
4. Transients:
o Voltage Transients: Short-duration spikes or impulses in voltage levels. Equipment with low
tolerance may be sensitive to transients, leading to premature failure or malfunction.

Mitigation Strategies:

• Power Conditioning: Use of voltage regulators, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), and voltage stabilizers
to maintain stable voltage levels and protect equipment.
• Harmonic Filters: Installation of harmonic filters to reduce harmonic distortion and ensure cleaner power
supply to sensitive equipment.
• Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors (TVSS): Devices designed to protect equipment from voltage spikes
and transients by diverting excess voltage to ground.

(ii) DC-Offset:

DC-offset refers to the presence of a direct current (DC) component superimposed on an alternating current
(AC) waveform in an electrical system. This phenomenon can occur due to various reasons and has
implications for power quality.

Causes of DC-Offset:

1. Non-linear Loads:
o Non-linear loads such as rectifiers, variable frequency drives (VFDs), and switch-mode power
supplies draw current in pulses that can introduce DC components into the AC system.
2. Imbalance in Three-Phase Systems:
o Unequal distribution of loads or faults in the electrical distribution system can lead to DC-offset in
three-phase AC systems.
3. Transformer Saturation:
o Saturation of transformers due to high levels of harmonic currents can cause DC-offset in the output
voltage waveform.

Mitigation Strategies:

• Harmonic Filters: Installation of harmonic filters can mitigate DC-offset by filtering out harmonic currents
and reducing the distortion in AC waveforms.
• Isolation Transformers: Use of isolation transformers with low leakage flux and adequate impedance to
reduce the impact of DC-offset on sensitive equipment.
• Design Considerations: Ensuring proper design and specification of equipment to handle and mitigate the
effects of DC-offset in electrical systems.
8.(A) Explain power oscillation damping and functional requirement of thyristor switched series capacitor
(TSSC).

Power Oscillation Damping (POD):

Power Oscillation Damping (POD) refers to the ability of a power system to suppress or dampen
electromechanical oscillations that occur due to disturbances such as faults, sudden changes in load, or
switching operations. These oscillations can lead to instability in the grid if not properly controlled,
potentially causing voltage instability or even cascading failures.

Mechanism of Power Oscillation Damping:

1. Oscillation Characteristics:
o Power systems can experience low-frequency oscillations (typically below 1 Hz) due to interactions
between generators, transmission lines, and loads. These oscillations are inherent in the dynamic
behavior of the power system.
2. POD Devices:
o Power Oscillation Damping is achieved through the deployment of specialized devices known as POD
controllers or damping controllers.
o These devices are often integrated into FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) controllers such
as Static Var Compensators (SVCs), Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOMs), Thyristor-
Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSCs), or Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFCs).
3. Control Strategy:
o POD controllers monitor system oscillations using signals such as generator rotor speed deviations or
system frequency deviations.
o They adjust the reactive or active power output of the FACTS devices in real-time to counteract the
oscillations.
o By injecting or absorbing appropriate amounts of reactive power or controlling the impedance, POD
controllers dampen the oscillations and restore stability to the power system.
4. Benefits:
o Enhanced Stability: POD improves the transient stability of the power system by reducing the
amplitude and damping out oscillations, thereby preventing voltage instability and maintaining grid
reliability.
o Increased Power Transfer Capability: By stabilizing the system, POD can increase the power
transfer capability of transmission lines, optimizing the utilization of existing infrastructure.

Functional Requirements of Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

• Dynamic Control:

• TSSC should be capable of rapidly switching capacitive reactance in and out of the transmission line
based on system requirements.
• The switching should be synchronized with the AC waveform to ensure smooth operation and
minimal impact on the system.

• Voltage Regulation:

• By adjusting the series capacitive reactance, TSSC can regulate voltage levels along the transmission
line.
• It helps in maintaining voltage stability by compensating for voltage drops or rises that occur due to
load variations or system disturbances.

• Power Flow Control:

• TSSC optimizes power flow by controlling the impedance of the transmission line.
• It reduces line reactance, thereby improving the efficiency of power transfer and reducing
transmission losses.
• Transient Stability Enhancement:

• TSSC contributes to transient stability by damping out oscillations and improving the dynamic
response of the power system.
• It enhances the ability of the grid to withstand sudden changes in load or faults without causing
instability.

• Harmonic Mitigation:

• TSSC can help mitigate harmonics by filtering out unwanted harmonic frequencies from the AC
waveform.
• This improves power quality and reduces the impact of harmonic distortions on sensitive equipment
connected to the grid.

• Grid Resilience:

• By enhancing voltage stability, improving power flow control, and providing transient stability
support, TSSC contributes to the overall resilience of the electrical grid.
• It ensures reliable and stable operation, even under varying operating conditions and disturbances.

8.(B) Explain the operation of DVR and Active Power Filter uses in FACTS devices

DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer):

DVR is a specialized FACTS device designed to mitigate voltage sags and interruptions in the electrical
distribution system. It operates by injecting a voltage of appropriate magnitude and phase to compensate for
the sag or interruption, thereby restoring the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) to its nominal
value.

Operation of DVR:

1. Detection of Voltage Sag:

o DVR continuously monitors the voltage waveform at the PCC using sensors or measurement devices.
o When a voltage sag is detected (a rapid decrease in voltage below a predefined threshold), the DVR
initiates corrective action.
2. Energy Storage:
o DVR typically includes an energy storage device such as a capacitor or a battery.
o Upon detection of a voltage sag, energy stored in the storage device is discharged through an inverter
to generate the compensating voltage.
3. Voltage Injection:
o The inverter in the DVR generates a compensating voltage waveform with the same frequency as the
grid but with an amplitude and phase angle that counteracts the sag.
o This compensating voltage is injected into the electrical network at the PCC.
4. Real-Time Response:
o DVR responds rapidly to voltage sags, providing near-instantaneous correction within milliseconds.
o It ensures that sensitive equipment connected to the grid, such as industrial machinery or critical
loads, receive stable and uninterrupted power supply despite disturbances.
5. Benefits:
o Improved Power Quality: DVR eliminates voltage sags and interruptions, thereby improving power
quality and preventing disruptions in operations.
o Equipment Protection: Protects sensitive equipment from potential damage or malfunction caused
by voltage disturbances.
o Cost Savings: Reduces downtime and production losses associated with voltage-related disruptions.

Active Power Filters (APFs):

APFs are FACTS devices used primarily for harmonic mitigation and power factor correction in electrical
systems. They operate by injecting currents into the network that are out of phase with the harmonic currents
generated by non-linear loads, thereby canceling out the harmonics and improving overall power quality.

Operation of Active Power Filters:

1. Harmonic Detection:
o APFs monitor the current waveform in the electrical network using current transformers or sensors.
o They detect the presence and characteristics of harmonic currents generated by non-linear loads such
as rectifiers, VFDs (Variable Frequency Drives), and computers.
2. Current Injection:
o Upon detection of harmonics, APFs generate corrective currents using a voltage source inverter (VSI).
o These corrective currents are injected into the network in such a way that they are 180 degrees out of
phase with the harmonic currents, thereby effectively canceling them out.
3. Filtering Capability:
o APFs are capable of filtering out a wide range of harmonic frequencies, including odd and even
harmonics.
o They can adapt their operation dynamically to varying harmonic conditions in the network.
4. Power Factor Correction:
o In addition to harmonic mitigation, APFs can also perform reactive power compensation and power
factor correction.
o They inject reactive currents as needed to maintain a desired power factor close to unity, thereby
improving the efficiency of the electrical system.
5. Benefits:
o Harmonic Mitigation: APFs reduce harmonic distortion in the network, ensuring compliance with
power quality standards and regulations.
o Improved Efficiency: By correcting power factor and reducing harmonic losses, APFs contribute to
energy savings and operational efficiency.
o Extended Equipment Lifespan: Protects equipment from damage and overheating caused by
harmonic currents, thereby extending their lifespan and reliability.

Uses of DVR and APFs in FACTS Devices:

• Complementary Functions: DVR and APFs complement each other in enhancing power quality
within electrical distribution systems.
• Combined Applications: They are often integrated into larger FACTS systems, such as UPFCs
(Unified Power Flow Controllers), to provide comprehensive voltage support, harmonic mitigation,
and power factor correction capabilities.
• Customized Solutions: Depending on the specific needs of the electrical network, DVRs and APFs
can be deployed individually or in combination to address voltage stability, harmonic distortion, and
overall power quality issues effectively.

9. Write Short Notes on any two: