Pitch (music)

Pitch is a perceptual property that allows sounds to be ordered

on a frequency-related scale,[1] or more commonly, pitch is the
quality that makes it possible to judge sounds as "higher" and
"lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies.[2] Pitch
is a major auditory attribute of musical tones, along with
duration, loudness, and timbre.[3]

Pitch may be quantified as a frequency, but pitch is not a

purely objective physical property; it is a subjective
psychoacoustical attribute of sound. Historically, the study of
In musical notation, the different vertical
pitch and pitch perception has been a central problem in
positions of notes indicate different
psychoacoustics, and has been instrumental in forming and pitches.
testing theories of sound representation, processing, and Play top:
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Pitch and frequency

Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical
scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration (audio frequency).[5] Pitch is closely
related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent. Frequency is an objective, scientific attribute which can
be measured. Pitch is the subjective perception of a sound wave by the individual person, which cannot be
directly measured. However, this does not necessarily mean that people will not agree on which notes are
higher and lower.

The oscillations of sound waves can often be characterized in terms of frequency. Pitches are usually
associated with, and thus quantified as, frequencies (in cycles per second, or hertz), by comparing the
sounds being assessed against sounds with pure tones (ones with periodic, sinusoidal waveforms). Complex
and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method.[6][7][8]

According to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the auditory attribute of sound allowing
those sounds to be ordered on a scale from low to high. Since pitch is such a close proxy for frequency, it is
almost entirely determined by how quickly the sound wave is making the air vibrate and has almost nothing
to do with the intensity, or amplitude, of the wave. That is, "high" pitch means very rapid oscillation, and
"low" pitch corresponds to slower oscillation. Despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch
is shared by most languages.[9] At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that
involve up/down. The exact etymological history of the musical sense of high and low pitch is still unclear.
There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in
vertical space when the sound frequency is increased or reduced.[9]
In most cases, the pitch of complex sounds such as speech and musical notes corresponds very nearly to the
repetition rate of periodic or nearly-periodic sounds, or to the reciprocal of the time interval between
repeating similar events in the sound waveform.[7][8]

The pitch of complex tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived,
depending upon the observer.[4] When the actual fundamental frequency can be precisely determined
through physical measurement, it may differ from the perceived pitch because of overtones, also known as
upper partials, harmonic or otherwise. A complex tone composed of two sine waves of 1000 and 1200 Hz
may sometimes be heard as up to three pitches: two spectral pitches at 1000 and 1200 Hz, derived from the
physical frequencies of the pure tones, and the combination tone at 200 Hz, corresponding to the repetition
rate of the waveform. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing
fundamental, which is often the greatest common divisor of the frequencies present.[10]

Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level (loudness, volume) of the tone, especially at
frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure
increases. For instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just
barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder.[11] These results were
obtained in the pioneering works by S. Stevens[12] and W. Snow.[13] Later investigations, i.e. by A. Cohen,
have shown that in most cases the apparent pitch shifts were not significantly different from pitch‐matching
errors. When averaged, the remaining shifts followed the directions of Stevens's curves but were small (2%
or less by frequency, i.e. not more than a semitone).[14]

Lower pitches have Oscillogram of middle Higher pitches have

lower frequency. C3, C (262 Hz) (pure tone) higher frequency.
an octave below Oscillogram of C5, an
middle C. The octave above middle
frequency is half that C. The frequency is
of middle C (131 Hz). twice that of middle C
(Scale: 1 square is (523 Hz).
equal to 1 millisecond)

Theories of pitch perception

Theories of pitch perception try to explain how the physical sound and specific physiology of the auditory
system work together to yield the experience of pitch. In general, pitch perception theories can be divided
into place coding and temporal coding. Place theory holds that the perception of pitch is determined by the
place of maximum excitation on the basilar membrane.
A place code, taking advantage of the tonotopy in the auditory system, must be in effect for the perception
of high frequencies, since neurons have an upper limit on how fast they can phase-lock their action
potentials.[5] However, a purely place-based theory cannot account for the accuracy of pitch perception in
the low and middle frequency ranges. Moreover, there is some evidence that some non-human primates lack
auditory cortex responses to pitch despite having clear tonotopic maps in auditory cortex, showing that
tonotopic place codes are not sufficient for pitch responses.[15]

Temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the
phase-lock of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus. The precise way this temporal structure helps
code for pitch at higher levels is still debated, but the processing seems to be based on an autocorrelation of
action potentials in the auditory nerve.[16] However, it has long been noted that a neural mechanism that
may accomplish a delay—a necessary operation of a true autocorrelation—has not been found.[5] At least
one model shows that a temporal delay is unnecessary to produce an autocorrelation model of pitch
perception, appealing to phase shifts between cochlear filters;[17] however, earlier work has shown that
certain sounds with a prominent peak in their autocorrelation function do not elicit a corresponding pitch
percept,[18][19] and that certain sounds without a peak in their autocorrelation function nevertheless elicit a
pitch.[20][21] To be a more complete model, autocorrelation must therefore apply to signals that represent the
output of the cochlea, as via auditory-nerve interspike-interval histograms.[19] Some theories of pitch
perception hold that pitch has inherent octave ambiguities, and therefore is best decomposed into a pitch
chroma, a periodic value around the octave, like the note names in Western music—and a pitch height,
which may be ambiguous, that indicates the octave the pitch is in.[4]

Just-noticeable difference
The just-noticeable difference (jnd) (the threshold at which a change is perceived) depends on the tone's
frequency content. Below 500 Hz, the jnd is about 3 Hz for sine waves, and 1 Hz for complex tones; above
1000 Hz, the jnd for sine waves is about 0.6% (about 10 cents).[22] The jnd is typically tested by playing
two tones in quick succession with the listener asked if there was a difference in their pitches.[11] The jnd
becomes smaller if the two tones are played simultaneously as the listener is then able to discern beat
frequencies. The total number of perceptible pitch steps in the human hearing range is about 1,400; the total
number of notes in the equal-tempered scale, from 16 to 16,000 Hz, is 120.[11]

Aural illusions
The relative perception of pitch can be fooled, resulting in aural illusions. There are several of these, such
as the tritone paradox, but most notably the Shepard scale, where a continuous or discrete sequence of
specially formed tones can be made to sound as if the sequence continues ascending or descending forever.

Definite and indefinite pitch

Not all musical instruments make notes with a clear pitch. The unpitched percussion instruments (a class of
percussion instruments) do not produce particular pitches. A sound or note of definite pitch is one where a
listener can possibly (or relatively easily) discern the pitch. Sounds with definite pitch have harmonic
frequency spectra or close to harmonic spectra.[11]
A sound generated on any instrument produces many modes of vibration that occur simultaneously. A
listener hears numerous frequencies at once. The vibration with the lowest frequency is called the
fundamental frequency; the other frequencies are overtones.[23] Harmonics are an important class of
overtones with frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental. Whether or not the higher
frequencies are integer multiples, they are collectively called the partials, referring to the different parts that
make up the total spectrum.

A sound or note of indefinite pitch is one that a listener finds impossible or relatively difficult to identify as
to pitch. Sounds with indefinite pitch do not have harmonic spectra or have altered harmonic spectra—a
characteristic known as inharmonicity.

It is still possible for two sounds of indefinite pitch to clearly be higher or lower than one another. For
instance, a snare drum sounds higher pitched than a bass drum though both have indefinite pitch, because
its sound contains higher frequencies. In other words, it is possible and often easy to roughly discern the
relative pitches of two sounds of indefinite pitch, but sounds of indefinite pitch do not neatly correspond to
any specific pitch.

Pitch standards and standard pitch

A pitch standard (also concert pitch) is the conventional pitch reference that musical instruments in a group
are tuned to for a performance. Concert pitch may vary from ensemble to ensemble, and has varied widely
over musical history.

440 Hz
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Standard pitch is a more widely accepted convention. The A above middle C is usually set at 440 Hz (often
written as "A = 440 Hz" or sometimes "A440"), although other frequencies, such as 442 Hz, are also often
used as variants. Another standard pitch, the so-called Baroque pitch, has been set in the 20th century as A
= 415 Hz—approximately an equal-tempered semitone lower than A440 to facilitate transposition. The
Classical pitch can be set to either 427 Hz (about halfway between A415 and A440) or 430 Hz (also
between A415 and A440 but slightly sharper than the quarter tone). And ensembles specializing in authentic
performance set the A above middle C to 432 Hz or 435 Hz when performing repertoire from the Romantic
era.

Transposing instruments have their origin in the variety of pitch standards. In modern times, they
conventionally have their parts transposed into different keys from voices and other instruments (and even
from each other). As a result, musicians need a way to refer to a particular pitch in an unambiguous manner
when talking to each other.
For example, the most common type of clarinet or trumpet, when playing a note written in their part as C,
sounds a pitch that is called B♭ on a non-transposing instrument like a violin (which indicates that at one
time these wind instruments played at a standard pitch a tone lower than violin pitch). To refer to that pitch
unambiguously, a musician calls it concert B ♭ , meaning, "the pitch that someone playing a non-transposing
instrument like a violin calls B♭."

Labeling pitches
Pitches are labeled using:

Letters, as in Helmholtz pitch

notation[24][25]
A combination of letters and numbers
—as in scientific pitch notation, where
notes are labelled upwards from C0,
the 16 Hz C
Numbers that represent the frequency
in hertz (Hz), the number of cycles per
second
For example, one might refer to the A above
middle C as a′, A4 , or 440 Hz. In standard
Western equal temperament, the notion of pitch
Note frequencies, four-octave C major diatonic scale,
is insensitive to "spelling": the description "G4 starting with C1.
double sharp" refers to the same pitch as A4 ; in
other temperaments, these may be distinct
pitches. Human perception of musical intervals is approximately logarithmic with respect to fundamental
frequency: the perceived interval between the pitches "A220" and "A440" is the same as the perceived
interval between the pitches A440 and A880. Motivated by this logarithmic perception, music theorists
sometimes represent pitches using a numerical scale based on the logarithm of fundamental frequency. For
example, one can adopt the widely used MIDI standard to map fundamental frequency, f, to a real number,
p, as follows

This creates a linear pitch space in which octaves have size 12, semitones (the distance between adjacent
keys on the piano keyboard) have size 1, and A440 is assigned the number 69. (See Frequencies of notes.)
Distance in this space corresponds to musical intervals as understood by musicians. An equal-tempered
semitone is subdivided into 100 cents. The system is flexible enough to include "microtones" not found on
standard piano keyboards. For example, the pitch halfway between C (60) and C♯ (61) can be labeled 60.5.

The following table shows frequencies in Hertz for notes in various octaves, named according to the
"German method" of octave nomenclature:
 Sub- One- Two- Three- Four- Five-
Note Contra Great Small
contra lined lined lined lined lined

B♯/C 16.35 32.70 65.41 130.81 261.63 523.25 1046.50 2093.00 4186.01

C♯/D♭ 17.32 34.65 69.30 138.59 277.18 554.37 1108.73 2217.46 4434.92

D 18.35 36.71 73.42 146.83 293.66 587.33 1174.66 2349.32 4698.64

D♯/E♭ 19.45 38.89 77.78 155.56 311.13 622.25 1244.51 2489.02 4978.03

E/F♭ 20.60 41.20 82.41 164.81 329.63 659.26 1318.51 2637.02 5274.04

E♯/F 21.83 43.65 87.31 174.61 349.23 698.46 1396.91 2793.83 5587.65

F♯/G♭ 23.12 46.25 92.50 185.00 369.99 739.99 1479.98 2959.96 5919.91

G 24.50 49.00 98.00 196.00 392.00 783.99 1567.99 3135.96 6271.93

G♯/A♭ 25.96 51.91 103.83 207.65 415.30 830.61 1661.22 3322.44 6644.88

A 27.50 55.00 110.00 220.00 440.00 880.00 1760.00 3520.00 7040.00

A♯/B♭ 29.14 58.27 116.54 233.08 466.16 932.33 1864.66 3729.31 7458.62

B/C♭ 30.87 61.74 123.47 246.94 493.88 987.77 1975.53 3951.07 7902.13

Scales
The relative pitches of individual notes in a scale may be determined by one of a number of tuning systems.
In the west, the twelve-note chromatic scale is the most common method of organization, with equal
temperament now the most widely used method of tuning that scale. In it, the pitch ratio between any two
successive notes of the scale is exactly the twelfth root of two (or about 1.05946). In well-tempered systems
(as used in the time of Johann Sebastian Bach, for example), different methods of musical tuning were used.

In almost all of these systems interval of the octave doubles the frequency of a note; for example, an octave
above A440 is 880 Hz. If however the first overtone is sharp due to inharmonicity, as in the extremes of the
piano, tuners resort to octave stretching.

Other musical meanings of pitch

In atonal, twelve tone, or musical set theory, a "pitch" is a specific frequency while a pitch class is all the
octaves of a frequency. In many analytic discussions of atonal and post-tonal music, pitches are named with
integers because of octave and enharmonic equivalency (for example, in a serial system, C ♯ and D ♭ are
considered the same pitch, while C4 and C5 are functionally the same, one octave apart).

Discrete pitches, rather than continuously variable pitches, are virtually universal, with exceptions including
"tumbling strains"[26] and "indeterminate-pitch chants".[27] Gliding pitches are used in most cultures, but
are related to the discrete pitches they reference or embellish.[28]

See also
3rd bridge (harmonic resonance based on equal string divisions)
 Absolute pitch
Diplacusis
Eight foot pitch
Harmonic pitch class profiles
Just intonation
Meantone temperament
Music and mathematics
Piano key frequencies
Pitch circularity
Pitch class
Pitch detection algorithm
Pitch of brass instruments
Pitch shifter
Pitch pipe
Relative pitch
Scale of vowels
Vocal and instrumental pitch ranges

References
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30667-4.
2. Plack, Christopher J.; Andrew J. Oxenham; Richard R. Fay, eds. (2005). Pitch: Neural
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New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-23472-4. "For the purposes of this book we decided to
take a conservative approach, and to focus on the relationship between pitch and musical
melodies. Following the earlier ASA definition, we define pitch as 'that attribute of sensation
whose variation is associated with musical melodies.' Although some might find this too
restrictive, an advantage of this definition is that it provides a clear procedure for testing
whether or not a stimulus evokes a pitch, and a clear limitation on the range of stimuli that we
need to consider in our discussions."
3. Roy D. Patterson; Etienne Gaudrain & Thomas C. Walters (2010). "The Perception of Family
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Periodic Sounds". Hearing Research. 194 (1–2): 31–46. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2004.01.019
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.heares.2004.01.019). PMID 15276674 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
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11. Olson, Harry F. (1967). Music, Physics and Engineering (https://books.google.com/books?id
=RUDTFBbb7jAC). Dover Publications. pp. 171, 248–251. ISBN 978-0-486-21769-7.
12. Stevens S. S. The relation of pitch to intensity//J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 1935. Vol. 6. p. 150–
154.
13. Snow W. B. (1936) Change of Pitch with Loudness at Low Frequencies. J. Acoust. Soc. Am/
8:14–19.
14. Cohen, A. (1961). Further investigation of the effects of intensity upon the pitch of pure tones.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 33, 1363–1376.
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15. Norman-Haignere, S.V.; Kanwisher, N.G.; McDermott, J.; Conway, B.R. (10 June 2019).
"Divergence in the functional organization of human and macaque auditory cortex revealed
by fMRI responses to harmonic tones" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC65927
17). Nature Neuroscience. 22 (7): 1057–1060. doi:10.1038/s41593-019-0410-7 (https://doi.or
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16. Cariani, P.A.; Delgutte, B. (September 1996). "Neural Correlates of the Pitch of Complex
Tones. I. Pitch and Pitch Salience" (http://www.brainmusic.org/MBB91%20Webpage/Pitch_II
_Cariani.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Neurophysiology. 76 (3): 1698–1716.
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17. Cheveigné, A. de; Pressnitzer, D. (June 2006). "The Case of the Missing Delay Lines:
Synthetic Delays Obtained by Cross-channel Phase Interaction" (http://audition.ens.fr/dp/pdf
s/cheveigne-2006-synthetic_delay.pdf) (PDF). Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.
119 (6): 3908–3918. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..119.3908D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
6ASAJ..119.3908D). doi:10.1121/1.2195291 (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.2195291).
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Autocorrelation Theory of Auditory Temporal Processing". Journal of the Acoustical Society
of America. 104 (4): 2298–2306. Bibcode:1998ASAJ..104.2298K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/1998ASAJ..104.2298K). doi:10.1121/1.423742 (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.42374
2). PMID 10491694 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10491694).
19. Pressnitzer, D.; Cheveigné, A. de; Winter, I.M. (January 2002). "Perceptual Pitch Shift for
Sounds with Similar Waveform Autocorrelation" (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.1416671).
Acoustics Research Letters Online. 3 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1121/1.1416671 (https://doi.org/10.112
1%2F1.1416671).
20. Burns, E.M.; Viemeister, N. F. (October 1976). "Nonspectral Pitch". Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America. 60 (4): 863–69. Bibcode:1976ASAJ...60..863B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.
edu/abs/1976ASAJ...60..863B). doi:10.1121/1.381166 (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.38116
6).
21. Fitzgerald, M. B.; Wright, B. (December 2005). "A Perceptual Learning Investigation of the
Pitch Elicited by Amplitude-Modulated Noise". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.
118 (6): 3794–3803. Bibcode:2005ASAJ..118.3794F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200
5ASAJ..118.3794F). doi:10.1121/1.2074687 (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.2074687).
PMID 16419824 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16419824).
22. Birger Kollmeier; Thomas Brand & B. Meyer (2008). "Perception of Speech and Sound" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Slg10ekZBkAC&pg=PA65). In Jacob Benesty; M. Mohan
Sondhi & Yiteng Huang (eds.). Springer Handbook of Speech Processing. Springer. p. 65.
ISBN 978-3-540-49125-5.
23. Levitin, Daniel (2007). This Is Your Brain on Music. New York: Penguin Group. p. 40.
ISBN 978-0-452-28852-2. "The one with the slowest vibration rate—the one lowest in pitch
—is referred to as the fundamental frequency, and the others are collectively called
overtones."
24. The Concise Grove Dictionary of Music: Hermann von Helmholtz (http://www.answers.com/t
opic/hermann-von-helmholtz), Oxford University Press (1994), Answers.com. Retrieved 3
August 2007.
25. Helmholtz, Hermann (1885). On the Sensations of Tone (English Translation) (https://books.
google.com/books?id=2CiqYQXZjIYC&pg=PA15). Cosimo. p. 15. ISBN 9781602066397.
26. Sachs, C. and Kunst, J. (1962). In The Wellsprings of Music, edited by J. Kunst. The Hague:
Marinus Nijhoff. Cited in Burns (1999).
27. Malm, W.P. (1967). Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall. Cited in Burns (1999).
28. Burns, Edward M. (1999). "Intervals, Scales, and Tuning", The Psychology of Music, second
edition. Deutsch, Diana, ed. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-213564-4.

Further reading
Moore, B.C. & Glasberg, B.R. (1986) "Thresholds for Hearing Mistuned Partials as Separate
Tones in Harmonic Complexes". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 80, 479–83.
Parncutt, R. (1989). Harmony: A Psychoacoustical Approach. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989.
Schneider, P.; Sluming, V.; Roberts, N.; Scherg, M.; Goebel, R.; Specht, H.-J.; Dosch, H.G.;
Bleeck, S.; Stippich, C.; Rupp, A. (2005). "Structural and Functional Asymmetry of Lateral
Heschl's Gyrus Reflects Pitch Perception Preference". Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1241–47.
Terhardt, E., Stoll, G. and Seewann, M. (1982). "Algorithm for Extraction of Pitch and Pitch
Salience from Complex Tonal Signals". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 71,
679–88.

External links

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