MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

BSE 3109: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND ADAPTATION

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Meaning and functions of education
➢ What is education?
Education has been described differently by different people. One way of viewing education is that
‘it is a process of acquiring and developing desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes to fit well in
society and become a useful member of that society’. The term education means “to draw out” that
is, facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. The teacher uses
“curriculum” to bring out the best out of the learners.
➢ What then are the functions of education?
Education has a variety of functions including the following:
1. Intellectual function: This is to enable men awaken in and have a taste of knowledge. It is also to
develop intellectual powers of learners.
2. Productive function: That is, provide individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes that could be
used for economic activities in a society. Vocational training contributes to this function.
3. Social function: In this context, education is considered as a process of preserving and transmitting
cultural heritage. Besides, education helps learners acquire skills for interpersonal relationships.
4. Individual development: Education is also a means of individual development. It therefore serves a
personal function.

AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

a) Educational aims
Aims serve a visionary function in curriculum; a rallying point for all curriculum activities. Aims
have a global quality and a broad framework. They help in guiding and directing educational planning.

b) Education goals
Education goals are drawn from aims of education. They are outcomes to be achieved by students
at the end of a particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run

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 throughout the period some are specific to particular levels and times. This means that a child will
be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic elements in curriculum
planning and should be clear and well articulated without ambiguities.
For example, a country recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace,
developing self-confidence, cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing
conflicts.

c) Educational objectives
Educational objectives are derived from the goals. An educational objective is the purpose or end
stated in specific, measurable terms. They specify the performance standards for the students for
whom the curriculum is designed. For example learners shall acquire knowledge and skills
necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in their own school and community
setting,
Primary education objective no. 1 states; acquire literacy, numeracy, creativity, and
communication skills.
Secondary education objective no. 1 states; acquire necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes
for development of self and the nation.
University education objective; transform individual and societies in ways that reduce poverty
and increase the competiveness of nations. For instance ability to utilize knowledge generated
from university education will help the country realize the vision 2030.

SOURCES OF GOALS

1. The learners: A Curriculum planner considers the needs and interests of the learners. They
can be social, occupational, physical, psychological, recreational etc. They can be obtained
from learners and parents through the use of a questionnaire, interview, schedules and
observation.
2. The society: This will include the immediate and the wider society. Things such as health,
family recreation, vocation, religion, consumption, civil laws, economy, politics, changes,
problems etc are considered.
3. The subject matter and subject specialists

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 This refers to the already existing subject while selecting the content to the curriculum
objectives.
They also consult subject specialists on relevant content.
4. The philosophical screen
The philosophical helps in determining an important and contradictory objectives them
from the curriculum. Knowledge used to select important objectives

5. The psychological screen

This screen has selected theories and principles of selecting and organizing content and
learning experiences which curriculum planners consider when planning the curriculum.
Theories and principles of learning help to outline the nature of learning process how it
takes place and under what conditions.

DIMENSIONS OF CURRICULUM

There are 3 dimensions of the curriculum:

i) Formal/ expressed/taught curriculum

This is education carried out in institutions which follow a structured curriculum. Examples are
schools, colleges and Universities. In these institutions there are syllabuses or course outlines and
time tables to be followed. Occasionally, there is supervision by Quality Assurance and standard
officers (inspectors), examinations, formal evaluation and awarding of certificates, diplomas,
degrees and other qualifications.
ii) Informal
This is education that takes place unconsciously at home, among peers, and through
environment. It pursues its own course and its own pace in a spontaneous way throughout way
each person’s life. The learning is not structured.
Sources of the informal curriculum include teachers, school physical environment, print and
electronic media, friends and classmates.
iii) Non-formal
This means any organized activity outside the structured or formal system but which is meant
to meet needs of a particular group of people. It could be a group of children, youth or adults

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 in the community. A good example is of the Agricultural extension officer, who may be
meeting with villagers to alert them of the livestock disease outbreak, and how to protect their
livestock. Health matters i.e. on reproductive health, Linda mama, NHIF, etc. it can also be a
chief’s baraza.

PURPOSE OF CURRICULUM
Meaning of curriculum
The etymology of the term “curriculum” can be traced from the Latin word “curere” meaning to literally
“run a course”; the way horses run. It therefore represents a course of subjects covered by learners in
their race towards a certain educational goal or target. If you think of a race with kilometers and direction
markers, signposts, water stations, and officials and coaches along the route, then this beginning
definition is a metaphor for what the curriculum has become in the education of our children. Students
take courses in school and after completion; they are awarded certificates, diplomas and degree.

John Kerr (1968) defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school,
whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school’. We need to do is highlight
two of the key features: Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are
seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it. The definition refers to schooling
In education the literal meaning may mean a course of subject to study.

Summary of curriculum definition

Curriculum is the total sum of experiences that an individual goes through, through which a person
acquires the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to enable him or her fit in the society.

• Is to enable the learner develop a lifelong process where she/ he acquires critical thinking,
positive attitudes, values and knowledge from daily experience, educative influences and
resources in the environment.
• Learners acquire desirable habits. Children may learn cooperation, empathy, hard work which
is helpful for character building.
• Curriculum should prepare people for the task of one’s calling.

Relationship between curriculum and education

Education is about over all learning and curriculum is the how and what the learning involves or content,
processes, skills. Curriculum is one of the tools used to give you an education. When curriculum changes,
the education of a country/sector changes.
Curriculum and education are highly connected and both serve to enhance each other.

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Tyler’s basic questions for curriculum development

The Tyler Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum
and Instruction is one of the best-known curriculum models. He asked 4 questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

In essence, Tyler’s questions represent the four-step sequence of (1) identifying purposes or objectives,
(2) selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e. educational/ teaching-
learning experiences to be provided to students, (3) organizing these educational or teaching-learning
experiences, and (4) evaluating the outcomes.

ELEMENTS OF THE CURRICULUM

A curriculum has a structure which is made up of elements. For the structure to take shape the elements
must have harmony and internal consistency. Otherwise, it will appear disjointed and discordant just like
when musical notes do not blend.

The elements of the curricular structure are:

• Aims, goals and objectives

• Content
• Learning activities and learning experiences
• Evaluation procedures

1. Aims, goals and objectives

a) Educational aims: Aims serve a visionary function in curriculum; a rallying point for all curriculum
activities. Aims also have a global quality and a broad framework. They help in guiding and directing
educational planning. They also establish the philosophy on which curriculum is based and express the
values expected. Thus, aims constitute the first stage of curriculum planning. There are four dimensions
of aims:
➢ Intellectual – Focus on development of intellect.
➢ Social – Deal with interpersonal relationships.
➢ Personal – Dealing with self development.
➢ Productive – Address economic aspects of the society, both micro and macro economics.

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b) Education goals
Education goals are drawn from aims of education. They are outcomes to be achieved by students at the
end of a particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run throughout the
period some are specific to particular levels and times. This means that a child will be facing different
goals at different levels. The goals are the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and
well articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behavior.
For example, a country recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace, developing
self-confidence, cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts.
Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of
education on society.

(i) Curriculum goals: A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time
period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is mention of the criteria for
achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it as a result of
exposure to segments or all of a programme in a particular educational institution. Goals
provide direction for the curriculum.

For example:

• “Students should acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as good citizens in their
own school and community”.
• “Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of students”.
(ii) Instructional goals

At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into instructional goals. An
instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of each student in a class stated in general
terms. It is the general intentions of a course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example,
‘Students will demonstrate an understanding about the tropical rainforest’. It indicates the performance
expected; i.e. “understand”, but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So it is not easily
measured. Instructional goals points the way to instructional objectives.

c) Curriculum objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal(s). A curriculum objective is a purpose stated
in specific, measurable terms. It is a refinement of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance
standards for the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; “Students
shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in their
own school and community setting”; the following curriculum objectives can be derived:

• “The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school”
• “More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary activity in the community”
Note that many curriculum objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.

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(i) Instructional objectives

An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each student in a class. It

is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other names given for instructional objectives are
specific instructional objectives, specific learning outcomes, behavioural objectives, performance
objectives, and competencies.

For example, ‘At the end of the lesson students should be able to describe five characteristics of the
tropical rainforest’.

It is important that you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a
period of instruction. It determines the selection of content (textbook, the internet, reference books), the
teaching learning methods (lectures, practical sessions, group discussions, self study, field visits) to be
adopted, learning resources (audio-visual aids, equipment, kits) you will utilize and how you intend to
evaluate whether the desired learning outcomes have been achieved. At the end of the teaching
procedure, the teacher or any external evaluator can refer back to the objective to determine if the
procedure was effective. Objective is the learning destination toward which the teacher tries to bring
the learner to.

Teachers use ABCD as guide on how to formulate a learning objective stated from the side of the learner:

A = Stands for audience or the students. There is a need to direct or target the objective towards a
known participant, e.g., “All 1st year students should be able to . . . . . . .”

B = Stands for Behavior or an overt/visible activity the students should be doing if learning indeed has
taken place. If stated in an overt behavioral term, it is easy to measure if change has taken place. E.g.,
“All 1st year students should be able to draft a curriculum design model using a computer . . . . . “

C = Stands for condition or the assumption and parameters that have to be provided by the teacher so
that the students will feel the experience. E.g., “Given a working PC, all 1st year students should be
able to draft a curriculum design model”.

D = Stands for degree of visible achievement. This is commonly referred to as quantifiable indicator of
learning. E.g., “Given a working PC, all 1st year students should be able to draft a curriculum
design model with the computer allowing 5% error”.

Why are objectives important?

➢ They guide decisions about selection of content and learning experiences.

➢ They clarify what skills and abilities are to be developed at what levels.
➢ They enable the teacher to communicate with students what they need to achieve.
➢ They help make accountability and evaluation easier. Useful tool for choosing appropriate method
of teaching.
➢ Guide in getting teaching materials and aids for the lesson.

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 ➢ Help in time management.
➢ Guide in lesson preparation.
➢ Creates order in lesson presentation.
➢ Useful tool in evaluating the lesson
➢ Important in giving remedial work to learners.

Classification of learning objectives

The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led by Benjamin Bloom in
the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and for each taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were
developed. Taxonomy is a system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning
objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used to
categorize goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of
objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three taxonomies are:
• The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills and abilities
• The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes
• The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills
The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a body of content requires
students to do, and for thinking about how students should be able to demonstrate their learning through
their behavior.

The cognitive domain

Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most widely used. It was
published in 1956. It lists a person’s observable and unobservable intellectual abilities such as
comprehending information, organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the
types of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his
associated classified cognitive learning in six major categories: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Table 1).

Table 1: The cognitive taxonomy

Cognitive Description Examples of Verbs for

Levels Stating Objectives or
Outcomes

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Knowledge Remembering previously learned Define, describe, identify,
material. The skill may involve label, list, match, name,
recall of a wide range of material, select, state, outline, recite
from specific facts to complete
theories, but all that is required is
the bringing to mind of the
appropriate information.

Comprehension The ability to grasp meaning of Change, decode, defend,

material. This skill may be shown distinguish, estimate,
by translating material from one explain, generalise, infer,
form to another, by interpreting give example, illustrate,
material (explaining or paraphrase, predict, rewrite,
summarising), and by estimating restate, summarise, solve
future trends (predicting
consequences or effects).

Application The ability to use learned material Apply, compute,

in new and concrete situations. demonstrate, develop,
This may include the application of employ, manipulate, modify,
such things as rules, methods, organise, produce, relate,
concepts, principles, laws and transfer, discover
theories.

Synthesis The ability to put parts together to Categorise, combine,

form a new whole. This may compile, compose, construct,
involve the production of a unique create, design, devise,
communication (theme or speech), formulate, invent, generate,
a plan of operations (research propose, rearrange,
proposal), or a set of abstract reconstruct, revise, rewrite,
relations (scheme for classifying set up.
information)

Evaluation The ability to judge the value of Appraise, choose, compare,

material (statement, novel, poem, conclude, contrast, criticise,
research report) for a given decide, defend, discriminate,
purpose. The judgements are to be justify, resolve, support,
based on definite criteria. These validate, write a review.
may be internal criteria
(organisation) or external criteria
(relevance to the purpose) and the

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 student may determine the criteria
or be given them.

[Source: Benjamin Bloom (1956) Handbook of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives]

David Krathwohl and others developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in 1964 (Table
2). The affective domain relates to the manner in which we deal with things involving our emotions;
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation and attitudes.

Table 2: The affective taxonomy

Cognitive Levels Description Examples of Verbs for

Stating Objectives or
Outcomes

Receiving Willingness to receive or to attend Attend, be aware, listen,

to particular information or reply, show, alert, use,
activity (textbook, classroom watch, select, tolerate,
activity). Receiving involves the follow, ask.
willingness to receive or accept
and focusing attention

Responding Refers to active participation by Agree, answer,

the student. The student is communicate, comply,
actively attending by responding consent, contribute,
in the class and is involved in the cooperate, help, inquire,
teaching-learning setting. He or obey, participate, question,
she gains satisfaction from request, report, respond,
engaging in activities. seek, volunteer

Valuing The students sees worth or value Accept, adopt, approve,

in what is being learned or the complete, commit, desire,
activity being done. The student display, exhibit, express,
does not merely obey or complies initiate, invite, prefer,
but does so because he or she is share, study, work.
intrinsically motivated.

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 Organisation The student brings together many Adapt, alter, arrange,
different values and attempt to classify, compare, defend,
resolve the conflicts between the establish, generalise,
value. Through this process he or integrate, modify, order,
she builds a value system. He or rank, synthesise.
she sees how new values are
related to existing values and tries
to establish a balance.

Characterization The student internalises the Act, behave, conform,

values. In other words, he or she devote, display, endure,
adopts the values as his or her exemplify, function,
own. The values internalised maintain, practice, perform,
determines the behaviour of the uphold, use, influence.
student. The behaviour is
consistent and predictable.

Source: Benjamin Bloom and D. Krathwohl (1964) Handbook of Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives

The psychomotor domain

The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies. There are several
interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed by R. Dave in 1970. The psychomotor
domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these
skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques
in execution.

Table 3: The psychomotor taxonomy

Cognitive Description Examples of Verbs for

Levels Stating Objectives or
Outcomes

Imitation The student indicates a readiness to Assemble, carryout, copy,

learn a certain complex skill. construct, repeat, duplicate,
Imitation includes repeating an act practice, reproduce, start, try,
that has been demonstrated or volunteer, sketch, follow.
explained. It includes trial and
error until an appropriate response

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 is achieved.

Manipulation The student continues to practice [all the verbs for Imitation
the skill until it becomes habitual plus the following]: acquire,
and can be performed with some conduct, do, execute,
confidence. The response is more operate, perform, produce,
complex but he or she is still not progress, use, operate.
sure of himself or herself.

Precision The student attains the skill and [all the verbs for Imitation
proficiency is indicated by a quick, and Manipulation plus the
smooth and accurate performance. following]: achieve,
The response is complex and automate, exceed, excel,
performed without hesitation. master, reach, refine,
surpass, accomplish.

Articulation The student is involved at an even Adapt, change, alter,

higher level of precision. The skill reorganize, rearrange, revise.
is well developed. The student can
adapt the skill according to
different requirements.

Naturalization The skill is automatic and the Arrange, compose, refine,

student is able to experiment and create, design, originate,
create new ways of using the skill. transcend.

Source: R. Dave. Psychomotor Domain, 1974

The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives and learning outcomes in
a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to encourage teachers to move their learners from the
lower outcomes to higher levels of learning in each domain.

Activity 3: Using examples for the Kenyan school syllabus, clearly distinguish among educational
aims, goals and objectives.

2. Content

Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter is to be included? What
learning activities should be planned for learners? What teaching-learning or instructional strategies
should be used? What educational resources should be used in the teaching-leaning situations?

What is Content?

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All curricula have content and how individuals view content is affected by their view of knowledge and
philosophical position. There are varying conceptions of content. Some curriculum designers conclude
that content is really another term for knowledge consisting of a collection of facts, concepts,
generalizations, principles and theories. For example, an important concept in geography would be
spatial relationships while in physics it would be acceleration. However, a distinction has to be made
between disciplines and content.

Content in a curriculum is the body of knowledge, tools, skills, (psychomotor, manual and mental) and
attitude that the teacher intends to pass on to the students or wants the students to develop. Put concisely,
content is what is intended to be learned. A good curriculum is one which allows students to explore and
learn content beyond what is prescribed. A course should not only prepare a student for a profession or
job but also to become a complete human being and citizen of the country. The choice of content should
follow the aim of the curriculum.

The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology and psychology are concerned with advancement
of understanding and the exploration of the unknown. In contrast, content as found in school subjects (or
even undergraduate courses) do not provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or
creation of new knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards helping students
understand knowledge that may be new to them but is already known by scholars and practitioners in the
field. From this body of knowledge or discipline, content is selected for educational purposes and
organised according to the cognitive level of learners.

Cognitive psychologists refer to:

o content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts, concepts and principles
of a body of knowledge), while
o process as procedural knowledge or what should be able to do (the procedures, thinking skills and
methods of inquiry embedded in any body of knowledge)

How should content be selected?

There is so much pressure from parents, academics, the government, the business community, religious
institutions, non-governmental organizations and so forth as to what content should be selected and
taught in schools. In addition, there is abundant information and it is doubling at a very rapid rate.
Schools do not have the luxury of time to include all the concerns of society in its curriculum. Choices
have to be made on what to include in the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) list the following
five criteria to guide the selection of content:

i) Significance: Content selected should be significant. But, the definition of significance varies with an
individual’s beliefs. For example, curriculum developers who favour subject matter designs think of
significance in terms of the concepts and principles of each subject area. Those who favour learner-
centred designs think of significance in terms of the needs and interests of the learner while those who
favour a problem-centred design would regard the problems and issues in society as significant. Taba

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(1962) further argues that we should not just select content based on the cognitive aspects of learners, but
also on their affective dimensions.
ii) Utility: Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This again depends on your philosophical beliefs. If
you subscribe to the subject-centred design, then you believe that the content learned from the various
subject areas will be useful in the workplace. If you subscribe to the learner-centred design, then you will
take into consideration the needs and interests of learners which will enable them to realise their potential
to function effectively in the workplace. Alternatively, if you subscribe to the problem-centred design,
then you believe that learning about societal issues will enable students to apply directly what they have
learned to their daily lives and the world of work.
iii) Validity: Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is authentic and obtained
from credible sources. This is especially significant today with the deluge of information that is easily
accessible which may not necessarily be credible or reliable. How much of the billions of pages on the
internet are credible? Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and constantly updated.
iv) Learnability: It may seem strange that anyone would select content that is not learnable.
Unfortunately, it does happen. For example, the content selected for a particular age group might be too
difficult and teachers need more time but insufficient time is allotted. Eventually, teachers will end up
rushing through the material and some students will be left behind not understanding the content.
v) Feasibility: Educators who select content have to take into consideration the constraints of time,
expertise of staff, funding and other educational resources that schools might face when implementing
the curriculum. For example, the number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the
content because schools have to allocate time for co-curricular activities and other schools events.
Content selection has to be considered within the context of existing reality of economics and the role of
the government.

Principles of content organization

After having decided on the content, the next step is to organize the content in a form that will facilitate
learning. The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organization (Sowell,
2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):

i) Scope

Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning experiences and
organizing threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope not only refers to cognitive learning but also
affective learning, and some would argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometimes
the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and activities.

When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much science should students in
primary school know? What is the level of mathematics required of students before they graduate from
secondary school? When curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should be
included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum. When deciding about the scope of a
curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful:

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 • You might want to ask about the usefulness of the content selected.
• You might want to ask whether the content caters to diverse student abilities.
• You might want to ask if the amount of content selected can be covered in the specified period of
time.
• You might want to ask if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive,
psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.

ii) Sequence

Sequence refers to the organization of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and
continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among sections of the curriculum). Do students
have the opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of content? It is important that
the sequencing of content lead to cumulative development of intellectual and affective processes.

The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject matter and the way
in which individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principles and understanding of human
development and learning. The following are some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the
curriculum, (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998; Taba, 1962 and Bruner, 1960).

a) Simple to complex – content is organized going from simple subordinate components to complex
components depicting interrelationships among components. Optimal learning occurs when
students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.
b) Spiral - In a ‘spiral curriculum’, concepts may be introduced on a simple level in the early
grades, and then revisited with more and more complexity and application later on.
c) Prerequisites – it works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped
before other bits of information can be understood.
d) Whole to part – content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the
connections between the parts.
e) Chronology – this is a useful organizer for sequencing content especially in subjects such as
history, political science and world events.
f) Vertical organization - This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they
build on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development.
They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later.
g) Horizontal organization - It involves how skills and content that are taught during one level
or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might
consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political and economic point of
view.

iii) Integration

Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different subject areas to
reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas are brought together in such a way

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to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge. Some have argued that however much
curriculum planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they are learning in
their minds. It is something that happens within the individual learner.

The idea of integration was popularized in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of concern that school
curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached. Lately, there has been a surge of interest in
curriculum integration due to rapid accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of
time. Increasingly, there is a realization that knowledge has to be viewed in a much broader sense,
particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When faced with real-world situations,
seldom is one area of content sufficient to explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena
drawing from various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum. Examples of the
integrated curriculum include ‘The Integrated English that integrates English language and literature.

iv) Continuity

Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner progresses through the grades.
Why? This is because students may not grasp certain concepts and skills in one experience and have to be
presented again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary school are taught the
principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the succeeding years. Continuity ensures
the reappearance of certain major ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over
the length ofthe curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience that is repeated
throughout the teaching of science at increasing levels of complexity and abstraction.

3. Learning activities and learning experiences

What are learning experiences?

Learning experiences refer to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the
environment which he/she encounters. Learning takes place through the active behavior participation of
the students; it is what the student is involved in that he/she learns not what the teacher does. The
problems of selecting learning experiences is the problem of determining the kind of experience likely to
produce given educational objectives and also the problem of how to set up opportunity situations which
will evoke or provide within the student the kinds of learning experiences desired.

While content is the “meat” of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning experiences planned for the
students as the “heart” of the plan (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The learning experiences are the means
towards achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum. Learning experiences is the instructional
component of the curriculum providing for the interaction between teacher, student and the content.
Learning experiences, designed for the purpose of achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum
plan can be divided into:

o Teaching methods adopted, and,

o Learning activities.

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Teaching methods: There are many types of teaching methods and some examples of teaching methods
include; the inquiry method, the discovery approach, the lecture method, small group discussion, role-
playing, fieldwork and so forth.

Learning activities: The term learning activities was used by Taba (1962) in her curriculum development
model. Learning activities are opportunities for students to question, clarify, create and apply knowledge.
Examples of learning activities are answering questions, solving problems, essay writing, viewing videos,
doing experiments, playing games and so forth. Both teaching methods and learning activities are equally
important parts of the learning experience and should be carefully planned. In many instances, there is
overlap between teaching methods and learning activities and some people may find the distinction
problematic.

General principles in selecting learning experiences

Learning experiences are selected to translate the objectives of the curriculum plan. The particular
actions of the teacher may vary according to the teaching method adopted and learning activities used,
but they all are aimed towards bringing about learning. The principles include:
➢ Provide experiences that give students opportunities to practice the behaviour and deal with the
content implied.
➢ Provide experiences that give satisfaction from carrying on the kind of behaviour implied in the
objectives.
➢ Provide experiences that are appropriate to the student’s present attainments, his/her
predispositions.
➢ There are many particular experiences that can be used to attain the same educational objectives.
➢ The same learning experience will usually bring about several outcomes.

Learning experiences should also be selected on the basis of whether they enhance students’ learning of
the content as well as motivate them to continue learning. The learning experiences should also attempt
to develop thinking skills of students and to stimulate greater understanding of their own existence as
individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the learning experiences selected should
encourage group interaction and collaborative learning which are skills required in the world of work.
Learning experiences should foster cognitive, affective, psychomotor and spiritual development of the
learner.

In the selection of learning experiences, educators should not separate content and experiences. In reality,
both content and learning experiences do not exist in isolation. For example, a student cannot just engage
in learning or studying without experiencing some activity and some content. Likewise, teachers cannot
deal with content without being engaged in some experience or some activity.

STAGES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

It should be observed that curriculum development is a process which calls for broad participation of all
stake holders in education.

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In the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development, the following steps are followed in curriculum
development.

1. Policy decision/implementing results of evaluation

• Directives are given
• Approvals to implement recommendations of evaluation
• Directives could call for most research or consultations
2. Situational analysis/Needs assessment
Undertake a Needs assessment surveyor situational analysis to: -
• establish gaps
• establish what would constitute the curriculum (content,
• subjects, objectives, skills knowledge, values
• information is collected from all stakeholders i.e. learners, teachers, parents, community
leaders etc
3. Policy Formulation and conceptualisation:
• Share the findings of the situation analysis or needs assessment
• Seek/guide policy on:
• Objectives of education
• Number of subjects
• Resources available to education
• Human capital & time
• Quality of learning environment
• Mode of assessment/evaluation/examinations
• Mode, frequency & levels
• Plan a time frame for all activities including
• implementation
4. Formulation of curriculum designs:
• Based on the adopted goals of education;
• Level objectives and subjects.
• The following activities are decided:
· Level of preparedness of the subject experts
· Time available for each subject is decided
· Subject content
· Development of scope and sequence charts
5. Development of syllabus by the subject panel
• Format of syllabus
• Statement of objectives
• Syllabus approval
o Subject panel
o Course panel Academic committee
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 o Print, production and distribution
6. Development/selection of teaching learning materials:
Decision on who develops what materials and when
- Textbooks/and
- Teachers guides
- Supplementary materials (media & print)
N.B Evaluation uses teachers, who may not necessary have interacted with
syllabus. Conflict of interest – Authorship, evaluation and curriculum development
7. Teacher preparation/ curriculum
• Implementers
• Identify strategies
• Who, when and where
• Identify materials to use
• Identify who to use for preparation

Challenges
•
nkey implementers often left out
8. Pilot testing
• Identification of schools/institution
• Must be representative of all the characteristics of all schools
in the country
• Prepare teachers and other curriculum implementers
• Provide materials
• Monitor the implementation
• Provide feed back
• Revise curriculum/materials for national implementation

Challenges

• Very unpopular though necessary stage

• Inability to use results of monitoring for feedback and
improvement
• May require re thinking
• Sometime non-pilot schools are keen and contaminate results of
interventions
• Both syllabuses and textbooks are not ready of pilot testing ontime.

9. National implementation

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- Preparation of curriculum implementers

- Distribution of syllabuses and textbooks

- Social mobilization for ownership

- Follow up to ascertain national implementation in all institutions

10. Quality Control

- Monitoring and evaluation (M&E)

- Liaison with quality assurance and standards for visits

- Determine frequency of visits

- Development of reprints

- Sharing reports with stakeholders

Challenge

- Funds normally not made available

- Results not very readily consumed

- Teacher don’t give honest opinion on implementation

- Too many interested parties interfere with results

Curriculum evaluation: This is the process of checking the extent to which the curriculum objectives
have been achieved. Evaluation, simply described, is the process of establishing the extent to which the
objectives of a curriculum have been achieved. It can be also be defined as “an objective process for
determining the performance of a curriculum.” Thus, evaluation is a judgmental process, aimed at
decision – making.

Doll (1992) defines evaluation as a broad and continuous effort to inquire into the effects of utilizing
educational content and process to meet clearly defined goals. Another definition states “evaluation is a
process of collection and provision of data for the sake of facilitating decision making at various stages
of curriculum development (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992, p. 185). Thus, curriculum evaluation refers to
the process of collecting data in a systematic manner for the purpose of assessing quality, effectiveness
and worth of a programme in order to make curriculum decisions as to whether accept the curriculum as
it is, modify some parts of the curriculum or reject the total curriculum

AGENTS OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND THEIR ROLES

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KICD Functions

The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development is mandated to perform some of the following
functions:

1. Advises the Government on matters pertaining to curriculum development

2. Evaluate, vet and approve, for application in Kenya, any local and foreign curricula and
curriculum support materials.
3. Implement the policies relating to curriculum development in basic and tertiary education and
training.
4. Develop, review and approve curricula and curriculum support materials that meet international
standards for—
i. early childhood care, development and education;
ii. primary education;
iii. secondary education;
iv. adult, continuing and non-formal education;
v. teacher education and training;
vi. special needs education; and
vii. technical and vocational education and training.
5. Initiate and conduct research to inform curriculum policies, review and development.
6. Collect document and catalogue information on curricula, curriculum support materials and
innovations to create a data bank and disseminate the information to educational institutions,
learners and other relevant organizations
7. Print, publish and disseminate information relating to curricula for basic and tertiary education
and training
8. Develop disseminate and transmit programs and curriculum support materials through mass
media, electronic learning, distance learning and any other mode of delivering education and
training.
9. Promote equity and access to quality curricula and curriculum support materials
10. Promote appropriate utilization of technology to enhance innovations and achievement of a
knowledge based economy

Kenya National Examinations Council

The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) is the national body responsible for overseeing
national examinations in Kenya.

Functions
The core functions of the examination body are:

• To develop or set national examinations

• To register candidates the such examination tests
• Conduct the examinations and process the results
• Award certificates to successful candidates
• Conduct examinations on behalf of foreign examination bodies upon request and agreement.
• Conduct assessment research on education

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 • Carry out equation of certificates and diplomas issued by other credible examination bodies
• Issue replacement certificates and diplomas upon presentation of credible evidence of loss or
damage of the original.

Examinations
Some of the exams delivered by KNEC are:

• The Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination – This is the exam which is
done after one completes his/her primary (elementary) education. This is when one is in standard
eight. After completing the exam, one can proceed to secondary school.
• The Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) examination – This is the exam which is
done after one completes four years of study in secondary (high) school. After completing the
exam, one is able to go to university or college depending on the grade he/she acquired.
• Final exams for all national polytechnics.

Sponsors/donors or Development Partners

Addressing global challenges requires a collective effort, involving all actors. Through partnerships
and alliances, KICD enhance its capacity to discharge its mandate. The KICD development partners
or sponsors/donors include the United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF), International Labour Organization (ILO), Department for International
Development (DfID), United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Education
Development Centre (EDC), InWENT, Microsoft, and Intel. The Institute develops guidelines on
collaborations and partnerships with international players.

Publishers

Kenya Publishers’ Association is the umbrella body for book publishers in Kenya.

East African Educational

Publishers

eKitabu

Evangel Publishing House

Focus Publishers Ltd

Geoperi Publications

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Kenya Literature Bureau

LawAfrica Publishing Ltd

Longhorn Kenya Ltd

Marimba Publishers

Mentor Publishing Company Ltd

Moran Publishers

Mountain Top Publishers

Njigua Books

Nsemia Inc Publishers

One Planet Publishers

Oxford University Press

Phoenix Publishers

Queenex Publishers

Simpemar Publishers

Single Education & Publishers

Spotlight Publishers

Story Moja Publishers

The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation

Top Performers

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 University of Nairobi Press

Word Alive Publishers

Teacher Advisory Centres (TACs): were established in Kenya in the early 1970s to provide primary
school teachers professional support in their classroom instruction for improved learning outcomes.

Religious Bodies

Why are the religious bodies involved in education?

• As a Sponsor: This role does not imply any financial support, but rather gives the churches
mechanisms by which they can oversee the development and success of the schools, including
spiritual development of the students” (Kitala 2015). Sponsorship role in Kenyan education has
worsened over the years(read more)
• Publish materials for use in schools i.e. Books, handbooks,
• stakeholders in education policymaking
• the rationale behind teaching reading and writing was to enhance the absorption of Biblical and
Christian values wherever possible in the country
• Recruits staff for their schools/colleges/Universities
• Ensures a holistic curriculum
• Develops teachers

Trade unions

KNUT Functions
• To bring together and unite teachers of all grades and qualifications in Kenya and providing a
forum for co-operation.
• To fight for improved terms and conditions of service for teachers and protecting teachers
interests.
• Promoting programmes aimed at improving teachers' welfare or socio-economic status.
• To offer assistance to individual members in professional as well as legal matters.
• To settle disputes between members of the union or between its members and their employers
through collective and constitutional means.
• To co-operate with other societies, bodies, unions or organizations within or outside Kenya with
similar objectives.
• To promote matters leading to the improvement of education and the establishment of a common
system of education.
• To secure effective representation of the teaching profession on the government, public and
private bodies or organizations where such representation may be necessary.

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KUPPET Kenya Union of Post-Primary Education Teachers

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

1. Historical foundations
a) Definition: Is the study of the past experiences for the purpose of evaluating the present so as
to plan for the future.
Reason of studying historical foundations is to avoid the mistakes of yesterday and today so that
we carry the strength onto the future.
b) Influence on curriculum: i)past and present curriculum influence the future curriculum.
When studying curriculum document analysis is carried out. For example;
➢ appraise the present curriculum ,to find out what are the problems
➢ examine the text books used, are they up to date ,what kind of language style is used,
is it helping to achieve the objectives
➢ education commission reports
- What were their recommendations?
- Have they achieved the recommendations
- If not what are the reasons
➢ Ministry of education policy papers
- Are they consistent with the curriculum
➢ Development plans e.g. the time table
c) History as a discipline will influence curriculum the structure of curriculum e.g. the
horizontal structure. It requires space in the time table.
d) Historical problems influence curriculum e.g.i) after independence there was need for man
power. Europeans and Asians were leaving the country. Curriculum was developed to meet
African needs.
ii) Unemployment – lack of job opportunities
iii) Environmental degradation – careless human activities since 1970s ,environmental
awareness has been introduced into our schools.
iv) HIV/AIDS – Sensitizing the population on problems of HIV and AIDS for human
survival.
e) Historical events influence curriculum development e.g. formation of the United Nations
(UN). At the end of 2nd world war the victorious countries met together and formed the UN
whose aim was to prevent future war. They concluded that illiteracy and ignorance weakens
people against political propagandas. Hence they declared education as the basic human right
and they did the following;
i) Changed the philosophy of education. Before UN education was supposed to be
for a few (elite). More primary schools were built to accommodate school going

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 pupils, more secondary, middle level colleges and universities were also extended.
In school we have learners of high IQ, average and below average. All these
learners are supposed to have curriculum that will accommodate their intellectual
capacity. In Kenya we’ve schools for special needs. Adult education was also
introduced hence curriculum for adult education.
ii) Educational policy
Boys and girls should be catered for equally after pregnancy
iii) Curriculum content. UN states that curriculum content should be relevant to its
population.
iv) Curriculum implementation
UN came out with specialized agencies e.g. UNESCO, UNICEF, UNEP, World
Bank, etc. these agencies have provided resources for curriculum implementation.
They’ve build labs, schools in Northern region of Kenya to make it possible for
curriculum implementation, provided vehicles for the quality assurance team, who
will make sure that curriculum is implemented.

2. Sociological foundations
Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups. Human behavior in group creates culture.
For a curriculum to be relevant it must include the culture of the people.
Elements of culture
i) Universal – everybody in the society is capable of using a language, having beliefs,
values, dressing, diet.
ii) Specialties – elements that only special people are capable of or know about e.g. medicine,
soil to make tools, blacksmithing etc.
iii) Alternatives – elements that people learn from other culture. One may learn by travelling
to other places what they eat ,how they dress etc.
Purpose of education
It’s mainly to transmit culture from older generation. Sociology
Therefore help us to identify the elements of culture to transmit. It identifies the most
important values in the society which we must transmit to the next generation.
Colonial curriculum – emphasized European culture .the language of instruction became
English or French. Believe, Christianity was emphasized. The European were
individualistic. The European culture promoted competition while African promoted
egalitarianism (ujamaa). European emphasized examination as a way of way of selecting
a few elite who eventually became rulers. The Europeans culture was dehumanizing (feel
lesser human being) it was alienating, promoted inferiority complex. It promoted
dependency, promoted poor self image among the African people.

Independence

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 The independent state led to the reverse of the effect of colonial curriculum. This was to
regain the positive African personality. In 1964 the Ominde commission recommended
that we should include African culture into the curriculum.
Importance of culture
i) Give people identity – a feeling of belonging to a group.
ii) It promotes unity
iii) It promotes self confidence
iv) It promotes positive self concept. Feeling good about oneself and society. Culture
satisfies human need.
African culture in the curriculum
i) Introduction of African languages e.g. Kiswahili
ii) English – literature written by Africans are used as set books
iii) In history, there is teaching about African nations
iv) In geography, it emphasizes the African region
v) In H/science, it promotes African food
vi) Religious education, African religion is discussed alongside Christianity and Islam.
Some factors that influences implementation of African culture
i) Mass media – Radio, TVs, leads to emphasis of foreign culture. This gradually
changes especially in our country, Kenya.
ii) Overdependence on tourism- the tourists have a lot of impact to young people.
iii) Neo-colonials cultural mind set. Neo-colonial factors that have been left behind
after the European left. Cultural mind set – human beings tend to resist change.
This is due to cultural experiences e.eg. We shall hold on to national examinations.
iv) Lack of political commitment
v) Lack of clear educational policy
vi) Lack of teaching and learning resources.

3. Philosophical Foundations
Definition: world outlook or world view. The way we interpret what is happening around us.
Educational philosophy
It tries to answer certain questions.
i) What is nature of being?
ii) What is the purpose of education?
iii) What is entitled for education?
iv) What is the nature of knowledge – content?
v) How do human beings learn – method of teaching

Schools of philosophy
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They think and write.
Schools of philosophy are divided into:-
i) Traditional schools e.g. perennialism, idealism
ii) Modern schools e.g. pragmatism, existentialism, phenomenologysm

Traditional schools and the curriculum

i) What the nature of human? Traditional school state that the most important school is the
mind
ii) What is the purpose of education? The importance education is to exercise human mind
and give it the possibilities of developing to the highest level.
iii) Who should we educate?
The intellectually strong. High IQ.
The 3 questions influence education policy. They also influence education goals of
education, goals become objectives of education. Philosophy influences the
policies and goals.
iv) What is the nature of knowledge?
The traditional school say that knowledge is abstract, theoretical, objective (has
nothing to do with individual feeling), permanent. Therefore, when answering this
question, the question influences curriculum academic design which emphasizes
knowledge and skills.

v) How does human learn?

Through intellectual organization of experiences so as to make sense of what they’ve
encountered. Therefore, philosophy will influence the method of teaching i.e. students
must be taught by experts.
vi) How do we evaluate learning?
Through standard exams.

Modern schools
i) What is the nature of human beings?
They say the whole person is important. i.e. must develop spiritually,
physically, morally and has a personality.
ii) What is purpose of education?
To develop a moral person.
iii) Who to educate?
Everybody has a right to education i.e. both boys and girls.
iv) What is the nature of knowledge?
o It should be functional, help us survive and solve problems in our
environment

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 o Knowledge is subjective – everyone extracts knowledge individually from
the environment.
o Knowledge changes – new knowledge comes in making old knowledge
obsolete.
o Knowledge is inter–related. Interdisciplinary of subjects.
Hence modern school would recommend a diversified curriculum design.
v) How do people learn?
They learn through active interaction with the environment.
vi) Method of teaching?
It should be learner centered methods of teaching. Teacher is usually a guide. E.g. of
methods of teaching; discovery learning, projects, discussions etc
vii) How do we evaluate?
They recommend continuous evaluation of students. The Kenya curriculum after
independence was based on modern school e.g primary school curriculum. Montessori and
Pestalozzi are based on learner centered method of teaching.

Progressive Movement
Also called progressivism
It’s made up of a group of philosophers from all schools. Their main aim was to make
education relevant to individual student i.e. when formulating aims, it should include the
feelings and needs of the learners, when teaching learners should be more involved, aim at
many passing instead of individual and it aims also at specialization.

The progressive movement people has influenced core-curriculum i.e. subject required
by everybody. This was influenced by essentialism group.
Electives – subjects that meet the individual needs of learners. They were influenced by
pragmatic and existentialism groups.

Psychological Foundations

• Psychology is the study of human behaviour

• Psychology provides important insights in the process of learning that helps the teacher and
curriculum designer in decisions related to:

1. Selection of content with regard to intellectual ability and development

2. Organization of learning experiences for optimal effect
3. Selection of appropriate method and approach to guide effective learning
4. Formulation of appropriate goals 5. Scope of the curriculum

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 Theories of human development, theories of learning and the pedagogical principles derived from
psychology must be considered in determining curriculum objectives

Jean Piaget helped determine developmental stages and capabilities of the learner in order to
attain educational objectives

1. stage
2. Concrete operation stage
3. Formal operation stage

Psychologists believe that learning experiences have to be introduced whilst taking into account :

• The learner’s ability

• Maturational level
• Learner’s rate of learning

The contribution of psychology to curriculum design and development utilizes the principles of
learning, i.e.

1. Active participation of the learner

2. Provision of purpose of learning
3. Utilizing an individuals’ past experiences, attitudes and values

4. Learning in a threat free atmosphere – human relations aspect

Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of learning further guide formulation of educational objectives. The
domains include:
1. The cognitive domain
2. The affective domain
3. The psychomotor domain

Cognitive domain – Knowledge level, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis,

evaluation

Affective domain – Reviewing, Responding, Valuing, organization, characterization

Psychomotor domain – Perception, Set, Guided response, Mechanism, Complex response

PROFESSIONAL FOUNDATIONS

It’s made up of societies such LAW SOCIET OF Kenya, KNUT, KUPPET etc. also made up of
individual professionals e.g. teachers, medical doctors, lawyers, architects etc.
They help in the formulation of aims and objectives.
They influence the selection of subjects to be included in the curriculum.
They have a role in curriculum evaluation.
They carry out curriculum related research.

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They publish books of education that influence curriculum.

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

Curriculum design is the way curriculum elements are arranged under the three dimensions of the
curriculum to facilitate learning.

It’s also referred to as the structure or pattern of the curriculum.

Types of curriculum design

1. Tyler’s (1949) model
Also known as Tyler’s model/objectives model, this was the first curriculum model ever
designed. It’s the most popular and it’s linear in shape.
Ralph Tyler in his book “Basic principles” of curriculum instruction starts with four fundamental
questions which suggest that, every curriculum developer should ask when designing a
curriculum.
a. What educational purposes should a school seek to attain? Objectives
b. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
Learning experiences
c. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? Organisation of the learning
experiences.
d. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Evaluation

Objectives

Selection of learning experiences

Organize the experiences

Evaluation

According to Tyler the 1st step is very critical. Because of the emphasis given to the 1st by Tyler the
model is sometimes referred to as the objective model. The problem with the model is that it assumes that
evaluation is the terminal process, yet curriculum process is dynamic and continuous rather than static
and linear.All other models that stress objectives proceed from Tyler.

Merits of Objectives Model

➢ The development has a clear direction and a guide for the entire process, hence effectiveness of
curriculum planning and implementation
➢ Provides a blue print and a fixed point for Curriculum Development process
➢ Has apparent logic in the sequence of the stages of curriculum development
➢ Easy to evaluate

Demerits

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 ➢ Practical curriculum development is hardly a fixed or linear process
➢ Sources of curriculum objectives are not explained
➢ Cannot account for other complex outcomes of learning – not all learning is always predictable.
The hidden curriculum (non-formal, informal, emerging)
➢ Limits what can be learnt - teacher confined to objectives rather than real needs and interests of
learners
➢ Provides dichotomy between ends (objectives) and the means (content) and operations (learning
experience)
➢ Wrongly assumes that the structure of knowledge can be expressed in the pre-specified
performance; and all learning experiences can be measured quantitatively
➢ Wrongly assumes that all subjects are suited to the specification of behavioral objectives when it
is not the case, e.g. Art.
2. Hilda Taba
The model is quadratic in shape. Hilda (1962) in her book “Curriculum Development: theory and
practice “perceived the curriculum as having four basic elements i.e. objectives, learning activities,
content and evaluation.
Objectives

Evaluation Learning activities

Content
a. Taba differentiates between learning experiences and content.
b. Taba emphasizes the relationship between the elements.

3. The where model

The model is cyclic. Wheeler (1967) in his book the “curriculum process”, criticized Tyler’s
linear model and converted it into a five stage process:

Aim, goals & objectives

Selection of learning experiences

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 Selection of content

Organization & integration of experiences

Evaluation

Unlike Tyler, Wheeler requires that when planning the curriculum we look through a system of different
levels of aims from general to specific objectives. He differentiates between the experiences and content.

4. John Kerr (1968). He has the same shape as Taba’s. He defined curriculum as all learning which is
planned or guided by school, whether it is carried out in group or individual basis outside or inside a
school.

General principles for selecting learning experiences

1. Conformity with the objectives: The experiences selected must be those that give the learner the
opportunity to practice the kind behavior implied in the objectives e.g. learning situation- by the end of
lesson the learner should be able to differentiate between Tyler’s model and Taba’s model.
2. Validity
The experiences selected must be consistent with development of knowledge. To ensure these teachers
will require constant refraining to update themselves with the latest development.
3. Significance: the learning experience must be meaningful and important to the learner. This happens
when experiences contribute to learning.
4. Learner’s ability: the learning experience must be appropriate to the ability of the learner. Not too
simple or too difficult. It should also be of the right amount.
5. Interest: learning experiences that are in the interest of learners will stimulate them to learn.
6. Economy
7. Satisfaction
8. Consistency
9. Relevance and scope

General principles guiding the organisation of the learning experiences

1. Scope (breadth & width)

Scope deals with what should be included in the curriculum. How much content should be
included in each subject. How much emphasis is to be given to a particular content. What should
be core and what should be erective etc.

A central problem of scope is rooted in the expansion of knowledge i.e. it’s difficult to choose on
what to include and what to leave out. The expansion of knowledge interferes with the stability of
curriculum.

2. Balance

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 The experiences are organized in such a way that they develop all major areas of human
competence like communication, problem solving, understanding concepts, environment,
healthcare, recognition of interest, deep interest, in skill and aesthetic.

To develop this it requires different experiences.

Problem related to balance

• Balance between societal expectation and need of an individual learners

• Problem of balancing when time tabling
• Which subject to emphasize

3. Integration

It’s the horizontal relationship between various discipline in an attempt to interrelate

content or learning experiences to enable the learner to perceive unity of knowledge e.g.
Integrated English, science etc

The problem with integration is how to help learner see a unity of knowledge.

4. Sequence deals with the order in which content is organized.

How content can be organized

Content can be organized logically, psychologically and chronologically.

Logical order: learning is determined by what concepts are pre-requisite to learning and
understanding other concepts.

Psychological order: to deal with certain concepts or situations. Learners must require certain
levels of development i.e. physically, mentally, socially and morally.

Chronological order: mostly found in subject whose content deals with time. E.g. history, old
and new testaments.

5. Continuity – it’s the planned repetition of content successive level each tie at a higher level of
complexity or reinforcement. It is represented in the spiral curriculum.
6. Relevance: the learning experiences at school should be related to the learners’ life outside school. It
should also reinforce what the learner has learnt at home and if possible, the learner should use them
immediately to solve his/her problems and society problems.

Relevance causes a problem because is considered relevant foe one person may be irrelevant for
another person. Also, what is considered relevant now becomes irrelevant tomorrow.

7. Articulation
8. Transferability

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PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

Curriculum design is deciding about the “shape” or “configuration” of a curriculum plan. It involves
selection of content in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have
to be arranged in a form that will help the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning
experiences for the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design is also referred to as ‘curriculum
organisation’. In short, designing the curriculum involves the task of organising or arranging the four
components; namely, objectives, subject matter, teaching-learning experiences and evaluation procedures
into a cohesive and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal difficulties. According to
Giles (1942) these four components; are intertwined and interactive. Unfortunately, not all curriculum
plans give equal emphasis to each component. There are cases of plans that emphasise the subject matter
or the content while others stress mainly the objectives and evaluation procedures. Still, others give
primary emphasis to learning experiences or activities (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).

The way the curriculum is organized and practiced in an educational system, are classified under three
main groups;

1. The subject centered curriculums

a. Traditional subjects centered design
b. Subject field integrated design
c. Broad field-based design
d. Core (common) /elective /extension design
e. child-centered

2. Learner centered designs

a. Activity or experienced curriculum design
b. Social and life design
3. Problem- centered designs.

1. Subject- centered curriculum Designs

Subject- centered designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum design. This is because
knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of
content is integral in any school system, much thought has focused on how best to present the knowledge,
skills and values of subjects to learners.

➢ Broad fields design: The broad fields design is also known as the interdisciplinary design. The main
reason for this design arose from the concern that subjects taught were too compartmentalized and
fragmented. For example, geography, history, literature, and so forth. The suggestion was to bring
together content from different subjects to form one logical subject. For example, economics,
commerce and accounts were combined to form the business studies.

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One issue in this model is of breadth versus depth. For example, in studying the business studies over one
year, students are exposed to a variety of business concepts compared to only studying economics
concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the various business concepts will be superficial. For sure,
a year of economics will expose students to more economics concepts and principles than would a year of
business studies. However, some may argue whether students need such in-depth knowledge of a
particular subject. If the educational philosophy is to give students an overview of the business concepts,
then the business studies might be a logical choice.

2. Learner-centred designs

While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learner-centred designs. The
early supporters of the child-centred curriculum were largely the progressives. Emphasis was on the
development of the whole child and this was most evident in primary schools.

a) Child-centred design: Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should actively
participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related closely to the daily lives of
students unlike the subject-centred design that tends to separate content from the daily lives of learner. In
the child-centred design, focus is on the needs and interests of learners. An early advocate of the child-
centred curriculum was French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) who in his book Emile
made the child the focus of the educational process. He emphasised that “Living is the business that I
wish to teach him. When he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate, nor soldier, nor priest: he
will be, primarily, a man” (cited in Michel Soetard, 1994, p.423). This did not mean children were
allowed to run free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according to their level of development.
Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of the child-centred design is John Dewey. He argued that
children are not blank slates and they bring with them four basic impulses – the impulse to communicate,
to compare and contrast, to inquire and to express themselves through language. In the child-centred
design teaching and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of information they
bring to the classroom. Using this design, teachers and students negotiate what is of interest to learners
and what content is to be included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson
units, its purposes, the focus of the content, the learning activities to be introduced in the teaching-
learning situations. Hence, in meeting the needs of students, the child-centred curriculum will be
constantly changing.

In the child-centred model, the interests and experiences of the learner become subject-matter of the
curriculum. Children are given the freedom to discover, first hand, by doing things for themselves rather
than being told how to do something. The “project method” became a popular pedagogical strategy in the
child-centred design in which children solved problematic situations calling on their knowledge and skills
of science, history, art and so forth. In other words, the traditional subjects are not rejected but rather
used to solve problems that are of interest to learners.

b) Activity Based Curriculum:

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The Activity Based Curriculum is also called project curriculum or an experience curriculum but the
name activity is a fundamental conception. Activity Curriculum has a long history. The title “Activity
Curriculum”, however, did not come into general use before 1920, although Dewey used the expression
“Activity Programme” as early as 1897 in a talk to the parents and teachers at his laboratory school in
Chicago (U.S.A). Activity is the natural urge of the child. He wants to do things by himself. When
curricular material is translated in terms of activity, it is known as activity curriculum. Learning of the
prescribed material takes place through activities. Activity is used as a media or means for imparting
knowledge and skills.
Activity is the greatest motivation for child. he enjoys the freedom of expressing his potentialities during
activities.
These activities should not merely be considered as physical activity but also intellectual activity. The
educator (teacher) should engage pupils in activities in such a way that while manual skills are gained
there should be mental satisfaction found in the work. The students should not be passive listener they
should be active participants in the process of learning.
True learning is experiencing, while activity is the process then experience becomes the product of
activity. Activity results in experience, in fact activity and experience cannot be separated from each
other. A purposeful activity must end in gainful experience. The school must, therefore, plan its activities
in such a way that students gain mastery on various experiences. Such type of projects should be
completed under a problematic situation in a natural setting.

Characteristics of Activity Curriculum

1. Children’s Interest Determines the Educational Programme:

The primary principle of the activity curriculum is that the interests and purposes of children determine
the educational programme. The basic principle of the activity programme refers to the felt needs of
children and not of adults. Because the educational programs are aimed at doing something in the best
interest of the children and not for an adult only. It is the task of the teacher to discover these interests
and to build educational activities upon them.
Whims (urges) must not be considered as basis of an educational programme. The interest of the
students must be carefully analyzed and then accepted, these intended courses of actions are accepted
after their consequences are reviewed. The subject matter is a mean of fulfilling the purposes of an
individual or a group and as a result of manipulating subject matter children learn within the boundaries
of group interests. The teacher’s responsibility is to find out the interest of individual students and of the
groups. He helps children to select the most interesting activity for study; Building a cage for an animal,
making preparation for a field trip, gathering information on a current political affair, running a school
store, planning family budget
The Activity Curriculum is not planned in Advance:

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The teacher discovers the interests of students in group or individually. He guides the students in the
selections of activity and their interest among activities. He helps them to plan and carry out these
activities according to their interests. He also guides the individual or group in assessing what they have
accomplished in the process. This is the responsibility of the teachers to make plans for himself how to
guide the students and their activities in the classrooms. Although teacher does not come into the
classroom with a preplanned subject matter. He does come with ideas and a background of experience of
the students and their interests. These are his working tools.
Activities are planned Co-operatively by Students and the Teacher:
The teacher and the students plan the activities cooperatively what needs to be done? And how, first of all
objectives are formulated with the help of the teacher, and then the class students consider means of
teaching the objectives e.g. a group has determined to improve the beauty of its own classroom. The class
may be divided into small groups so that students can talk with their seat mates.
A student from each of these groups report to the total class. There should be ample opportunity to
organize for investigating, seeking information, selecting materials, interviewing people and carrying on
the activities needed to solve the problem, in each of these steps the students take part in making
decisions and they assume full responsibility for it. Here the teacher is guide in the process of learning,
he guide the students how to select group leaders and how to make intelligent decisions. Most important
is the quality of thinking that goes in the group. There is a given and take of ideas in the group. The
opinions of different students in the group are evaluated by the students to select the best idea of all. It is
really a laboratory for learning group processes.

CURRICULUM EVALUATION

What is evaluation?

Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a curriculum to determine its value or worth with the aim of
deciding whether to adopt, reject, or revise the curriculum. Curricula are evaluated to answer questions and
concerns of various parties. The public want to know whether the curriculum implemented has achieved its
aims and objectives; teachers want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective; and
the developer or planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product.

• Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as “a process or cluster of processes that
people perform in order to gather data that will enable them to decide whether to accept, change, or
eliminate something- the curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular” (p.320).
• Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its weaknesses and strengths as
well as problems encountered in implementation; to improve the curriculum development process; to
determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance allocated.
• Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing
useful information for judging decision alternatives. The primary decision alternatives to consider based

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 upon the evaluation results are: to maintain the curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to
eliminate the curriculum.
.
Types of evaluation

Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as formative evaluation and summative evaluation. However, they
have come to mean different things to different people, but in this discussion, Scriven’s original definition
will be used.

(a) Formative evaluation

The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or development of the curriculum so
that revisions to it can be made. Formative evaluation may include determining who needs the programme
(e.g. secondary school students), how great is the need (eg. students need to be taught ICT skills to keep
pace with expansion of technology) and how to meet the need (e.g. introduce a subject on ICT compulsory
for all secondary schools’ students). In education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain
information to improve a programme.

In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the instructional strategies and materials
used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. For example, it is possible that in a curriculum
plan the learning outcomes and the learning activities do no match. You want students to develop critical
thinking skills but there are no learning activities which provide opportunities for students to practice
critical thinking. Formative evaluation by experts is useful before full-scale implementation of the
programme. Review by experts of the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or
revising selected strategies.

In formative evaluation learners may be included to review the materials to determine if they can use the
new materials. For example, so they have the relevant prerequisites and are they motivated to learn. From
these formative reviews, problems may be discovered. For example, the curriculum document may contain
spelling errors, confusing sequence of content, inappropriate examples or illustrations. The feedback
obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or whether or not to adopt the programme before
full implementation.

(b)Summative evaluation

The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum
programme. Summative evaluation can occur just after new course materials have been implemented in
full (i.e. evaluate the effectiveness of the programme), or several months to years after the materials have
been implemented in full. It is important to specify what questions you want answered by the evaluation
and what decisions will be made as a result of the evaluation. You may want to know if learners achieved
the objectives or whether the programme produced the desired outcomes. For example, the use of specific
simulation software in the teaching of geography enhanced the decision-making skills of learners. These
outcomes can be determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and

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examinations. Also, of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation efficient
in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes? Besides, quantitative data to
determine how well students met specified objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews,
direct observations, and document analyses.
Purpose of evaluation
The process of measuring and judging the extent to which the planned courses, programmes, learning
activities and opportunities as expressed in the formal curriculum actually produce the expected results. If
carried out effectively, this process can enable decisions to be made about improvements and future
progress.

CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION

Change involves a shift of position that may go either in a favorable or an unfavorable direction.
Curriculum change is the alteration of any aspect of the curriculum. The alteration can be in any of the
following aspects of the curriculum; the objectives, content, teaching approaches, materials, facilities,
administration. Curriculum change can be through a curriculum innovation, curriculum improvement,
curriculum revision or curriculum reform.

Curriculum change, can therefore, be perceived at three levels;

i) Minor changes may involve re-arrangement of subject content, learning activities, re-organization of
personnel, addition of topics or teaching methods in the curriculum.

ii) Medium changes may involve not only organizing of content, materials or facilities, but the integration
of subjects or new approaches to the existing subjects.

iii) Major changes involve an overhaul of the existing curriculum. It may involve complete re-
organization of the conceptual design of the curriculum, change in structure, content, methods and
approaches, materials and facilities; leading to totally a new curriculum plan or programme.

Curriculum innovation is bringing something ‘new’ that is different from the normal practice into the
existing curriculum. Rogers (1983) defines an innovation as "an idea, practice, or object that is perceived
as new by an individual or other unit of adoption".

Importance of curriculum change and innovation

Although people react differently to change by either accepting it, being doubtful, feeling insecure, not
getting bothered and others just rejecting it; change is still very important. There are several reasons why
change is inevitable. Some of them are included below:

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a. There is no perfect curriculum for all ages since society keeps on changing hence there is need for
curriculum to change to meet societal needs.
b. Change links societal needs to school needs in order to bring out dynamic personalities that can
adhere to societal needs as per the varied societal changes.
c. As the environment changes societies portray new ideas and needs which must be addressed by the
curriculum hence the need for change. Change is an agent of reform in education and society.
d. Change leads to more effective and efficient use of resources.
e. Change leads to improvement in the existing curriculum in the context of the changes me the society.
It creates increased opportunity for re-training and in-servicing of personnel and re-development of
teaching and learning materials and facilities.
f. Change leads to discovery and expansion of new knowledge, facts and ideas in all sectors of learning.

Factors Influencing Curriculum Change and Innovation

The society today is very dynamic in virtually all aspects. Therefore, the curriculum should keep in
tandem with the changes. There are several factors that inform change of curriculum as discussed below:
Needs of the learners
Learners today differ from those of the past; they are engaged, motivated, self directed and therefore need
diverse learning styles. Today learners have easy access to electronic and print media and internet. They
demand to be engaged in curriculum matters as they are the ultimate consumers of curriculum. Learners
must thus be considered in terms of their type; learning level, age and ability. While learners share
common learning challenges, each learner has unique skills, preferences and experiences that he or she
brings to the learning environment. These diverse needs of the learners call for change in the curriculum.

• Social factors
There are many forces in the environment which brings about new patterns of life and social
activities. Schools as agents of socialization in the society are set up as formal instruments
through which dissemination of innovations and change may be accomplished. Social factors
may include the cultural trends, religious beliefs and norms, societal values and attitudes. All
these are likely to bring change in curriculum.

• Economic factors
The national economy has direct influence on the curriculum. Many innovations in the school
curriculum have not succeeded due to economic problems. Curriculum change either succeeds or
fails depending on availability and adequacy of funds. For example, a new curriculum requires
more trained teachers or retraining of practicing teachers, more facilities in schools, material
production, experiments and research. Adequate and proper allocation of funds contributes to the
success of curriculum development.

• Technological factors

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 With the new computer age, technology is putting a lot of pressure on the programmes and
activities of the school. Schools are trying to change their programmes to cope with new
technology. Schools are becoming a big market for new inventions. In planning, developing and
implementing the curriculum, it is very necessary to be aware of what is going on in the world of
technology and the extent to which schools can relate to them. Technological change leads to
change in the values and norms of the society and puts tremendous pressure on the curriculum.
Technology has produced teaching machines, closed circuit television, calculators and
developments in space; science programmes, supportive study packages and resources. A new
curriculum has to be developed to offer training in the use of these machines within the
educational systems.

Political factors
Among the many pressure groups in society which influence educational policy, politicians and political
groups are the most influential. Politicians play an important role in curriculum planning, development,
and change. Re-alignments in policy and ideology within the great political powers influence the thinking
and educational planning in many countries in the world.

As long as governments continue to control and finance education, politics will remain a major factor in
curriculum development. A good relationship must exist between the curriculum specialist and the
existing government in order for the government to promote curriculum projects even if they are not in
the government’s policy line and does not fit in the framework of its political ideology; otherwise the
government may block curriculum projects if those involved do not relate well with it. Government can
promote new innovations or ignore them altogether depending on its interests in the education sector.
Frequent changes in political and government systems will mean frequent changes in education which
will derail the developments in the education system; as frequent changes make it difficult to maintain a
consistent policy in education. It is very important for curriculum specialists to understand the political
realities in order to succeed in their work.
• Physical and demographic factors
• Special interest groups read on your own
• Epistemological factors

NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION

The Framework will be anchored on the National Goals of Education.
Education in Kenya should:

i) Foster nationalism and patriotism and promote national unity.

Kenya’s people belong to different communities, races and religions, but these differences need not
divide them. They must be able to live and interact as Kenyans. It is a paramount duty of education to
help young people acquire this sense of nationhood by removing conflicts and by promoting positive
attitudes of mutual respect which enable them to live together in harmony and foster patriotism in order
to enable them to make a positive contribution to the life of the nation.

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ii) Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development.
Education should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective and productive role in the life of
the nation.

a) Social Needs
Education in Kenya must prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships which are
necessary for the smooth progress of a rapidly developing modern economy. There is bound to be a silent
social revolution following in the wake of rapid modernization. Education should assist our youth to
adapt to this change.

b) Economic Needs
Education in Kenya should produce citizens with the skills, knowledge, expertise and personal qualities
that are required to support a growing economy. Kenya is building up a modern and independent
economy which is in need of an adequate and relevant domestic workforce.
c) Technological and Industrial Needs
Education in Kenya should provide learners with the necessary skills and attitudes for industrial
development. Kenya recognizes the rapid industrial and technological changes taking place, especially in
the developed world. We can only be part of this development if our education system is deliberately
focused on the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will prepare our young people for these changing
global trends.

iii. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment.

Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and personality.
It should help children to develop their potential interests and abilities. A vital aspect of individual
development is the building of character.

iv. Promote sound moral and religious values.

Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enhance the
acquisition of sound moral values and help children to grow up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and
integrated citizens.

v. Promote social equality and responsibility.

Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility within an education
system which provides equal educational opportunities for all. It should give all children varied and
challenging opportunities for collective activities and corporate social service irrespective of gender,
ability or geographical environment.

vi. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
Education should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures and their
valid place in contemporary society. Children should be able to blend the best of traditional values with
the changing requirements that must follow rapid development in order to build a stable and modern
society.

Vii. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.

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Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and interdependent network of
peoples and nations. Education should therefore lead the youth of the country to accept membership of
this international community with all the obligations and responsibilities, rights and benefits that this
membership entails.

viii. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.
Education should inculcate in young people the value of good health in order for them to avoid indulging
in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. It should foster positive attitudes towards
environmental development and conservation. It should lead the youth of Kenya to appreciate the need
for a healthy environment.

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Adapting Curriculum for Special Education Students

With the continued push toward the inclusion of students with special needs in the general education
classroom, educators are constantly looking for ways to improve each student’s experience and learning.
Although there are proven benefits of inclusion, traditional curricula and instructional techniques are not
always optimal for students with cognitive, emotional or physical disabilities.
To positive effect, innovative educators have implemented adaptive technologies, various differentiated
instruction methods and theory-based educational models such as the constructivist approach. Often,
however, the curriculum needs adaptation as well in order to best meet the learning needs, goals and
ability levels of special education students.
What Is Curriculum Adaptation?
Although the concept of curriculum adaptation is fairly straightforward, it can take many different forms.
In essence, teachers and curriculum specialists adjust and modify curricula according to student needs
and the goals set forth by that student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP). Educators and theorists
use many different terms for varying types and degrees of curriculum adaptation, often with overlapping
meanings. But most terms and definitions represent a similar spectrum of the magnitude of necessary
adaptation.
Curriculum Modification and Curriculum Enhancement
In a paper from the National Center on Accessible Educational Materials entitled “Curriculum
Modification,” authors Hall, Ge Vue, Koga and Silva suggest that the concept should break down broadly
into curriculum modification and curriculum enhancement.
Enhancement is when teachers use existing curriculum in the general education classroom but adjust the
methods and media of input and output to suit the student’s needs and IEP goals. Implementing
differentiated instruction techniques, using adaptive technologies, changing the student’s physical
environment, and integrating culturally responsive language and content into curriculum content are all
examples of curriculum enhancement.
Curriculum modification implies a greater level of adjustment to the existing curriculum. In general,
teachers often accomplish this by adjusting the depth or type of content within the existing curriculum.
Perhaps a student whose learning disability prevents them from reading at the same rate or depth as other
students needs more time to read the materials, a shorter piece to read, or an alternative piece covering
the same content in simpler language. If a student has more severe cognitive disabilities, the teacher
might further modify that student’s curriculum by changing their course material at a conceptual level.
This is similar to altering reading materials to be simpler, but can also include changing the actual
conceptual content of those materials towards different subjects more appropriate to that student’s
cognitive abilities and goals.

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Accommodation, Adaptation, Parallel Curriculum Outcomes and Overlapping Curricula
Hall, Ge Vue, Koga, and Silva also illustrate the concept of progressing levels of adapting curriculum for
students with special needs into these four categories:
1. Accommodation:
Accommodation is this simplest form of adapting curriculum. It addresses students who are able to
comprehend and perform at the regular curriculum’s levels of content and conceptual difficulty but
require differentiation in instructional techniques and the medium in which each student demonstrates
their depth of understanding.
2. Adaptation:
Adaptation is appropriate for students whose needs and learning goals are in line with the content of the
regular curriculum but require a moderate modification of the depth of conceptual difficulty of that
content.
3. Parallel Curriculum Outcomes:
Implementing parallel curriculum outcomes implies a greater modification of conceptual difficulty than
adaptation. However, similar to adaptation, the content subject is the same, allowing that student to
participate in classroom activities alongside other students. A teacher must address each student’s needs
and IEP goals with adjusted learning outcomes and conceptual depth levels for each lesson.
4. Overlapping Curricula
Students who require heavily modified learning outcomes and goals may need integration into general
classroom activities through overlapping curricula. In this situation, a student participates in classroom
activities with individualized learning outcomes for each activity, including social/behavioral
development goals, cognitive learning goals, language skills or even physical ability development.
Regardless of the terms and definitions, educators and theorists agree that the most effective way to adapt
curricula in the inclusive classroom is truly individualized and student specific. Before modifying a
curriculum, teachers should know each student’s learning goals and needs, assess their abilities, and
implement the least intrusive form of curricular adaptation possible. By studying and implementing
varying methods of adaptive instruction and curricular modification, special educators can develop the
tools and techniques essential to creating effective, inclusive learning environments.
Differentiation
Differentiation is an instructional strategy that involves modifying the content, pace, or process of
instruction to meet the needs of individual students. When differentiating instruction, special
education teachers consider the different learning styles, abilities, and interests of their students.
Curriculum differentiation involves changing the content of lessons, the manner in which it is taught, and
the way in which it is evaluated so that students with special needs can still learn at their own pace and
level. Research shows differentiated instruction is effective for high-ability students as well as students
with mild to severe disabilities.
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Differentiating instruction may mean teaching the same material to all students using a variety of
instructional strategies, or it may require the teacher to deliver lessons at varying levels of difficulty
based on the ability of each student.

Teachers who practice differentiation in the classroom may:

• Design lessons based on students’ learning styles.

• Group students by shared interest, topic, or ability for assignments.

• Assess students’ learning using formative assessment.

• Manage the classroom to create a safe and supportive environment.

• Continually assess and adjust lesson content to meet students’ needs.

History of differentiated instruction

The roots of differentiated instruction go all the way back to the days of the one-room schoolhouse,
where one teacher had students of all ages in one classroom. As the educational system transitioned to
grading schools, it was assumed that children of the same age learned similarly. However, in 1912,
achievement tests were introduced, and the scores revealed the gaps in student’s abilities within grade
levels.

In 1975, Congress passed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), ensuring that children
with disabilities had equal access to public education. To reach this student population, many educators
used differentiated instruction strategies. Then came the passage of No Child Left Behind in 2000,
which further encouraged differentiated and skill-based instruction—and that’s because it
works. Research by educator Leslie Owen Wilson supports differentiating instruction within the
classroom, finding that lecture is the least effective instructional strategy, with only 5 to 10 percent
retention after 24 hours. Engaging in a discussion, practicing after exposure to content, and teaching
others are much more effective ways to ensure learning retention.

Four ways to differentiate instruction

According to Tomlinson, teachers can differentiate instruction through four ways: 1) content, 2) process,
3) product, and 4) learning environment.

1. Content
As you already know, fundamental lesson content should cover the standards of learning set by the
school district or state educational standards. But some students in your class may be completely
unfamiliar with the concepts in a lesson, some students may have partial mastery, and some students may
already be familiar with the content before the lesson begins.

What you could do is differentiate the content by designing activities for groups of students that cover
various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy (a classification of levels of intellectual behavior going from
lower-order thinking skills to higher-order thinking skills). The six levels are: remembering,
understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

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Students who are unfamiliar with a lesson could be required to complete tasks on the lower levels:
remembering and understanding. Students with some mastery could be asked to apply and analyze the
content, and students who have high levels of mastery could be asked to complete tasks in the areas of
evaluating and creating.

Examples of differentiating activities:

• Match vocabulary words to definitions.

• Read a passage of text and answer related questions.

• Think of a situation that happened to a character in the story and a different outcome.

• Differentiate fact from opinion in the story.

• Identify an author’s position and provide evidence to support this viewpoint.

• Create a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the lesson.

2. Process
Each student has a preferred learning style, and successful differentiation includes delivering the material
to each style: visual, auditory and kinesthetic, and through words. This process-related method also
addresses the fact that not all students require the same amount of support from the teacher, and students
could choose to work in pairs, small groups, or individually. And while some students may benefit from
one-on-one interaction with you or the classroom aide, others may be able to progress by themselves.
Teachers can enhance student learning by offering support based on individual needs.

Examples of differentiating the process:

• Provide textbooks for visual and word learners.

• Allow auditory learners to listen to audio books.

• Give kinesthetic learners the opportunity to complete an interactive assignment online.

3. Product
The product is what the student creates at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the content.
This can be in the form of tests, projects, reports, or other activities. You could assign students to
complete activities that show mastery of an educational concept in a way the student prefers, based on
learning style.

Examples of differentiating the end product:

• Read and write learners write a book report.

• Visual learners create a graphic organizer of the story.

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 • Auditory learners give an oral report.

• Kinesthetic learners build a diorama illustrating the story.

4. Learning environment
The conditions for optimal learning include both physical and psychological elements. A flexible
classroom layout is key, incorporating various types of furniture and arrangements to support both
individual and group work. Psychologically speaking, teachers should use classroom management
techniques that support a safe and supportive learning environment.

Examples of differentiating the environment:

• Break some students into reading groups to discuss the assignment.

• Allow students to read individually if preferred.

• Create quiet spaces where there are no distractions.

Pros and cons of differentiated instruction

The benefits of differentiation in the classroom are often accompanied by the drawback of an ever-
increasing workload. Here are a few factors to keep in mind:

Pros

• Research shows differentiated instruction is effective for high-ability students as well as students
with mild to severe disabilities.

• When students are given more options on how they can learn material, they take on more
responsibility for their own learning.

• Students appear to be more engaged in learning, and there are reportedly fewer discipline
problems in classrooms where teachers provide differentiated lessons.

Cons

• Differentiated instruction requires more work during lesson planning, and many teachers struggle
to find the extra time in their schedule.

• The learning curve can be steep and some schools lack professional development resources.

• Critics argue there isn’t enough research to support the benefits of differentiated instruction
outweighing the added prep time.

Differentiated instruction strategies

What differentiated instructional strategies can you use in your classroom? There are a set of methods
that can be tailored and used across the different subjects. According to Kathy Perez (2019) and
the Access Center those strategies are tiered assignments, choice boards, compacting, interest

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centers/groups, flexible grouping, and learning contracts. Tiered assignments are designed to teach the
same skill but have the students create a different product to display their knowledge based on their
comprehension skills. Choice boards allow students to choose what activity they would like to work on
for a skill that the teacher chooses. On the board are usually options for the different learning styles;
kinesthetic, visual, auditory, and tactile. Compacting allows the teacher to help students reach the next
level in their learning when they have already mastered what is being taught to the class. To compact the
teacher assesses the student’s level of knowledge, creates a plan for what they need to learn, excuses
them from studying what they already know, and creates free time for them to practice an accelerated
skill.

Interest centers or groups are a way to provide autonomy in student learning. Flexible grouping allows
the groups to be more fluid based on the activity or topic. Finally, learning contracts are made between a
student and teacher, laying out the teacher’s expectations for the necessary skills to be demonstrated and
the assignments required components with the student putting down the methods they would like to use
to complete the assignment. These contracts can allow students to use their preferred learning style, work
at an ideal pace and encourages independence and planning skills. The following are strategies for some
of the core subject based on these methods.

Differentiated instruction strategies for math

• Provide students with a choice board. They could have the options to learn about probability by
playing a game with a peer, watching a video, reading the textbook, or working out problems on a
worksheet.

• Teach mini lessons to individuals or groups of students who didn’t grasp the concept you were
teaching during the large group lesson. This also lends time for compacting activities for those
who have mastered the subject.

• Use manipulatives, especially with students that have more difficulty grasping a concept.

• Have students that have already mastered the subject matter create notes for students that are still
learning.

• For students that have mastered the lesson being taught, require them to give in-depth, step-by-
step explanation of their solution process, while not being rigid about the process with students
who are still learning the basics of a concept if they arrive at the correct answer.

Differentiated instruction strategies for science

• Emma McCrea (2019) suggests setting up “Help Stations,” where peers assist each other. Those
that have more knowledge of the subject will be able to teach those that are struggling as an
extension activity and those that are struggling will receive.

• Set up a “question and answer” session during which learners can ask the teacher or their peers
questions, in order to fill in knowledge gaps before attempting the experiment.

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 • Create a visual word wall. Use pictures and corresponding labels to help students remember
terms.

• Set up interest centers. When learning about dinosaurs you might have an “excavation” center, a
reading center, a dinosaur art project that focuses on their anatomy, and a video center.

• Provide content learning in various formats such as showing a video about dinosaurs, handing out
a worksheet with pictures of dinosaurs and labels, and providing a fill-in-the-blank work sheet
with interesting dinosaur facts.

Differentiated instruction strategies for ELL

• ASCD (2012) writes that all teachers need to become language teachers so that the content they
are teaching the classroom can be conveyed to the students whose first language is not English.

• Start by providing the information in the language that the student speaks then pairing it with a
limited amount of the corresponding vocabulary in English.

• Although ELL need a limited amount of new vocabulary to memorize, they need to be exposed
to as much of the English language as possible. This means that when teaching, the teacher needs
to focus on verbs and adjectives related to the topic as well.

• Group work is important. This way they are exposed to more of the language. They should,
however, be grouped with other ELL if possible as well as given tasks within the group that are
within their reach such as drawing or researching.

Differentiated instruction strategies for reading

• Tiered assignments can be used in reading to allow the students to show what they have learned at
a level that suites them. One student might create a visual story board while another student might
write a book report.

• Reading groups can pick a book based on interest or be assigned based on reading level

• Erin Lynch (2020) suggest that teachers scaffold instruction by giving clear explicit explanations
with visuals. Verbally and visually explain the topic. Use anchor charts, drawings, diagrams, and
reference guides to foster a clearer understanding. If applicable, provide a video clip for students
to watch.

• Utilize flexible grouping. Students might be in one group for phonics based on their assessed
level but choose to be in another group for reading because they are more interested in that book.

Differentiated instruction strategies for writing

• Hold writing conferences with your students either individually or in small groups. Talk with
them throughout the writing process starting with their topic and moving through grammar,
composition, and editing.

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 • Allow students to choose their writing topics. When the topic is of interest, they will likely put
more effort into the assignment and therefore learn more.

• Keep track of and assess student’s writing progress continually throughout the year. You can do
this using a journal or a checklist. This will allow you to give individualized instruction.

• Hand out graphic organizers to help students outline their writing. Try fill-in-the-blank notes that
guide the students through each step of the writing process for those who need additional
assistance.

• For primary grades give out lined paper instead of a journal. You can also give out differing
amounts of lines based on ability level. For those who are excelling at writing give them more
lines or pages to encourage them to write more. For those that are still in the beginning stages of
writing, give them less lines so that they do not feel overwhelmed.

Differentiated instruction strategies for special education

• Use a multi-sensory approach. Get all five senses involved in your lessons, including taste and
smell!

• Use flexible grouping to create partnerships and teach students how to work collaboratively on
tasks. Create partnerships where the students are of equal ability, partnerships where once the
student will be challenged by their partner and another time they will be pushing and challenging
their partner.

• Assistive technology is often an important component of differential instruction in special

education. Provide the students that need them with screen readers, personal tablets for
communication, and voice recognition software.

• The article Differentiation & LR Information for SAS Teachers suggests teachers be flexible
when giving assessments “Posters, models, performances, and drawings can show what they have
learned in a way that reflects their personal strengths”. You can test for knowledge using rubrics
instead of multiple-choice questions, or even build a portfolio of student work. You could also
have them answer questions orally.

• Utilize explicit modeling. Whether its notetaking, problem solving in math, or making a sandwich
in home living, special needs students often require a step-by-step guide to make connections.

References and resources

• https://www.thoughtco.com/differentiation-instruction-in-special-education-3111026

• https://sites.google.com/site/lrtsas/differentiation/differentiation-techniques-for-special-
education

• https://www.solutiontree.com/blog/differentiated-reading-instruction/

• https://www.readingrockets.org/article/differentiated-instruction-reading

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 • https://www.sadlier.com/school/ela-blog/13-ideas-for-differentiated-reading-instruction-in-
the-elementary-classroom

• https://inservice.ascd.org/seven-strategies-for-differentiating-instruction-for-english-
learners/

• https://www.cambridge.org/us/education/blog/2019/11/13/three-approaches-differentiation-
primary-science/

• https://www.brevardschools.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=6174&d
ataid=8255&FileName=Differentiated_Instruction_in_Secondary_Mathematics.pdf

Books & Videos about differentiated instruction by Carol Ann Tomlinson and others

• The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners, 2nd Edition

• Leading and Managing a Differentiated Classroom – Carol Ann Tomlinson and Marcia B.
Imbeau

• The Differentiated School: Making Revolutionary Changes in Teaching and Learning –

Carol Ann Tomlinson, Kay Brimijoin, and Lane Narvaez

• Integrating Differentiated Instruction and Understanding by Design: Connecting Content

and Kids – Carol Ann Tomlinson and Jay McTighe

• Differentiation in Practice Grades K-5: A Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum –

Carol Ann Tomlinson and Caroline Cunningham Eidson

• Differentiation in Practice Grades 5–9: A Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum –

Carol Ann Tomlinson and Caroline Cunningham Eidson

• Differentiation in Practice Grades 9–12: A Resource Guide for Differentiating Curriculum –

Carol Ann Tomlinson and Cindy A. Strickland

• Fulfilling the Promise of the Differentiated Classroom: Strategies and Tools for Responsive
Teaching – Carol Ann Tomlinson

• Leadership for Differentiating Schools and Classrooms – Carol Ann Tomlinson and Susan
Demirsky Allan

• How to Differentiate Instruction in Academically Diverse Classrooms, 3rd Edition by Carol

Ann Tomlinson

• Assessment and Student Success in a Differentiated Classroom by Carol Ann Tomlinson and
Tonya R. Moon

• How To Differentiate Instruction In Mixed Ability Classrooms 2nd Edition – Carol Ann
Tomlinson

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 • How to Differentiate Instruction in Academically Diverse Classrooms 3rd Edition by Carol
Ann Tomlinson

• Assessment and Student Success in a Differentiated Classroom Paperback – Carol Ann

Tomlinson, Tonya R. Moon

• Leading and Managing a Differentiated Classroom (Professional Development) 1st

Edition – Carol Ann Tomlinson, Marcia B. Imbeau

• The Differentiated School: Making Revolutionary Changes in Teaching and Learning 1st
Edition by Carol Ann Tomlinson, Kay Brimijoin, Lane Narvaez

• Differentiation and the Brain: How Neuroscience Supports the Learner-Friendly

Classroom – David A. Sousa, Carol Ann Tomlinson

• Leading for Differentiation: Growing Teachers Who Grow Kids – Carol Ann
Tomlinson, Michael Murphy

• An Educator’s Guide to Differentiating Instruction. 10th Edition – Carol Ann

Tomlinson, James M. Cooper

• A Differentiated Approach to the Common Core: How do I help a broad range of learners
succeed with a challenging curriculum? – Carol Ann Tomlinson, Marcia B. Imbeau

• Managing a Differentiated Classroom: A Practical Guide – Carol Tomlinson, Marcia Imbeau

• Differentiating Instruction for Mixed-Ability Classrooms: An ASCD Professional Inquiry

Kit Pck Edition – Carol Ann Tomlinson

• Using Differentiated Classroom Assessment to Enhance Student Learning (Student

Assessment for Educators) 1st Edition – Tonya R. Moon, Catherine M. Brighton, Carol A.
Tomlinson

• The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs of All Learners 1st Edition – Carol
Ann Tomlinson

You may also like to read

• Creative Academic Instruction: Music Resources for the Classroom

• How Teachers Use Student Data to Improve Instruction
• Advice on Positive Classroom Management that Works
• Five Skills Online Teachers Need for Classroom Instruction
• 3 Examples of Effective Classroom Management

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