Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P.

Sasidhara Rao

D.C Machines

1 Introduction

The steam age signalled the beginning of an industrial revolution. The advantages
of machines and gadgets in helping mass production and in improving the services spurred
the industrial research. Thus a search for new sources of energy and novel gadgets received
great attention. By the end of the 18th century the research on electric charges received
a great boost with the invention of storage batteries. This enabled the research work on
moving charges or currents. It was soon discovered ( in 1820 ) that, these electric currents
are also associated with magnetic field like a load stone. This led to the invention of an
electromagnet. Hardly a year later the force exerted on a current carrying conductor placed
in the magnetic field was invented. This can be termed as the birth of a motor. A better
understanding of the inter relationship between electric and magnetic circuits was obtained
with the enumeration of laws of induction by Faraday in 1831. Parallel research was contem-
porarily being done to invent a source of energy to recharge the batteries in the form of a
d.c. source of constant amplitude (or d.c. generator). For about three decades the research
on d.c. motors and d.c. generators proceeded on independent paths. During the second half
of the 19th century these two paths merged. The invention of a commutator paved the way
for the birth of d.c. generators and motors. These inventions generated great interest in the
generation and use of electrical energy. Other useful machines like alternators, transformers
and induction motors came into existence almost contemporarily. The evolution of these
machines was very quick. They rapidly attained the physical configurations that are being
used even today. The d.c. power system was poised for a predominant place as a preferred

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

system for use, with the availability of batteries for storage, d.c. generators for conversion of
mechanical energy into electrical form and d.c. motors for getting mechanical outputs from
electrical energy.

The limitations of the d.c. system however became more and more apparent
as the power demand increased. In the case of d.c. systems the generating stations and the
load centers have to be near to each other for efficient transmission of energy. The invention
of induction machines in the 1880s tilted the scale in favor of a.c. systems mainly due to
the advantage offered by transformers, which could step up or step down the a.c.voltage
levels at constant power at extremely high efficiency. Thus a.c. system took over as the
preferred system for the generation transmission and utilization of electrical energy. The
d.c. system, however could not be obliterated due to the able support of batteries. Further,
d.c. motors have excellent control characteristics. Even today the d.c. motor remains an
industry standard as far as the control aspects are concerned. In the lower power levels and
also in regenerative systems the d.c. machines still have a major say.

In spite of the apparent diversity in the characteristics, the underlying princi-

ples of both a.c. and d.c. machines are the same. They use the electromagnetic principles
which can be further simplified at the low frequency levels at which these machines are used.
These basic principles are discussed at first.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

1.1 Basic principles

Electric machines can be broadly classified into electrostatic machines and electro-
magnetic machines. The electrostatic principles do not yield practical machines for commer-
cial electric power generation. The present day machines are based on the electro-magnetic
principles. Though one sees a variety of electrical machines in the market, the basic under-
lying principles of all these are the same. To understand, design and use these machines the
following laws must be studied.

1. Electric circuit laws - Kirchof f 0 s Laws

2. Magnetic circuit law - Ampere0 s Law

3. Law of electromagnetic induction - F araday 0 s Law

4. Law of electromagnetic interaction -BiotSavart0 s Law

Most of the present day machines have one or two electric circuits linking a common
magnetic circuit. In subsequent discussions the knowledge of electric and magnetic circuit
laws is assumed. The attention is focused on the Faraday’s law and Biot Savart’s law in the
present study of the electrical machines.

1.1.1 Law of electro magnetic induction

Faraday proposed this law of Induction in 1831. It states that if the magnetic
flux lines linking a closed electric coil changes, then an emf is induced in the coil. This
emf is proportional to the rate of change of these flux linkages. This can be expressed
mathematically,
dψ
e∝ (1)
dt
3

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

where ψ is the flux linkages given by the product of flux lines in weber that are linked
and N the number of turns of the coil. This can be expressed as,

dΦ
e∝N (2)
dt

Here N is the number of turns of the coil, and Φ is the flux lines in weber link-
ing all these turns. The direction of the induced emf can be determined by the application of
Lenz’s law. Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced emf is such as to produce an
effect to oppose this change in flux linkages. It is analogous to the inertia in the mechanical
systems.
The changes in the flux linkages associated with a turn can be brought about by
(i) changing the magnitude of the flux linking a static coil
(ii) moving the turn outside the region of a steady field
(iii) moving the turn and changing the flux simultaneously
These may be termed as Case(i), Case(ii), and Case(iii) respectively.
This is now explained with the help of a simple geometry. Fig. 1 shows a rectan-
gular loop of one turn (or N=1). Conductor 1 is placed over a region with a uniform flux
density of B Tesla. The flux lines, the conductor and the motion are in mutually perpendicu-
lar directions. The flux linkages of the loop is B.L.X.N weber turns. If the flux is unchanging
and conductor stationary, no emf will be seen at the terminals of the loop. If now the flux
alone changes with time such that B = Bm . cos ωt, as in Case(i), an emf given by

d
e= (Bm .L.X.N. cos ωt) = −(Bm .L.X.N.ω). sin ωt.
dt
= −jBm .L.X.N.ω. cos ωt volt (3)

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

L
B

- +

Figure 1: Faraday’s law of Induction

appears across the terminals. This is termed as a ”transformer” emf.

If flux remains constant at Bm but the conductor moves with a velocity v, as in Case(ii),
then the induced emf is

dψ d(Bm .L.X.N ) dX
e= = = Bm .L.N volts (4)
dt dt dt

but
dX
=v ∴ e = Bm .L.N.v volts (5)
dt
The emf induced in the loop is directly proportional to the uniform flux density under which
it is moving with a velocity v. This type of voltage is called speed emf (or rotational emf).
The Case(iii) refers to the situation where B is changing with time and so also is X. Then
the change in flux linkage and hence the value of e is given by

dψ d(Bm .L.X.N. cos ωt) dX

e= = = Bm . cos ωt.L.N. − Bm .L.X.N.ω. sin ωt. (6)
dt dt dt

In this case both transformer emf and speed emf are present.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

The Case(i) has no mechanical energy associated with it. This is the principle
used in transformers. One coil carrying time varying current produces the time varying field
and a second coil kept in the vicinity of the same has an emf induced in it. The induced emf
of this variety is often termed as the transformer emf.

The Case(ii) is the one which is employed in d.c. machines and alternators. A
static magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet or by a coil carrying a d.c. current.
A coil is moved under this field to produce the change in the flux linkages and induce an emf
in the same. In order to produce the emf on a continuous manner a cylindrical geometry
is chosen for the machines. The direction of the field, the direction of the conductor of the
coil and the direction of movement are mutually perpendicular as mentioned above in the
example taken.

In the example shown above, only one conductor is taken and the flux ’cut’ by
the same in the normal direction is used for the computation of the emf. The second con-
ductor of the turn may be assumed to be far away or unmoving. This greatly simplifies the
computation of the induced voltage as the determination of flux linkages and finding its rate
of change are dispensed with. For a conductor moving at a constant velocity v the induced
emf becomes just proportional to the uniform flux density of the magnetic field where the
conductor is situated. If the conductor, field and motion are not normal to each other then
the mutually normal components are to be taken for the computation of the voltage. The
induced emf of this type is usually referred to as a rotational emf (due to the geometry).

Application of Faradays law according to Case(iii) above for electro mechani-

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

cal energy conversion results in the generation of both transformer and rotational emf to be
present in the coil moving under a changing field. This principle is utilized in the induction
machines and a.c. commutator machines. The direction of the induced emf is

emf and
current

Force Motion F

B
(a) (b)

Figure 2: Law of induction-Generator action

decided next. This can be obtained by the application of the Lenz’s law and the law of
interaction. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.

In Case(i), the induced emf will be in such a direction as to cause a opposing

mmf if the circuit is closed. Thus, it opposes the cause of the emf which is change in ψ and
hence φ. Also the coil experiences a compressive force when the flux tries to increase and
a tensile force when the flux decays. If the coil is rigid, these forces are absorbed by the
supporting structure.

In Case(ii), the direction of the induced emf is as shown. Here again one could
derive the same from the application of the Lenz’s law. The changes in the flux linkages is

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

emf

current
F
Motion,Force

B
(a) (b)

Figure 3: Law of interaction- Motor action

brought about by the sweep or movement of the conductor. The induced emf, if permitted
to drive a current which produces an opposing force, is as shown in the figure. If one looks
closely at the field around the conductor under these conditions it is as shown in Fig. 2(a)and
(b). The flux lines are more on one side of the conductor than the other. These lines seem
to urge the conductor to the left with a force F . As F opposes v and the applied force,
mechanical energy gets absorbed in this case and the machine works as a generator. This
force is due to electro magnetic interaction and is proportional to the current and the flux
swept. Fig. 3(a)and (b) similarly explain the d.c.motor operation. The current carrying con-
ductor reacts with the field to develop a force which urges the conductor to the right. The
induced emf and the current are seen to act in opposite direction resulting in the absorption
of electric energy which gets converted into the mechanical form.

In Case (iii) also the direction of the induced emf can be determined in a
similar manner. However, it is going to be more complex due to the presence of transformer

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

discussed here. If the armature of the d.c. machine which is at rest is connected to a d.c.
source then, a current flows into the armature conductors. If the field is already excited then
these current carrying conductors experience a force as per the law of interaction discussed
above and the armature experiences a torque. If the restraining torque could be neglected the
armature starts rotating in the direction of the force. The conductors now move under the
field and cut the magnetic flux and hence an induced emf appears in them. The polarity of
the induced emf is such as to oppose the cause of the current which in the present case is the
applied voltage. Thus a ’back emf’ appears and tries to reduce the current. As the induced
emf and the current act in opposing sense the machine acts like a sink to the electrical power
which the source supplies. This absorbed electrical power gets converted into mechanical
form. Thus the same electrical machine works as a generator of electrical power or the
absorber of electrical power depending upon the operating condition. The absorbed power
gets converted into electrical or mechanical power. This is briefly explained earlier with the
help of Fig. 3(a)and (b). These aspects would be discussed in detail at a later stage.

3 Constructional aspects of dc machines

As mentioned earlier the d.c. machines were invented during the second half of the 19th
century. The initial pace of development work was phenomenal. The best configurations
stood all the competition and the test of time and were adopted. Less effective options were
discarded. The present day d.c. generator contains most, if not all, of the features of the
machine developed over a century earlier. To appreciate the working and the characteristics
of these machines, it is necessary to know about the different parts of the machine - both
electrical and non-electrical. The description would also aid the understanding of the reason
for selecting one form of construction or the other.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

An exploded view of a small d.c. machine is shown in Fig. 7.

Figure 7: Exploded view of D.C.Machine

Click here to see the assembling of the parts.

The major parts can be identified as,

1. Body

2. Poles

3. Armature

4. Commutator and brush gear

5. Commutating poles

6. Compensating winding

7. Other mechanical parts

The constructional aspects relating to these parts are now discussed briefly in sequence.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Body The body constitutes the outer shell within which all the other parts are housed.
This will be closed at both the ends by two end covers which also support the bearings
required to facilitate the rotation of the rotor and the shaft. Even though for the
generation of an emf in a conductor a relative movement between the field and the
conductor would be enough, due to practical considerations of commutation, a rotating
conductor configuration is selected for d.c. machines. Hence the shell or frame supports
the poles and yoke of the magnetic system. In many cases the shell forms part of the
magnetic circuit itself. Cast steel is used as a material for the frame and yoke as the
flux does not vary in these parts. In large machines these are fabricated by suitably
welding the different parts. Those are called as fabricated frames. Fabrication as
against casting avoids expensive patterns. In small special machines these could be
made of stack of laminations suitably fastened together to form a solid structure.

Main poles Solid poles of fabricated steel with seperate/integral pole shoes are fastened
to the frame by means of bolts. Pole shoes are generally laminated. Sometimes pole
body and pole shoe are formed from the same laminations. Stiffeners are used on both
sides of the laminations. Riveted through bolts hold the assembly together. The pole
shoes are shaped so as to have a slightly increased air gap at the tips.

Inter-poles These are small additional poles located in between the main poles. These can
be solid, or laminated just as the main poles. These are also fastened to the yoke by
bolts. Sometimes the yoke may be slotted to receive these poles. The inter poles could
be of tapered section or of uniform cross section. These are also called as commutating
poles or compoles. The width of the tip of the compole can be about a rotor slot pitch.

Armature The armature is where the moving conductors are located. The armature is
constructed by stacking laminated sheets of silicon steel. Thickness of these lamination

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

is kept low to reduce eddy current losses. As the laminations carry alternating flux
the choice of suitable material, insulation coating on the laminations, stacking it etc
are to be done more carefully. The core is divided into packets to facilitate ventilation.
The winding cannot be placed on the surface of the rotor due to the mechanical forces
coming on the same. Open parallel sided equally spaced slots are normally punched in
the rotor laminations. These slots house the armature winding. Large sized machines
employ a spider on which the laminations are stacked in segments. End plates are
suitably shaped so as to serve as ’Winding supporters’. Armature construction process
must ensure provision of sufficient axial and radial ducts to facilitate easy removal of
heat from the armature winding.

Field windings In the case of wound field machines (as against permanent magnet excited
machines) the field winding takes the form of a concentric coil wound around the main
poles. These carry the excitation current and produce the main field in the machine.
Thus the poles are created electromagnetically. Two types of windings are generally
employed. In shunt winding large number of turns of small section copper conductor is
used. The resistance of such winding would be an order of magnitude larger than the
armature winding resistance. In the case of series winding a few turns of heavy cross
section conductor is used. The resistance of such windings is low and is comparable
to armature resistance. Some machines may have both the windings on the poles.
The total ampere turns required to establish the necessary flux under the poles is
calculated from the magnetic circuit calculations. The total mmf required is divided
equally between north and south poles as the poles are produced in pairs. The mmf
required to be shared between shunt and series windings are apportioned as per the
design requirements. As these work on the same magnetic system they are in the form
of concentric coils. Mmf ’per pole’ is normally used in these calculations.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Armature winding As mentioned earlier, if the armature coils are wound on the surface of
the armature, such construction becomes mechanically weak. The conductors may fly
away when the armature starts rotating. Hence the armature windings are in general
pre-formed, taped and lowered into the open slots on the armature. In the case of
small machines, they can be hand wound. The coils are prevented from flying out due
to the centrifugal forces by means of bands of steel wire on the surface of the rotor in
small groves cut into it. In the case of large machines slot wedges are additionally used
to restrain the coils from flying away. The end portion of the windings are taped at
the free end and bound to the winding carrier ring of the armature at the commutator
end. The armature must be dynamically balanced to reduce the centrifugal forces at
the operating speeds.

Compensating winding One may find a bar winding housed in the slots on the pole
shoes. This is mostly found in d.c. machines of very large rating. Such winding is
called compensating winding. In smaller machines, they may be absent. The function
and the need of such windings will be discussed later on.

1.Clamping cone
4 2.Insulating cups
3.Commutator bar
3 4.Riser
2
2 5.Insulating gasket
1
5

Figure 8: Cylindrical type commutator-a longitudinal section

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Commutator Commutator is the key element which made the d.c. machine of the present
day possible. It consists of copper segments tightly fastened together with mica/micanite
insulating separators on an insulated base. The whole commutator forms a rigid and
solid assembly of insulated copper strips and can rotate at high speeds. Each com-
mutator segment is provided with a ’riser’ where the ends of the armature coils get
connected. The surface of the commutator is machined and surface is made concentric
with the shaft and the current collecting brushes rest on the same. Under-cutting the
mica insulators that are between these commutator segments has to be done periodi-
cally to avoid fouling of the surface of the commutator by mica when the commutator
gets worn out. Some details of the construction of the commutator are seen in Fig. 8.

Brush and brush holders Brushes rest on the surface of the commutator. Normally
electro-graphite is used as brush material. The actual composition of the brush depends
on the peripheral speed of the commutator and the working voltage. The hardness of
the graphite brush is selected to be lower than that of the commutator. When the
brush wears out the graphite works as a solid lubricant reducing frictional coefficient.
More number of relatively smaller width brushes are preferred in place of large broad
brushes.
The brush holders provide slots for the brushes to be placed. The connection from
the brush is taken out by means of flexible pigtail. The brushes are kept pressed on
the commutator with the help of springs. This is to ensure proper contact between the
brushes and the commutator even under high speeds of operation. Jumping of brushes
must be avoided to ensure arc free current collection and to keep the brush contact
drop low. Fig. 9 shows a brush holder arrangement. Radial positioning of the brushes
helps in providing similar current collection conditions for both direction of rotation.
For unidirectional drives trailing brush arrangement or reaction arrangement may be

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Pigtail

Pressure
spring

Brush

Brush holder box

(a)
Radial Trailing

Reaction

Motion of commutator

(b)

Figure 9: Brush holder with a Brush and Positioning of the brush on the commutator

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

used in Fig. 9-(b) Reaction arrangement is preferred as it results in zero side thrust on
brush box and the brush can slide down or up freely. Also staggering of the brushes
along the length of the commutator is adopted to avoid formation of ’tracks’ on the
commutator. This is especially true if the machine is operating in a dusty environment
like the one found in cement plants.

Other mechanical parts End covers, fan and shaft bearings form other important me-
chanical parts. End covers are completely solid or have opening for ventilation. They
support the bearings which are on the shaft. Proper machining is to be ensured for
easy assembly. Fans can be external or internal. In most machines the fan is on the
non-commutator end sucking the air from the commutator end and throwing the same
out. Adequate quantity of hot air removal has to be ensured.

Bearings Small machines employ ball bearings at both ends. For larger machines roller
bearings are used especially at the driving end. The bearings are mounted press-fit
on the shaft. They are housed inside the end shield in such a manner that it is not
necessary to remove the bearings from the shaft for dismantling. The bearings must be
kept in closed housing with suitable lubricant keeping dust and other foreign materials
away. Thrust bearings, roller bearings, pedestal bearings etc are used under special
cases. Care must be taken to see that there are no bearing currents or axial forces on
the shaft both of which destroy the bearings.

4 Armature Windings

Fig. 10 gives the cross sectional view of a modern d.c. machine showing all the
salient parts. Armature windings, along with the commutators, form the heart of the d.c.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Main field

N
Commutator Compole field
& Brush X
X
x
x x
x

x
X

x x
Shaft Compensating
x x S
S winding
x x
v

x x
X

Armature
x
x

winding x x
x
X X
Yoke

N X

Figure 10: Cross sectional view

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

5.5.3 Compound Generators

The parallel operation of compound machines is similar to shunt generators. Dif-

ferential compounding would produce a drooping external characteristics and satisfactory
parallel operation is made easy. But most of the generators are used in the cumulatively
compounded mode. In such cases the external characteristics will be nearly flat making the
parallel operation more difficult. By employing equalizer connection for the series windings
this problem can be mitigated. Fig. 40 shows the connection diagram for parallel operation
of two compound generators.

5.6 D.C. motors

D.C. motors have a place of pride as far as electrical drives are considered. The
simplicity, and linearity of the control method makes them highly preferred machines in
precision drives. In spite of the great advancements in a.c. drives these machines are still
sought after by the industries. Apart from high precision application they are preferred in
stand alone systems working on batteries and high speed drives off constant voltage mains.
After the field is excited if we pass a current through the armature the rotor experiences
a torque and starts rotating. The direction of the torque can be readily obtained from the
law of interaction. These moving conductors cut the field and induce emf, usually called the
’back emf’ according to Lenz’s law and act as a sink of electrical power from the electrical
source. This absorbed power appears as mechanical power. The converted mechanical power
should overcome the frictional and iron losses before useful work could be done by the same.
The connections to the supply of a d.c. shunt motor are given in Fig. 41.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

+ +
F2

A2 F2 A2

A1 F1 A1
F1
- -
(a)Separate excitation (b) Shunt excitation

s1
F2 +
s2
A2

DC
Supply

A1
F1
-
(c)Practical arrangement

Figure 41: Shunt motor connections

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Commonly used connection is where in both the field and the armature are
energized simultaneously Fig. 41(b). As the field has higher inductance and time constant
torque takes some time to reach the full value corresponding to a given armature current.
In Fig. 41.(c), the switch S1 is closed a few seconds prior to switch S2 . By then the field
current would have reached the steady value. So the torque per ampere is high in this case.

The only difference in the second connection Fig. 41.(a) is that the shunt field
winding is connected to a separate source. This connection is used when the armature and
field voltage are different as is common in high voltage d.c. machines. The field voltage is
kept low in such cases for the sake of control purposes. Here again the field circuit must
be energized prior to the armature. Suitable interlock should be provided to prevent the
armature switch being closed prior to / without closing of field circuit as the armature
currents reach very large values still not producing any torque or rotation. The relevant
equations for the motoring operation can be written as below

V − E − Ia Ra − Vb = 0 or E = V − Ia Ra − Vb (39)
p.φ.Z.n pZ
E= = Ke φ.n where Ke = (40)
b b
1 p.φ.ZIa 1 pZ
TM = . = Kt φIa where Kt = . (41)
2π b 2π b
dw
andTM − TL = J (42)
dt
where
TL - Load torque
TM - Motor torque
J - polar moment of inertia.
w - angular velocity = 2π.n

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The first one is an electrical equation, the second and the third are electro
mechanical in nature and the last equation is the mechanical equation of motion. Ke and
Kt are normally termed as back emf constant and torque constant respectively. Under
steady speed of operation the fourth equation is not required. Using these equations one
can determine the torque speed characteristics of the machine for a given applied voltage.
These characteristics are similar to the external characteristics for a generator. Here the
torque on the machine is assumed to be varying and the corresponding speed of operation
is determined. This is termed as the torque speed characteristic of the motor.

5.7 Torque speed characteristics of a shunt motor

A constant applied voltage V is assumed across the armature. As the armature

current Ia , varies the armature drop varies proportionally and one can plot the variation of
the induced emf E. The mmf of the field is assumed to be constant. The flux inside the
machine however slightly falls due to the effect of saturation and due to armature reaction.
The variation of these parameters are shown in Fig. 42. Knowing the value of E
and flux one can determine the value of the speed. Also knowing the armature current and
the flux, the value of the torque is found out. This procedure is repeated for different values
of the assumed armature currents and the values are plotted as in Fig. 42-(a). From these
graphs, a graph indicating speed as a function of torque or the torque-speed characteristics
is plotted Fig. 42-(b)(i).

As seen from the figure the fall in the flux due to load increases the speed due
to the fact that the induced emf depends on the product of speed and flux. Thus the speed
of the machine remains more or less constant with load. With highly saturated machines

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Line voltage
A No load speed B
Speed
C

Flux, Speed and Torque

Back emf

E
F

Torque Flux

G
0 Armature current

(a)Load characteristics
(ii)
(i)
Speed

0 Torque
(b)Torque speed curve

Figure 42: DC Shunt motor characteristics

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

the on-load speed may even slightly increase at over load conditions. This effects gets more
pronounced if the machine is designed to have its normal field ampere turns much less
than the armature ampere turns. This type of external characteristics introduces instability
during operation Fig. 42(b)(ii) and hence must be avoided. This may be simply achieved by
providing a series stability winding which aids the shunt field mmf.

5.8 Load characteristics of a series motor

Following the procedure described earlier under shunt motor, the torque speed
characteristics of a series motor can also be determined. The armature current also happens
to be the excitation current of the series field and hence the flux variation resembles the
magnetization curve of the machine. At large value of the armature currents the useful flux
would be less than the no-load magnetization curve for the machine. Similarly for small
values of the load currents the torque varies as a square of the armature currents as the flux
is proportional to armature current in this region. As the magnetic circuit becomes more
and more saturated the torque becomes proportional to Ia as flux variation becomes small.
Fig. 43(a) shows the variation of E1 , flux , torque and speed following the above procedure
from which the torque-speed characteristics of the series motor for a given applied voltage
V can be plotted as shown in Fig. 43.(b) The initial portion of this torque-speed curve is
seen to be a rectangular hyperbola and the final portion is nearly a straight line. The speed
under light load conditions is many times more than the rated speed of the motor. Such
high speeds are unsafe, as the centrifugal forces acting on the armature and commutator
can destroy them giving rise to a catastrophic break down. Hence series motors are not
recommended for use where there is a possibility of the load becoming zero. In order to
safeguard the motor and personnel, in the modern machines, a ’weak’ shunt field is provided

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Terminal voltage

Back emf

No load Useful
Magnetisation Flux
Torque, Flux and Speed curve

Developed Useful
Torque Torque

Speed

Load current

(a)Load characteristics
Speed

0 Torque

(b)-Torque speed curve

Figure 43: Load characteristics of a Series Motor

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on series motors to ensure a definite, though small, value of flux even when the armature
current is nearly zero. This way the no-load speed is limited to a safe maximum speed. It is
needless to say, this field should be connected so as to aid the series field.

5.9 Load characteristics of a compound motor

Two situations arise in the case of compound motors. The mmf of the shunt field
and series field may oppose each other or they may aid each other. The first configuration
is called differential compounding and is rarely used. They lead to unstable operation of
the machine unless the armature mmf is small and there is no magnetic saturation. This
mode may sometimes result due to the motoring operation of a level-compounded generator,
say by the failure of the prime mover. Also, differential compounding may result in large
negative mmf under overload/starting condition and the machine may start in the reverse
direction. In motors intended for constant speed operation the level of compounding is very
low as not to cause any problem.

Cumulatively compounded motors are very widely used for industrial drives.
High degree of compounding will make the machine approach a series machine like charac-
teristics but with a safe no-load speed. The major benefit of the compounding is that the
field is strengthened on load. Thus the torque per ampere of the armature current is made
high. This feature makes a cumulatively compounded machine well suited for intermittent
peak loads. Due to the large speed variation between light load and peak load conditions, a
fly wheel can be used with such motors with advantage. Due to the reasons provided under
shunt and series motors for the provision of an additional series/shunt winding, it can be
seen that all modern machines are compound machines. The difference between them is only

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Transformers

1 Introduction

Michael Faraday propounded the principle of electro-magnetic induction in 1831.

It states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil when the flux linked
with the same changes. The magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of the flux linkages. This finding forms the basis for many magneto electric machines.
The earliest use of this phenomenon was in the development of induction coils. These coils
were used to generate high voltage pulses to ignite the explosive charges in the mines. As
the d.c. power system was in use at that time, very little of transformer principle was made
use of. In the d.c. supply system the generating station and the load center have to be
necessarily close to each other due to the requirement of economic transmission of power.
Also the d.c. generators cannot be scaled up due to the limitations of the commutator. This
made the world look for other efficient methods for bulk power generation and transmis-
sion. During the second half of the 19th century the alternators, transformers and induction
motors were invented. These machines work on alternating power supply. The role of the
transformers became obvious. The transformer which consisted of two electric circuits linked
by a common magnetic circuit helped the voltage and current levels to be changed keeping
the power invariant. The efficiency of such conversion was extremely high. Thus one could
choose a moderate voltage for the generation of a.c. power, a high voltage for the transmis-
sion of this power over long distances and finally use a small and safe operating voltage at
the user end. All these are made possible by transformers. The a.c. power systems thus got
well established.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Transformers can link two or more electric circuits. In its simple form two electric
circuits can be linked by a magnetic circuit, one of the electric coils is used for the creation
of a time varying magnetic filed. The second coil which is made to link this field has an
induced voltage in the same. The magnitude of the induced emf is decided by the number
of turns used in each coil. Thus the voltage level can be increased or decreased by changing
the number of turns. This excitation winding is called a primary and the output winding
is called a secondary. As a magnetic medium forms the link between the primary and the
secondary windings there is no conductive connection between the two electric circuits. The
transformer thus provides an electric isolation between the two circuits. The frequency on
the two sides will be the same. As there is no change in the nature of the power, the re-
sulting machine is called a ‘transformer’ and not a ‘converter’. The electric power at one
voltage/current level is only ‘transformed’ into electric power, at the same frequency, to an-
other voltage/current level.

Even though most of the large-power transformers can be found in the power systems,
the use of the transformers is not limited to the power systems. The use of the principle
of transformers is universal. Transformers can be found operating in the frequency range
starting from a few hertz going up to several mega hertz. Power ratings vary from a few
milliwatts to several hundreds of megawatts. The use of the transformers is so wide spread
that it is virtually impossible to think of a large power system without transformers. Demand
on electric power generation doubles every decade in a developing country. For every MVA
of generation the installed capacity of transformers grows by about 7MVA. These figures
show the indispensable nature of power transformers.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

2 Basic Principles

As mentioned earlier the transformer is a static device working on the principle of

Faraday’s law of induction. Faraday’s law states that a voltage appears across the terminals
of an electric coil when the flux linkages associated with the same changes. This emf is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. Putting mathematically,
dψ
e= (1)
dt
Where, e is the induced emf in volt and ψ is the flux linkages in Weber turn. Fig. 1 shows a

Figure 1: Flux linkages of a coil

coil of N turns. All these N turns link flux lines of φ Weber resulting in the N φ flux linkages.
In such a case,
ψ = Nφ (2)

and
dφ
e=N volt (3)
dt
The change in the flux linkage can be brought about in a variety of ways

• coil may be static and unmoving but the flux linking the same may change with time.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

• flux lines may be constant and not changing in time but the coil may move in space
linking different value of flux with time.

• both 1 and 2 above may take place. The flux lines may change in time with coil moving
in space.

These three cases are now elaborated in sequence below, with the help of a coil with a simple
geometry.

L
B

- +

Figure 2: Static coil

Fig. 2 shows a region of length L m, of uniform flux density B Tesla, the

flux lines being normal to the plane of the paper. A loop of one turn links part of this flux.
The flux φ linked by the turn is L ∗ B ∗ X Weber. Here X is the length of overlap in meters
as shown in the figure. If now B does not change with time and the loop is unmoving then
no emf is induced in the coil as the flux linkages do not change. Such a condition does not
yield any useful machine. On the other hand if the value of B varies with time a voltage is
induced in the coil linking the same coil even if the coil does not move. The magnitude of B

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

is assumed to be varying sinusoidally, and can be expressed as,

B = Bm sin ωt (4)

where Bm is the peak amplitude of the flux density. ω is the angular rate of change with
time. Then, the instantaneous value of the flux linkage is given by,

ψ = N φ = N LXBm sin ωt (5)

The instantaneous value of the induced emf is given by,

dψ π
e= = N φm .ω cos ωt = N φm .ω. sin(ωt + ) (6)
dt 2
Here φm = Bm .L.X. The peak value of the induced emf is

em = N φm .ω (7)

and the rms value is given by

N φm .ω
E= √ volt.
2
Further, this induced emf has a phase difference of π/2 radian with respect to the
flux linked by the turn. This emf is termed as ‘transformer’ emf and this principle is used
in a transformer. Polarity of the emf is obtained by the application of Lenz’s law. Lenz’s
law states that the reaction to the change in the flux linkages would be such as to oppose
the cause. The emf if permitted to drive a current would produce a counter mmf to oppose
this changing flux linkage. In the present case, presented in Fig. 2 the flux linkages are
assumed to be increasing. The polarity of the emf is as indicated. The loop also experiences
a compressive force.

Fig. 2(b) shows the same example as above but with a small difference. The flux
density is held constant at B Tesla. The flux linked by the coil at the current position is

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

φ = B.L.X Weber. The conductor is moved with a velocity v = dx/dt normal to the flux,
cutting the flux lines and changing the flux linkages. The induced emf as per the application
of Faraday’s law of induction is e = N.B.L.dx/dt = B.L.v volt.(Here N=1)

Please note,the actual flux linked by the coil is immaterial. Only the change in the
flux linkages is needed to be known for the calculation of the voltage. The induced emf is
in step with the change in ψ and there is no phase shift. If the flux density B is distributed
sinusoidally over the region in the horizontal direction, the emf induced also becomes sinu-
soidal. This type of induced emf is termed as speed emf or rotational emf, as it arises out of
the motion of the conductor. The polarity of the induced emf is obtained by the application
of the Lenz’s law as before. Here the changes in flux linkages is produced by motion of the
conductor. The current in the conductor, when the coil ends are closed, makes the conductor
experience a force urging the same to the left. This is how the polarity of the emf shown in
fig.2b is arrived at. Also the mmf of the loop aids the field mmf to oppose change in flux
linkages. This principle is used in d.c machines and alternators.

The third case under the application of the Faraday’s law arises when the flux changes
and also the conductor moves. This is shown in Fig. 2(c).

The uniform flux density in space is assumed to be varying in magnitude in time as

dx
B = Bm sin ωt. The conductor is moved with a uniform velocity of dt
= v m/sec. The
change in the flux linkages and hence induced emf is given by

d(Bm . sin ωt.L.X) dx

e = N. = N.L.X.Bm .ω. cos ωt. + N.Bm . sin ωt.L. V olt. (8)
dt dt

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

The first term is due to the changing flux and hence is a transformer emf. The second
term is due to moving conductor or is a speed emf. When the terminals are closed such as
to permit a current the conductor experiences a force and also the mmf of the coil opposes
the change in flux linkages. This principle is used in a.c. machines where the field is time
varying and conductors are moving under the same.

The first case where there is a time varying field and a stationary coil resulting in
a transformer emf is the subject matter in the present section. The case two will be re-
visited under the study of the d.c machines and synchronous machines. Case three will be
extensively used under the study of a.c machines such as induction machines and also in a.c.
commutator machines.

Next in the study of the transformers comes the question of creating a time varying
filed. This is easily achieved by passing a time varying current through a coil. The winding
which establishes the field is called the primary. The other winding, which is kept in that
field and has a voltage induced in it, is called a secondary. It should not be forgotten that
the primary also sees the same time varying field set up by it linking its turns and has an
induced emf in the same. These aspects will be examined in the later sections. At first
the common constructional features of a transformer used in electric power supply system
operating at 50 Hz are examined.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

3 Constructional features

Transformers used in practice are of extremely large variety depending upon the
end use. In addition to the transformers used in power systems, in power transmission and
distribution, a large number of special transformers are in use in applications like electronic
supplies, rectification, furnaces, traction etc. Here the focus is on power transformers only.
The principle of operation of these transformers also is the same but the user requirements
differ. Power transformers of smaller sizes could be air cooled while the larger ones are
oil cooled. These machines are highly material intensive equipments and are designed to
match the applications for best operating conditions. Hence they are ‘tailor made’ to a
job. This brings in a very large variety in their constructional features. Here more common
constructional aspects alone are discussed. These can be broadly divided into

1. Core construction

2. Winding arrangements

3. Cooling aspects

3.1 Core construction

Transformer core for the power frequency application is made of highly permeable
material. The high value of permeability helps to give a low reluctance for the path of
the flux and the flux lines mostly confine themselves to the iron. Relative permeability µr
well over 1000 are achieved by the present day materials. Silicon steel in the form of thin
laminations is used for the core material. Over the years progressively better magnetic prop-
erties are obtained by going in for Hot rolled non-oriented to Hot rolled grain oriented steel.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Later better laminations in the form of cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO), -High B (HiB)
grades became available. The thickness of the laminations progressively got reduced from
over 0.5mm to the present 0.25mm per lamination. These laminations are coated with a thin
layer of insulating varnish, oxide or phosphate. The magnetic material is required to have
a high permeability µ and a high saturation flux density, a very low remanence Br and a
small area under the B-H loop-to permit high flux density of operation with low magnetizing
current and low hysteresis loss. The resistivity of the iron sheet itself is required to be high
to reduce the eddy current losses. The eddy current itself is highly reduced by making the
laminations very thin. If the lamination is made too thin then the production cost of steel
laminations increases. The steel should not have residual mechanical stresses which reduce
their magnetic properties and hence must be annealed after cutting and stacking.
In the case of very small transformers (from a few volt-amperes to a few kilo volt-
amperes) hot rolled silicon steel laminations in the form of E & I, C & I or O as shown in
Fig. 3 are used and the core cross section would be a square or a rectangle. The percentage
of silicon in the steel is about 3.5. Above this value the steel becomes very brittle and also
very hard to cut. The saturation flux density of the present day steel lamination is about 2
Tesla.
Broadly classifying, the core construction can be separated into core type and
shell type. In a core type construction the winding surrounds the core. A few examples of
single phase and three phase core type constructions are shown in Fig. 4. In a shell type on
the other hand the iron surrounds the winding.
In the case of very small transformers the conductors are very thin and round.
These can be easily wound on a former with rectangular or square cross section. Thus no
special care is needed for the construction of the core. The cross section of the core also
would be square or rectangular. As the rating of the transformer increases the conductor size

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

(a ) (b)

(c)

Figure 3: E and I,C and I and O Type Laminations

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

1.phase

3.phase

HV LV core LV HV LV HV

Single phase Three phase

(a)Core type (b) Shell type

Figure 4: Core and Shell Type Construction

also increases. Flat conductors are preferred to round ones. To wind such conductor on a
rectangular former is not only difficult but introduces stresses in the conductor, at the bends.
From the short circuit force with stand capability point of view also this is not desirable.
Also, for a given area enclosed the length of the conductor becomes more. Hence it results in
more load losses. In order to avoid all these problems the coils are made cylindrical and are
wound on formers on heavy duty lathes. Thus the core construction is required to be such as
to fill the circular space inside the coil with steel laminations. Stepped core construction thus
becomes mandatory for the core of large transformers. Fig. 5 shows a few typical stepped core
constructions. When the core size increases it becomes extremely difficult to cool the same
(Even though the core losses are relatively very small). Cooling ducts have to be provided
in the core. The steel laminations are grain oriented exploiting the simple geometry of the
transformer to reduce the excitation losses. The iron losses in the lamination, when the flux

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

d d d
duct

duct

Figure 5: Stepped Core Construction

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

is oriented in the direction of grain orientation, is about 30% of that in the normal direction.
Another important aspect to be carefully checked and monitored is the air gaps in

Path of
flux

HV

LV
Windings
Core

(a) (b)

Figure 6: Typical stacked Core and wound core Construction

series in the path of the main flux. As the reluctance of air path is about 1000 times more
than that of the steel, an air path of 1mm will require a mmf needed by a 1 meter path in iron.

Hence butt joints between laminations must be avoided. Lap joints are used to pro-
vide alternate paths for flux lines thus reducing the reluctance of the flux paths. Some typical
constructional details are shown in Fig. 6. In some power transformers the core is built up
by threading a long strip of steel through the coil in the form of a toroid. This construction
is normally followed in instrument transformers to reduce the magnetizing current and hence
the errors.

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Large cores made up of laminations must be rendered adequately stiff by the provi-
sion of stiffening plates usually called as flitch plates. Punched through holes and bolts are
progressively being avoided to reduce heating and melting of the through bolts. The whole
stack is wrapped up by strong epoxy tapes to give mechanical strength to the core which
can stand in upright position. Channels and angles are used for the frame and they hold the
bottom yoke rigidly.

3.2 Windings

Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding trans-

former two windings would be present. The one which is connected to a voltage source and
creates the flux is called as a primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is
induced by induction is called a secondary. If the secondary voltage is less than that of the
primary the transformer is called a step down transformer. If the secondary voltage is more
then it is a step up transformer. A step down transformer can be made a step up transformer
by making the low voltage winding its primary. Hence it may be more appropriate to desig-
nate the windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The winding with
more number of turns will be a HV winding. The current on the HV side will be lower as
V-I product is a constant and given as the VA rating of the machines. Also the HV winding
needs to be insulated more to withstand the higher voltage across it. HV also needs more
clearance to the core, yoke or the body. These aspects influence the type of the winding
used for the HV or LV windings.
Transformer coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and sandwiched
coils Fig. 7. The former are very common with core type transformers while the latter one

14

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

HV LV

Core

LV
HV

(a)Concentric coil

LV
HV

Core

(b) Sandwich coil

Figure 7: Concentric and Sandwich Coils

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

are common with shell type transformers. In the figure the letters L and H indicate the low
voltage and high voltage windings. In concentric arrangement, in view of the lower insulation
and clearance requirements, the LV winding is placed close to the core which is at ground
potential. The HV winding is placed around the LV winding. Also taps are provided on HV
winding when voltage change is required. This is also facilitated by having the HV winding
as the outer winding.
Three most common types of coils viz. helical, cross over and disc coils are shown in Fig. 8.

Helical coils
Disc coils cross over coils

Figure 8: Disc, Crossover and Helical Coil Construction

Helical Windings One very common cylindrical coil arrangement is the helical winding.
This is made up of large cross section rectangular conductor wound on its flat side.
The coil progresses as a helix. This is commonly used for LV windings. The insulation

16

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

requirement also is not too high. Between layers no insulation (other than conductor
insulation) is needed as the voltage between layers is low. The complexity of this
type of winding rapidly increases as the current to be handled becomes more. The
conductor cross section becomes too large and difficult to handle. The eddy current
losses in the conductor rapidly increases. Hence two or more conductors have to be
wound and connected in parallel. The parallel circuits bring in problems of current
sharing between the circuits. Transpositions of the parallel paths have to be adopted
to reduce unequal current distribution. The modern practice is to use continuously
transposed and bunched conductors.

Cross over coils The second popular winding type is the cross over coil. These are made
of circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross section. These are used for
HV windings of relatively small transformers. These turns are wound in several layers.
The length and thickness of each block is made in line with cooling requirements. A
number of such blocks can be connected in series, leaving cooling ducts in between the
blocks, as required by total voltage requirement.

Disc coils Disc coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form at the same place
spiralling outwards. Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the center.
Sectional discs or continuous discs may be used. These have excellent thermal prop-
erties and the behavior of the winding is highly predictable. Winding of a continuous
disc winding needs specialized skills.

Sandwich coils Sandwich windings are more common with shell type core construction.
They permit easy control over the short circuit impedance of the transformer. By
bringing HV and LV coils close on the same magnetic axis the leakage is reduced
and the mutual flux is increased. By increasing the number of sandwiched coils the

17

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Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

• Similarly consider a third sine wave, which is at 240◦ lag. . .

• and allow its amplitude to change as well with a 240◦ time lag. Now we have three
pulsating sine waves.
icpk = Im cos(2π.50.t − 240◦ ) (3)

Let us see what happens if we sum up the values of these three sine waves at every angle.
The result really speaks about Tesla’s genius. What we get is a constant amplitude travelling
sine wave!
In a three phase induction machine, there are three sets of windings — phase A winding,
phase B and phase C windings. These are excited by a balanced three-phase voltage supply.
This would result in a balanced three phase current. Equations 1 — 3 represent the currents
that flow in the three phase windings. Note that they have a 120◦ time lag between them.
Further, in an induction machine, the windings are not all located in the same place.
They are distributed in the machine 120◦ away from each other (more about this in the
section on alternators). The correct terminology would be to say that the windings have
their axes separated in space by 120◦ . This is the reason for using the phase A, B and C
since waves separated in space as well by 120◦ .
When currents flow through the coils, they generate mmfs. Since mmf is proportional to
current, these waveforms also represent the mmf generated by the coils and the total mmf.
Further, due to magnetic material in the machine (iron), these mmfs generate magnetic flux,
which is proportional to the mmf (we may assume that iron is infinitely permeable and
non-linear effects such as hysterisis are neglected). Thus the waveforms seen above would
also represent the flux generated within the machine. The net result as we have seen is
a travelling flux wave. The x-axis would represent the space angle in the machine as one
travels around the air gap. The first pulsating waveform seen earlier would then represent
the a-phase flux, the second represents the b-phase flux and the third represents the c-phase.
This may be better visualized in a polar plot. The angles of the polar plot represent the
space angle in the machine, i.e., angle as one travels around the stator bore of the machine.
Click on the links below to see the development on a polar axes.

• This plot shows the pulsating wave at the zero degree axes. The amplitude is maximum
at zero degree axes and is zero at 90◦ axis. Positive parts of the waveform are shown
in red while negative in blue. Note that the waveform is pulsating at the 0 − 180◦ axis
and red and blue alternate in any given side. This corresponds to the sinewave current
changing polarity. Note that the maximum amplitude of the sinewave is reached only
along the 0 − 180◦ axis. At all other angles, the amplitude does not reach a maximum
of this value. It however reaches a maximum value which is less than that of the peak

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occuring at the 0 − 180◦ axis. More exactly, the maximum reached at any space angle
θ would be equal to cosθ times the peak at the 0 − 180◦ axis. Further, at any space
angle θ, the time variation is sinusoidal with the frequency and phase lag being that
of the excitation, and amplitude being that corresponding to the space angle.

• This plot shows the pulsating waveforms of all three cosines. Note that the first is
pulsating about the 0 − 180◦ axis, the second about the120◦ − 300◦ axis and the third
at 240◦ − 360◦ axis.

• This plot shows the travelling wave in a circular trajectory. Note that while individual
pulsating waves have maximum amplitude of 10, the resultant has amplitude of 15.

If f1 is the amplitude of the flux waveform in each phase, the travelling wave can then
be represented as
2π 2π 4π 4π
f (t) = f1 cos ωt cos θ + f1 cos(ωt − ) cos(θ − ) + f1 cos(ωt − ) cos(θ − )
3 3 3 3
3
= f1 cos(ωt − θ) (4)
2

It is worthwhile pondering over the following points.

1. what is the interpretation of the pulsating plots of the animation? If one wants to
know the ‘a’ phase flux at a particular angle for all instants of time, how can it be
obtained?

2. What will this time variation look like? It is obviously periodic. What will be the
amplitude and frequency?

3. Why does eqn. 4 represent a travelling wave?

3 Principles of Torque Production

In the earlier section, we saw how a rotating flux is produced. Now let us consider a rotor,
which is placed in this field. Let the rotor have a coil such that the coil sides are placed
diametrically opposite each other. This is shown in the fig. 1. Since the flux generated by
the stator rotates flux linked by this rotor coil also changes.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Figure 1: A Coil on the rotor

Since the flux pattern is varying sinusoidally in space, as the flux waveform rotates, the
flux linkage varies sinusoidally. The rate of variation of this flux linkage will then be equal
to the speed of rotation of the air gap flux produced. This sinusoidal variation of the flux
linkage produces a sinusoidal induced emf in the rotor coil. If the coil is short circuited, this
induced emf will cause a current flow in the coil as per Lenz’s law.
Now imagine a second coil on the rotor whose axis is 120◦ away from the first. This is
shown in fig. 2. The flux linkage in this coil will also vary sinusoidally with respect to time
and therefore cause an induced voltage varying sinusoidally with time. However the flux
linkages in these two coils will have a phase difference of 120◦ (the rotating flux wave will
have to travel 120◦ in order to cause a similar flux linkage variation as in the first coil), and
hence the time varying voltages induced in the coils will also have a 120◦ phase difference.
A third coil placed a further 120◦ away is shown in fig. 3. This will have a time varying
induced emf lagging 240◦ in time with respect to the first.
When these three coils are shorted upon themselves currents flow in them as per Lenz’s
law. The mechanism by which torque is produced may now be understood as follows. The
diagram in fig. 4 shows a view of the rotor seen from one end. Positive current is said to
0 0
flow in these coils when current flows out of the page in a, b, c conductors and into a , b
0
and c respectively.
If we look at the voltage induced in these coils as phasors, the diagram looks as shown
in fig. 5. The main flux is taken as the reference phasor. Considering that the induced emf
is −dψ/dt where ψ is the flux linkage, the diagram is drawn as shown.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Figure 2: A coil displaced 120◦ from the first

As usual, the horizontal component of these phasors gives the instantaneous values of
the induced emf in these coils.
Let these coils be purely resistive. Then these emf phasors also represent the currents
flowing in these coils. If we consider the instant t = 0, it can be seen that

1. The field flux is along 0◦ axis.

2. The current in a phase coil is zero.

√
3
3. The current in b phase coil is − 2
units.
√
4. The current in c phase coil is + 23 units.

These currents act to produce mmf and flux along the axes of the respective coils. Let
0
us consider the space around b and c coil sides. The situation is shown in fig. 6.
The resulting flux pattern causes a tendency to move in the anticlockwise direction. This
is easy to see through the so called whiplash rule. Alternatively, since the force on a current
carrying conductor is F = q(v X B), it can be seen that the torque produced tends to rotate
the rotor counter-clockwise. The magnitude of the torque would increase with the current
magnitude in the coils. This current is in turn dependent on the magnitude of the main field
flux and its speed of rotation. Therefore one may say that motion of the main field tends to
drag the rotor along with it.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Figure 3: A coil displaced 240◦ from the first

c’ b’

b c

a’

Figure 4: Coils on the rotor

When the rotor is free to move and begins moving, the motion reduces the relative speed
between the main field and the rotor coils. Less emf would therefore be induced and the
torque would come down. Depending on the torque requirement for the load, the difference
in speed between the rotor and the main field settles down at some particular value.
From the foregoing, the following may be noted.

1. The torque produced depends on a non-zero relative speed between the field and the
rotor.

2. It is therefore not possible for the rotor to run continuously at the same speed of the
field. This is so because in such a condition, no emf would be induced in the rotor and
hence no rotor current, no torque.

3. The frequency of currents induced in the rotor coils and their magnitude depends on

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

eb ec

V
1200
300
F

V
1200
900

V
ea

Figure 5: EMF induced in the coils : Resistive rotor

b’
VV
Flux lines due to current in b’
V

Flux lines of the main field

V
V
V

Flux lines due to current in c

Figure 6: Flux around conductors : Resistive rotor

this difference in speed.

These are important conclusions. The speed of the main field is known as the synchronous
speed, ns . If the actual speed of the rotor is nr then the ratio

ns − n r
s= (5)
ns

is known as slip and is frequently expressed as a percentage. Typically induction machines

are designed to operate at about less than 4 percent slip at full load.
It is instructive to see the situation if the rotor resistance is neglected and is considered
to be purely inductive. The phasor diagram of voltages and the currents would then look as

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

shown in fig. 7.

V
V
V

300

V
300

Figure 7: EMF induced in coils : Inductive rotor

At t = 0, one can see that current in a phase coil is at negative maximum, while b and
c phases have positive current of 0.5 units. Now if we consider the current flux profiles at
0
coil sides a, b , c, the picture that emerges is shown in fig. 8.
Since main flux at the a coil side is close to zero, there is very little torque produced
0
from there. There is a tendency to move due to the b and c coil sides, but they are in
opposite directions however. Hence there is no net torque on the rotor. This brings up
another important conclusion — the resistance of the rotor is an important part of torque
production in the induction machine. While a high resistance rotor is better suited for torque
production, it would also be lossy.

4 Construction
In actual practice, the three coils form three windings distributed over several slots. These
windings may be connected in star or delta and three terminations are brought out. These
are conventional three phase windings which are discussed in greater detail in the chapters
on alternators. Such windings are present n the stator as well as rotor. A photograph of
the stator of an induction machine is shown in fig. 9. A close up of the windings is shown in
fig. 10.the several turns that makeup a coil are seen in this picture. The three terminations
are connected to rings on which three brushes make a sliding contact. As the rotor rotates

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Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

X a

b’

V
V
V
c

Figure 8: Flux around conductors : Inductive rotor

the brushes slip over the rings and provide means of connecting stationary external circuit
elements to the rotating windings. A schematic of these arrangements is shown in fig. 13. A
photograph of a wound rotor for an induction machine is shown in fig. 11. Fig. 12 shows a
close up of the slip ring portion. Brushes are not shown in this picture.
Induction machines, which have these kinds of windings and terminals that are brought
out, are called slip ring machines. The reader may note that in order that torque is produced
current must flow in the rotor. To achieve that, the stationary brush terminals must either
be shorted, or connected to a circuit allowing current flow. Sometimes a star connected
resistor bank is connected so that the developed starting torque is higher. There are also
other forms of power electronic circuitry that may be connected to the rotor terminals to
achieve various functions.
The popularity of the induction machine however, stems from another variety of rotor
that is used. This rotor has slots into which copper or aluminium bars are inserted. These
bars are then shorted by rings that are brazed on to each of the rotor ends. Figure 14 shows
a simple schematic.
Such a rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. This rotor behaves like a short-circuited winding
and hence the machine is able to perform electromechanical energy conversion. This type
of rotor is easy to manufacture, has no sliding contacts and is very robust. It is this feature
that makes induction machine suitable for use even in hazardous environments and reliable
operation is achieved. The disadvantage of this type of rotor is that the motor behavior
cannot be altered by connecting anything to the rotor — there are no rotor terminals.
Fig. 15 shows a photograph of a squirrel cage rotor. The rotor also has a fan attached
to it. This is for cooling purposes. The bars ( white lines on the surface) are embedded in
the rotor iron which forms the magnetic circuit. The white lines correspond to the visible

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Figure 9: stator of an induction machine

Figure 10: Coils in the stator

10

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Figure 11: A wound rotor with slip rings

Figure 12: slip rings

11

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Slip rings(fixed to shaft)

Rotor shaft

v
Winding Brushes(stationary)
on rotor
Sliding
Contact Stationary terminals

Figure 13: Slip rings and brushes in induction machines — a schematic

Figure 14: Squirrel cage rotor — a schematic

12

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Figure 15: squirrel cage rotor

portion of the rotor bar.

Sometimes two rotor bars are used per slot to achieve some degree of variability in the
starting and running performances. It is to make use of the fact that while high rotor
resistance is desirable from the point of view of starting torque, low rotor resistance is
desirable from efficiency considerations while the machine is running. Such rotors are called
double cage rotors or deep-bar rotors.
To summarize the salient features discussed so far,

1. The stator of the 3 - phase induction machine consists of normal distributed AC wind-
ings.

2. Balanced three phase voltages impressed on the stator, cause balanced three phase
currents to flow in the stator.

3. These stator currents cause a rotating flux pattern (the pattern is a flux distribution
which is sinusoidal with respect to the space angle) in the air gap.

4. The rotating flux pattern causes three phase induced e.m.f.s in rotor windings (again
normal ac windings). These windings, if shorted, carry three phase-balanced currents.
Torque is produced as a result of interaction of the currents and the air gap flux.

13

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Synchronous Machines
1 Introduction
With the development of the technology and the way in which human labour is get-
ting minimized and the comforts increasing tremendously the use of electrical energy is ever
increasing. Basically electric power is the main source of energy for carrying out many func-
tions, as it is a clean and efficient energy source, which can be easily transmitted over long
distances. With the availability of Transformer for changing the voltage levels to a very high
value (of say 132kv to 400kv) the use of AC power has increased rapidly and the DC power
is used only at remote places where AC power cannot be supplied through power lines or
cables or for a few social purposes.

A synchronous generator is an electrical machine producing alternating emf (Elec-

tromotive force or voltage) of constant frequency. In our country the standard commercial
frequency of AC supply is 50 Hz. In U.S.A. and a few other countries the frequency is 60
Hz. The AC voltages generated may be single phase or 3-phase depending on the power
supplied. For low power applications single phase generators are preferable. The basic prin-
ciples involved in the production of emf and the constructional details of the generators are
discussed below.

1.1 Generation of emf

In 1831 Faraday discovered that an emf can be induced (or generated) due to relative
motion between a magnetic field and a conductor of electricity. This voltage was termed
as the induced emf since the emf is produced only due to motion between the conductor
and the magnetic field without actual physical contact between them. The principle of
electromagnetic induction is best understood by referring to Fig. 1. The magnetic field is
produced by the two fixed poles one being the north pole from which the magnetic flux
lines emerge and enter into the other pole known as the south pole. It was found that the
magnitude of the voltage induced in the conductor is proportional to the rate of change of
flux lines linking the conductor.
Mathematically it is given as
dφ φ
e= ≈ volts (1)
dt t

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

-
Force on conductor
producing V

B
Induced N
EMF e
+
Figure 1: Conductor of length ‘l’ moving through a magnetic field B generate an EMF

where
φ = flux in Webers
t = time in seconds
e = average induced emf in volts.

The above eqn. 1 holds good only when the magnetic circuit is physically the same at
the end as at the beginning and also during the period of change of flux linkages as well. In
practical rotating machinery, however the change of flux linking each individual conductor
during rotation (of either the conductors or the poles) is not clearly defined or cannot be
easily measured. It is therefore more convenient to express this rate of change of flux in terms
of an average flux density (assumed constant) and the relative velocity between this field
and a single conductor moving through it. For the conductor of active length l moving with
a velocity of v in a magnetic field of flux density B, as shown in Fig. 1, the instantaneous
induced emf is expressed as,
e = Blv V olts (2)
where
B= flux density in Tesla (Wb/m2 )
l = active conductor length (m)
v = relative linear velocity between the conductor and the field (m/s).
This animation would help to understand the concept for a coil rotating in a magnetic field.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Thus the instantaneous voltage e and the average value E of the induced emf are

e = Emsinωt = Emsinθ
e

Em

θ = ωt π 2π

Figure 2: Sinusoidal voltage waveform

the same if the flux densityBand the relative velocityv are both uniform and constant. In
an alternator we want the instantaneous emf to be varying in a sinusoidal manner as shown
in fig. 2. Hence we should have a field system which will produce a sinusoidal distribution
of flux density in the plane perpendicular to the plane of motion of the conductor.Then,
e = Em sin ωt = Em sin θ (3)
We have assumed that the conductor is moved in a direction perpendicular to the
magnetic field as shown in Fig. 1. Eqn. 1 or Eqn. 2 are valid only for this mutually orthogonal
condition for B and v. The other possible cases of motion of conductor with respect to B
are shown in Fig.3 in addition to the mutually orthogonal condition of Fig. 1. When the
conductor moves parallel to B, the induced emf will be zero because the rate of change of
flux linkage is zero as the conductor does not link any new flux line/lines. To account for this
condition of operation, Eqn. 2 must be multiplied by some factor, that takes into account
the direction of motion of conductor so as to make ‘e’ zero for this condition of operation
although B,l andv are finite quantities. Intuitively we may infer that this factor must be a
sine function as it has a zero value at 0◦ and also at 180◦ and a maximum value at 90◦ .
Indeed the emf equation for the general case of a conductor moving in any direction with
respect to the field as shown in Fig. 3 is given by
e = Blv sin θ (4)
where θ is the angle formed between B and v always taking B as the reference. All other
quantities are the same as in Eqn. 2.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

B
V

V V
V V V V

S N

V
S N

V V
V

(a) Conductor moving at right angles (b) Conductor moving parallel to mag-
to magnetic field netic field

B B
V VV

S N S θ
N
VV V V

1800-θ
θ

(c) Conductor moving at any angle (d) Conductor moving at any angle
across to magnetic field across magnetic field

Figure 3: Effect of change of flux linkages on induced EMF in a conductor

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Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

1.2 Direction of induced e.m.f

Motion

S
Field

Induced EMF
(a) Right-hand rule
V

B
V V V V

S N
V

(b) orthogonal relations

Figure 4: Fleming’s right hand rule for direction of induced EMF

The direction of the induced emf is given by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule which
states: If the thuMb, First finger and the seCond finger of the right hand are stretched
out and held in three mutually perpendicular directions such that the First finger is hold
pointing in the direction of the magnetic field and the thuMb pointing in the direction of
motion, then the seCond finger will be pointing in the direction of the induced emf such that
the current flows in that direction. As shown in Fig. 4 the induced emf is in a direction so as
to circulate current in the direction shown by the middle finger. Schematically we indicate
the direction of the emf by a dot (or a cross) as shown in Fig. 5(a) to represent an emf so

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

as to send current in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper and out of it. A
cross will indicate the emf of opposite polarity Fig. 5(b). Although the Right Hand Rule
assumes the magnetic filed to be stationary, we can also apply this rule to the case of a
stationary conductor and moving magnetic field, by assuming that the conductor is moving
in the opposite direction. For example, as shown in Fig. 4 the direction of the induced emf
will be the same if the poles producing the field had been moved upwards.

1.3 Electromagnetic Force

The motion of the conductor in a magnetic field can be imparted by the applica-
tion of an external mechanical force to the conductor. In such a case the mechanical work
done in moving the conductor is converted to an electric energy in agreement with the law
of conservation of energy. The electric energy is not produced by the magnetic field since
the field is not changed or destroyed in the process. The name electro mechanical energy
conversion is given to the process of converting energy from mechanical form obtained from
a prime mover, such as an IC engine, water/steam turbine etc, into electric energy.

The emf induced in the conductor will circulate a current through it if a closed circuit
is formed by an external connection. The direction of the current flowing in the conductor
will be such as to oppose the cause of it as stated by Lenz’s Law. A current carrying
conductor located in a magnetic field will experience a force given by,
f = Bli (5)
In other words, whenever a change in flux linkages occur, an emf is induced that
tends to set up a current in such a direction as to produce a magnetic flux that opposes the
cause of it. Thus if a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field as shown in
Fig. 5 the current tends to produce a magnetic field in the direction shown by the dotted
circles.

The direction of the flux lines around the current carrying conductor can be easily
determined by corkscrew Rule -which states that the flux lines will be in the same direction
as the rotation of a right threaded screw so as to advance in the direction of flow of current.
As a result the magnetic field, for the case shown in Fig. 5(a), is strengthened at the top and
weakened at the bottom of the conductor, thereby setting up a force to move the conductor
downwards. For the case of a Generator, the conductor must be moved up against this
counter force or the opposing force. Similarly the current is to be supplied to the conductor
against the emf generated (known as the counter emf or back emf) in the conductor as it
moves due to the motor action. Thus, the same machine can be operated as a generator

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

Generator

D irection
of force

Motor

(a)-Current, entering the plane of paper

Motor

D irection
of force

Generator

(b)-Current coming out of the plane of paper

Figure 5: Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

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Electrical Machines II Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao

or a motor, depending on whether we supply mechanical power or electrical power to it,

respectively.

1.4 Elementary AC. Generators

Fiel
dw
in d
in g

V
Rotor
-a
V

a N -t
ur
arm n
V
at
w in u re
din
g

S tator V
V

Flux paths

Figure 6: Elementary synchronous generator

The generators shown in figures and discussed in the earlier sections are clearly
impractical for a number of reasons. The main reason is that such generators require a prime
mover that imparts linear or reciprocating motion to the conductor. Most of the commercial
prime movers provide rotary motion in the commercial generators. The conductors of most
commercial generators are rotated about a central axis of a shaft. The conductors are housed
in slots cut in a cylindrical structure (made of magnetic material) known as the armature.
The armature is supported at both ends by means of bearings attached to the shaft that
goes through the center of the armature. The armature is rotated inside the field structure
by providing a small gap between these two members. This gap is known as the air gap and
is usually of the order of 1 to 1.5 cms. If the air gap is maintained constant throughout the
spread of the pole arc, we have a fairly constant flux density under it in a plane perpendicular
to the plane of the conductor’s motion. i.e. in a radial direction with respect to the field and
armature structure. Since the emf is also proportional to B, the flux density in the air gap of
AC. generators is arranged to be distributed as closely to a sine wave as possible by suitable
shaping (chamfering as it is technically known) of the pole shoe. Since the relative motion

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